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Shva
| |
| ְ | |
| IPA | Modern Hebrew: /e/ ([e̞]), Ø |
| Biblical Hebrew: /a/, /i/ | |
| Transliteration | e, ' (apostrophe), nothing |
| English example | men, menorah |
Example
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| |
Other Niqqud
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Shva or, in Biblical Hebrew, shĕwa (Hebrew: שְׁוָא) is a Hebrew niqqud vowel sign written as two vertical dots ( ְ ) beneath a letter. It indicates either the phoneme /ə/ [citation needed](shva na', mobile shva) or the complete absence of a vowel (/Ø/) (shva naḥ, resting shva).
It is transliterated as ⟨e⟩, ⟨ĕ⟩, ⟨ə⟩, ⟨'⟩ (apostrophe), or nothing. Note that use of ⟨ə⟩ for shva is questionable: transliterating Modern Hebrew shva naḥ with ⟨ə⟩ is misleading, since it is never actually pronounced [ə] – a mid central vowel (IPA [ə]) does not exist in Modern Hebrew. The vowel [ə] was pronounced as a full vowel in earlier Hebrew varieties such as Tiberian vocalization, where it was phonetically usually identical to short [a], in Palestinian vocalization appears as short [e] or [i], and in Babylonian vocalization as [a]. In early Greek and Latin transliterations of Hebrew such as the Hexapla, it appears as [ε] and [e], respectively.[1]
A shva sign in combination with the vowel diacritics patáḥ, segól, and qamatz produces a ḥatáf: a diacritic for a tnuʿá ḥatufá (a 'reduced vowel' – lit. 'abducted vowel'). In Tiberian Hebrew, these were pronounced identical to the short vowels [a], [ɛ], and [ɔ].[2]
Pronunciation in Modern Hebrew
[edit]In Modern Hebrew, shva is either pronounced /e/ or is mute (Ø), regardless of its traditional classification as shva nach (שְׁוָא נָח) or shva na (שְׁוָא נָע), see following table for examples. The Israeli standard for its transliteration[3] is ⟨e⟩ only for a pronounced shva na (i.e., one which is pronounced /e/), and no representation in transliteration if the shva is mute.
In Modern Hebrew, a shva is pronounced /e/ under the following conditions:[4]
| Condition for /e/ pronunciation of shva in Israeli Hebrew | Examples | Examples for silent shva (since condition does not apply) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In Hebrew | IPA | translation | In Hebrew | IPA | translation | |
| 1. When under the first of two letters, both representing the same consonant or consonants with identical place and manner of articulation: | שָׁכְחוּ | /ʃaχeˈχu/ | they forgot | מָכְרוּ | /maχˈru/ | they sold |
| שָׁדַדְתְּ | /ʃaˈdadet/ | you (f.) robbed | שָׁלַלְתְּ | /ʃaˈlalt/ | you (feminine) negated | |
| 2. When under the first letter of a word, if this letter is a sonorant in modern pronunciation, i.e. י (/j/), ל (/l/), מ (/m/), נ (/n/) or ר (/r/)[*]: | נְמָלִים | /nemaˈlim/ | ants | גְּמָלִים | /ɡmaˈlim/ | camels |
| מְנִיָּה | /meniˈja/ | counting | בְּנִיָּה | /bniˈja/ | building | |
| 3. When under the first letter of a word, if the second letter is a glottal consonant, i.e. א (/ʔ/), ה (/h/) or ע (/ʕ/ or /ʔ/): | תְּאָרִים | /teaˈrim/ | titles | מִתְאָרִים | /mitʔaˈrim/ | outlines |
| תְּמָרִים | /tmaˈrim/ | dates | ||||
4. When under the first letter of a word, if this letter represents one of the prefix-morphemes
|
בְּרֵיחָהּ | /berejˈχa/ | in her scent | בְּרֵיכָה | /brejˈχa/ | pool |
| בְּחִישָׁה | /beχiˈʃa/ | in sensing | בְּחִישָׁה | /bχiˈʃa/ | stirring | |
| וְרוֹדִים | /veroˈdim/ | and (they) tyrannize | וְרוּדִים | /vruˈdim/ | pink (m.p.) | |
| כְּרָזָה | /keraˈza/ | as a thin person | כְּרָזָה | /kraˈza/ | poster | |
| לְפָּרִיז | /lepaˈriz/ | to Paris | ||||
| תְּבַלּוּ | /tevaˈlu/ | you (m. p.) will have a good time | תְּבַלּוּל | /tvaˈlul/ | cataract | |
| 5. (In non standard language usage) if one of the morphemes mentioned above (ב /be/, ו /ve/, כ /ke/, ל /le/ or ת /te/) or one of the morphemes מ /mi/ ("from") or ש /ʃe/ ("that") is added as a prefix to a word, which without this prefix begins with a letter marked with a shva pronounced /e/ under the above conditions, this shva will retain its /e/-pronunciation also with the prefix: | מִצְּעָדִים | /mitseaˈdim/ | from steps | מִצְּמָדִים | /mitsmaˈdim/ | from pairs |
| מִצְעָדִים | /mitsʔaˈdim/ | parades | ||||
| מִרְוָחִים | /mirevaˈχim/ | from blanks | מִרְוָחִים | /mirvaˈχim/ | intervals | |
| standard: מֵרְוָחִים –/merevaˈχim/ | ||||||
| לַאֲרָיוֹת וְלְנְמֵרִים יֵשׁ פַּרְוָה | /learaˈjot velenemerim…/ | Lions and tigers have fur | ||||
| standard: וְלִנְמֵרִים /…velinmeˈrim…/ | ||||||
| וְכְּיְלָדִים שִׂחַקְנוּ בַּחוּץ | /vekejelaˈdim…/ | And as children we played outside | ||||
| standard: וְכִילָדִים – /veχilaˈdim…/ | ||||||
| 6. (Usually – see counterexamples[**]) when under a medial letter, before whose pronunciation a consonant was pronounced: | אִשְׁפְּזוּ | /iʃpeˈzu/ | they hospitalized | אִישׁ פְּזוּר דַּעַת | /iʃ pzur ˈda.at/ | an absentminded man |
Counterexamples
[edit]^ One exception to rule 2 seems to be מְלַאי /mlaj/ 'inventory' (although according to the New User-Friendly Hebrew-English Dictionary (Arie Comey, Naomi Tsur; Achiasaf, 2006), the word is instead pronounced /meˈlai/); the absence of a vowel after the מ (/m/) might be attributable to the high sonority of the subsequent liquid ל (/l/), compare with מְלִית (/meˈlit/, not /*mlit/) 'filling' (in cuisine).
^ Exceptions to rule 6 include פְּסַנְתְּרָן (/psantˈran/, not */psanteˈran/ – 'pianist'), אַנְגְּלִית (/aŋˈɡlit/, not */aŋɡeˈlit/ – 'English'), נַשְׁפְּרִיץ[5] (/naʃˈprit͡s/, not */naʃpeˈrit͡s/ – 'we will sprinkle'), several inflections of quinqueliteral roots – e.g.: סִנְכְּרֵן[6] (/sinˈkren/, not */sinkeˈren/ – 'he synchronized'); חִנְטְרֵשׁ[7] (/χinˈtreʃ/, not */χinteˈreʃ/ – 'he did stupid things'); הִתְפְלַרְטֵט[8] (/hitflarˈtet/, not */hitfelartet/ – 'he had a flirt') – as well as other, more recent loanwords, e.g. מַנְטְרַה (/ˈmantra/, not */mantera/ – 'mantra').
In earlier forms of Hebrew, shva na and nach were phonologically and phonetically distinguishable, but the two variants resulting from Modern Hebrew phonology no longer conform to the traditional classification, e.g. while the (first) shva nach in the phrase סִפְרֵי תורה ('books of the Law') is correctly pronounced in Modern Hebrew /sifrei torah/ with the פ (or /f/ sound) being mute, the shva na in זְמַן ('time') in Modern Hebrew is often pronounced as a mute Shva (/zman/). In religious contexts, however, scrupulous readers of the prayers and scriptures do still differentiate properly between Shva Nach and Shva Na (e.g. zĕman).
Traditional classification
[edit]In traditional Hebrew grammar, a shva is categorized according to several attributes of its grammatical context. The three categories of shva relevant to the prescriptive grammar of Modern Hebrew are shva naʻ (שווא נע), shva naḥ (שווא נח) and the less common shva meraḥef (שווא מרחף). When discussing Tiberian pronunciation, some shvas are classified as shva gaʻya (שווא געיה). The following table summarizes four distinguishing attributes which determine these categories:
- Does the shva supersede a vowel or no vowel in the word's non-inflected form?
- Is the preceding letter pointed with a "short" or a "long" niqqud variant?
- Is the following letter, when בג״ד כפ״ת, pointed with a dagesh qal or not?
- Is the letter pointed with shva assigned to the preceding or following syllable?
To help illustrate the first criterion (existence or non-existence of a vowel in the word's non inflected form), the location of the shva (i.e., the place within the word where the lack of vowel is indicated by it) is marked within the phonemic transcription with an orange linguistic zero: Ø; if existing, the corresponding vowel in the basic (non inflected) form of the example is also marked in orange.
| type of shva | example | non inflected form of example | standard syllabification | attributes: | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| supersedes in non inflected form: | preceding letter's niqqud: | following letter with / without dagesh qal: | assigned to syllable: | ||||||||||||
| naʻ | עֵרְבוֹנוֹת | /erØvoˈnot/ | (deposits) | עֵרָבוֹן | /eraˈvon/ | (deposit) | עֵ—רְבוֹ—נוֹת | vowel | long | without | following | ||||
| naḥ | עֶלְבּוֹנוֹת | /elØboˈnot/ | (insults) | עֶלְבּוֹן | /elØˈbon/ | (insult) | עֶלְ—בּוֹ—נוֹת | no vowel | short | with | preceding | ||||
| meraḥef | יֶאֶרְכוּ | /je.erØˈχu/ | (they will last) | יֶאֱרַךְ | /je.eˈraχ/ | (it will last) | יֶ—אֶרְ—כוּ | vowel | short | without | preceding | ||||
Shva Naʻ
[edit]In most cases, traditional Hebrew grammar considers shva naʻ "mobile shva" to supersede a vowel that exists in the basic form of a word but was reduced due to inflection or declension. Additionally, any shva marked under an initial letter is classified shva naʻ.
Identifying a shva as shva naʻ is relevant to the application of niqqud in Tiberian Hebrew, e.g., a בג״ד כפ״ת letter following a letter marked with a shva naʻ may not be marked with a dagesh qal; the vowel preceding a letter marked with a shva naʻ must be represented by the "long" niqqud variant for that vowel: qamats and not pataḥ, tsere and not segol, etc.[↑]. Furthermore, in the standard syllabification, the letter under which a shva naʻ is marked is grouped with the following syllable.
The Academy of the Hebrew Language's transliteration guidelines[3] specify that shva naʻ should be transliterated only if pronounced in Modern Hebrew, in which case ⟨e⟩ be used for general purposes and ⟨ĕ⟩ for precise transliteration. Shva naʻ is sometimes transliterated ⟨ə⟩. However, this symbol is misleading since it is commonly used in linguistics to denote the vowel schwa, which does not exist in Modern Hebrew.
A shva naʻ can be identified with the following criteria:
- When marked under the first letter of a word, as in מְרַחֵף, לְפָנָי, and שְׁמַע,
- When marked under the first of two identical letters,
- When it's the second of two shvas marked under two consecutive letters (except when marked under the last letter of a word), as in רַעְמְסֵס ramʻasēs (Exo. 12:37) and וישְׁמְעו wišmaʻu (Gen. 3:8),
- When the letter before the one under which it is marked is marked with a "long" niqqud variant,[↑], such as the long vowel of either yod or ḥiriq, as in יְחִֽידְֿךָ (Gen. 22:2) (yiḥiḏaḵā), or the long vowel of wāw or ḥolam, as in the words הוֹלְכִֿים, יוֹדְֿעִים and מוֹכְֿרִים (holaḵim, yodaʻim and moḵarim) and שֹׁפְטִים וְשֹׁטְרִים (Deut. 16:18), "šofaṭim wašoṭarim."
- When marked under a letter with a dagesh ḥazaq (historically an indicator of gemination), as מִפְּנֵיכֶם (Lev. 18:24) and מִקְּדָֿשׁ (Exo. 15:17).[9]: 31
For a more detailed account, see Tiberian vocalization § Vowel diacritics
Shva Naḥ
[edit]Traditional Hebrew grammar defines shva naḥ, or shva quiescens, as indicating the absence of a vowel. In Modern Hebrew, some shvas classified as shva naḥ are nonetheless pronounced /e/ (e.g. the shva under the second dalet in the word שָׁדַדְתְּ – /ʃaˈdadet/ – "you (f.) robbed"; see table above).
In a few cases, a shva not conforming to the criteria listed above is classified as shva naḥ. This offers no conclusive indication as to its pronunciation in Modern Hebrew; it is, however, relevant to the application of standard niqqud, e.g.: a בג״ד כפ״ת letter following a letter marked with a shva nacḥ must be marked with a dagesh qal (Modern Hebrew phonology sometimes disagrees with this linguistic prescription, as in לְפַסְפֵס – "to miss" – in which the second pe lacks a dagesh qal although preceded by a shva naḥ), or: the vowel prior to a letter marked with a shva naḥ must be represented by the "short" niqqud-variant for that vowel: pataḥ and not qamats, segol and not tsere etc.[↑]. Furthermore, in standard syllabification, the letter under which a shva naḥ is marked is grouped with the preceding syllable.
The Academy of the Hebrew Language's transliteration guidelines[3] specify that shva naḥ should not be represented in transliteration.
Shva Meraḥef
[edit]"Shva meraḥef" is the grammatical designation of a shva which does not comply with all criteria characterizing a shva naʻ (specifically, one marked under a letter following a letter marked with a "short", not a "long", niqqud-variant[↑]), but which does, like a shva na’, supersede a vowel (or a shva na’) that exists in the primary form of a word but not after this word underwent inflection or declension.
The classification of a shva as shva meraḥef is relevant to the application of standard niqqud, e.g.: a בג״ד כפ״ת letter following a letter marked with a shva meraḥef should not be marked with a dagesh qal. The vowel preceding this letter could be represented by the short niqqud-variant for that vowel.[↑] This sometimes, but not always, reflects pronunciation in Modern Hebrew; e.g. מַלְכֵי ('kings of') is commonly pronounced in accordance with the standard form, /malˈχej/ (with no dagesh qal in the letter kaf), whereas כַּלְבֵי ('dogs of'), whose standard pronunciation is /kalˈvej/, is commonly pronounced /kalˈbej/ (as if there were a dagesh qal in the letter bet). In standard syllabification, the letter under which a shva meraḥef is marked is grouped with the preceding syllable.
Shva Gaʻya
[edit]
Shva gaʻya designates a shva marked under a letter that is also marked with the cantillation mark gaʻya (גַּעְיָה lit. 'bleating' or 'bellowing'),[9]: 22–23 or meteg, e.g. the shva under the letter bet in the word בְּהוֹנוֹת "toes" would normally be classified a shva naʻ and be transliterated ⟨e⟩: behonót (or according to the precise standard,[3] ⟨ĕ⟩: bĕhonót). However, if marked with the gaʻya cantillation mark, 
, this shva is classified as shva gaʻya, and the transliteration believed to reflect its historical pronunciation would be bohonót. This "strict application" is found in Yemenite Hebrew.
T'nua hatufa
[edit]Within niqqud, vowel diacritics are sorted into three groups: big, small and fleeting or furtive (t'nuot g'dolot תנועות גדולות, t'nuot k'tanot תנועות קטנות and t'nuot chatufot תנועות חטופות), sometimes also referred to as long, short and very short or ultrashort. This grouping might have correlated to different vowel lengths in earlier forms of Hebrew (see Tiberian vocalization → Vowels; spoken Israeli Hebrew however does not distinguish between different vowel lengths, thus this orthographic differentiation is not manifest in speech).
The vowel diacritics classified as chatufot ('fleeting') all share the common feature of being a digraph of a small vowel diacritic (Patach, Segol or Kamatz Katan) plus a shva sign. Similarly, their names are derived from the respective small vowel diacritic's name plus the adjunct chataf: chataf patach, chataf segol and chataf kamatz.
As with a shva na, standard (prescribed) syllabification determines that letters pointed with a fleeting vowel diacritic be considered part of the subsequent syllable, even if in modern Hebrew pronunciation this diacritic represents a full-fledged syllable, thus e.g. the phonologically trisyllabic word הֶעֱמִיד ('he placed upright'), pronounced Hebrew pronunciation: [/he.eˈmid/], should standardly be syllabified into only two syllables, הֶ—עֱמִיד (he'emid).
| Name | Symbol | Israeli Hebrew | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | Transliteration | English approximate | ||
| Reduced Segol (ẖatáf segól) |
|
[e̞] | e | men |
| Reduced Patach ("ẖatáf patáẖ") |
|
[ä] | a | spa |
| Reduced Kamatz ("ẖatáf kamáts") |
|
[o̞] | o | cone |
| Reduced Hiriq ("ẖatáf ẖiríq") – not in current use, appears rarely[10] in the Aleppo Codex[11] |
|
[i] | i | it |
Comparison table
[edit]| Vowel comparison table | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vowel Length[citation needed] (phonetically not manifested in Israeli Hebrew) |
IPA | Transliteration | English approximate |
Notes | ||||
| Long | Short | Very Short | phonemic | phonetic | ||||
| סָ | סַ | סֲ | /a/ | [ä] | a | spa | see open central unrounded vowel | |
| סֵ | סֶ | סֱ | /e/ | [e̞] | e | temp | see mid front unrounded vowel | |
| סוֹ | סׇ | סֳ | /o/ | [o̞] | o | cone | see mid back rounded vowel | |
| סוּ | סֻ | n/a | /u/ | [u] | u | doom | ||
| סִי | סִ | /i/ | [i] | i | ski | |||
| Note I: | By adding two vertical dots (shva) ְ the vowel is made very short. | |||||||
| Note II: | The short o is usually promoted to a long o in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation | |||||||
| Note III: | The short u is usually promoted to a long u in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation | |||||||
Unicode encoding
[edit]| Glyph | Unicode | Name |
|---|---|---|
ְ
|
U+05B0 | HEBREW POINT SHEVA |
ֱ
|
U+05B1 | HEBREW POINT HATAF SEGOL |
ֲ
|
U+05B2 | HEBREW POINT HATAF PATAH |
ֳ
|
U+05B3 | HEBREW POINT HATAF QAMATS |
As of 2016, a separate Unicode symbol for the sheva na has been proposed but not implemented.[12][13]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]↑ Long and short niqqud-variants represent identical spoken vowels in Modern Hebrew; the orthographic distinction is, however, still observed in standard spelling.
References
[edit]- ^ Khan, Geoffrey (2020). The Tiberian Pronunciation Tradition of Biblical Hebrew, Volume 1. Cambridge, England: Open Book Publishers. pp. 305–7. ISBN 978-1-78374-677-4.
- ^ Khan, Geoffrey (2020). The Tiberian Pronunciation Tradition of Biblical Hebrew, Volume 1. Cambridge, England: Open Book Publishers. p. 313. ISBN 978-1-78374-677-4.
- ^ a b c d he-academy.huji.ac.il/hahlatot/TheTranscription/Documents/taatiq2007.pdf Transliteration guidelines from 2006 (p. 4)
- ^ "Characterization and Evaluation of Speech-Reading Support Systems for Hard-of-Hearing Students in the Class" by Becky Schocken; Faculty of Management, Tel-Aviv University, Department of Management and Economics, The Open University of Israel
- ^ "מילון מורפיקס – Morfix Dictionary - השפריץ". Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2015-03-25.
- ^ "מילון מורפיקס – Morfix Dictionary - סנכרן". Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2015-03-25.
- ^ "מילון מורפיקס – Morfix Dictionary - חנטרש". Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2015-03-25.
- ^ "מילון מורפיקס – Morfix Dictionary - פלרטט". Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2015-03-25.
- ^ a b Maḥberet Kitrei Ha-Torah (ed. Yoav Pinhas Halevi), chapter 5, Benei Barak 1990 (Hebrew)
- ^ I Kings 17:11 "לקחי־נא"; Psalms 14:1 "השחיתו", "התעיבו"; Psalms 53:2 "השחיתו", "והתעיבו"
- ^ hagigim.com
- ^ "ScriptSource - Entry - Unicode Status (Hebrew)".
- ^ "Proposal to encode HEBREW POINT SHEVA NA" (PDF).
Bibliography
[edit]
from Grokipedia
Overview
Definition and Function
The shva (שְׁוָא), also known as shewa, is a niqqud diacritic in the Hebrew writing system, appearing as two vertical dots placed beneath a consonant to indicate either a reduced vowel or the absence of a vowel sound.[4] This mark, denoted as ְ, serves as a key element in the Tiberian vocalization system developed by the Masoretes to preserve the pronunciation of biblical texts.[5] In Hebrew orthography, the shva facilitates the representation of complex consonant interactions without relying on full vowel signs for every syllable. The shva exhibits a dual function, distinguishing between a vocal shva, which represents a reduced or half-vowel attached to the consonant it underlies, and a silent shva, which signals no vowel and thus a closure or pause in the consonant sequence.[4] The vocal shva typically occurs under a consonant at the beginning of a syllable or in positions where it links to a following full vowel, effectively incorporating the consonant into an open syllable structure.[6] In contrast, the silent shva appears under a consonant at the end of a syllable, particularly following a short vowel, to denote that the consonant forms part of a cluster without an intervening vowel sound.[5] This distinction aids in clarifying the phonological boundaries in words, preventing ambiguity in reading unvocalized Hebrew script. In terms of syllable structure, the shva plays a crucial role by marking the onset of syllables in the case of the vocal form or facilitating consonant clusters after short vowels via the silent form, thereby maintaining the typical Hebrew pattern of consonant-vowel (CV) or consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) syllables.[4] For instance, in the prefix בְּ (bə-), the shva is vocal, initiating a syllable and attaching the consonant ב to a subsequent vowel.[6] Conversely, in the word הַשְּׁלוֹם (haššālôm, "peace"), the shva under ש is silent, closing the syllable after the short a-vowel in הַ and allowing the ש to cluster with the following ל without an additional vowel.[5] These usages underscore the shva's orthographic efficiency in encoding syllable divisions and consonant behaviors. Traditional classifications further categorize the shva into types such as na (mobile) and naḥ (resting), reflecting its functional nuances.[4]Etymology and Historical Development
The term shva (שְׁוָא) derives from the Hebrew root š-w-ʾ, meaning "emptiness," "vanity," or "nothingness," which underscores its role as a diacritic indicating the absence or reduction of a full vowel sound.[7] This nomenclature reflects the mark's function as a symbol of "rest" or silence in vocalization, drawing from the semantic field of desolation in ancient Hebrew usage. The shva mark first emerged in early Hebrew pointing systems crafted by the Masoretes, Jewish scribes active between the 6th and 10th centuries CE, who developed the niqqud (vowel points) to codify the oral recitation traditions of the Hebrew Bible amid linguistic shifts.[8] These systems arose in response to the need to preserve pronunciation after the consonantal text had become fixed, with initial experiments in vocalization appearing in Palestinian and Babylonian communities before standardization in Tiberias. The Tiberian tradition, dominant by the 9th century, refined the shva as two vertical dots beneath a consonant, distinguishing it from related signs like ḥataf-paṭaḥ (a half-vowel combining shva with a short paṭaḥ under gutturals to denote an ultra-short sound).[8] This differentiation ensured precise syllable division, with shva typically rendering silence in closed unstressed syllables or a fleeting epenthetic vowel otherwise. The development of shva was shaped by interactions with Aramaic and Babylonian Jewish traditions, as Masoretic scholars drew on Aramaic terminology for vowel signs (e.g., pāṭaḥ as "opening") and adopted elements from Babylonian pointing, such as compound notations for reduced vowels (ḥiṭfa).[8] Aramaic influences are evident in phonetic adaptations, like labialized realizations, while Babylonian conservatism in unstressed vowels (preserving /a/ over /i/) informed Tiberian orthoepic rules, including shva lengthening in deḥiq (compressed) contexts to avoid consonant clusters. By the 10th century, these influences converged in the Tiberian system, reconciling regional variations through treatises like Aaron ben Asher's Diqduqe ha-Ṭeʿamim.[8] A primary exemplar of this standardized shva is the Leningrad Codex (dated 1008 CE), the earliest complete Masoretic manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, where the mark appears ubiquitously to denote vowelless consonants or syllable codas, as in Genesis 1:1 (בְּרֵאשִׁית, bərēʾšît) with initial vocalic shva.[8] Corrections in the codex, such as added ḥataf signs (e.g., Exodus 9:11, בַחֲרְטֻם), highlight ongoing refinements to clarify shva's application, establishing it as a cornerstone of Tiberian orthography.[8]Pronunciation
In Biblical and Tiberian Hebrew
In the Tiberian tradition of Biblical Hebrew, the shva (šĕwāʾ) diacritic beneath a consonant serves as a versatile marker that can indicate either a vocalized short vowel or silence, governed by precise phonological and prosodic rules developed by the Masoretes around the 7th to 10th centuries CE. The vocal shva is realized as a reduced vowel sound, typically /ə/ (schwa) or /e/, functioning as the nucleus of an open syllable. This pronunciation occurs primarily at the beginning of a word, where it initiates the syllable, or under a consonant bearing a dagesh forte (doubling dot), which signals gemination and supports vocalization. For instance, in מְלַךְ (măˌleḵ, "king"), the shva under the mem is vocal because it stands word-initially, yielding /məˈleχ/. Similarly, a shva following a short vowel in an open syllable is vocal, preserving syllabic integrity.[9][10] Under guttural consonants (ʾālef, hē, ḥēṯ, ʿāyin), the simple shva is typically replaced by a ḥāṭēp (composite) form—ḥāṭēp-pāṭaḥ (/ă/), ḥāṭēp-ṣērē (/ē/), or ḥāṭēp-qāmeṣ (/ō/)—to accommodate the gutturals' resistance to certain vowels while maintaining a vocal quality. This substitution reflects Tiberian grammar's phonetic adjustments, ensuring the shva remains pronounced as an ultrashort vowel. An example is אֲדֹנִי (ʾăḏōnî, "my lord"), where the ḥāṭēp-pāṭaḥ under ʾālef is vocalized as /ă/, distinct from a full pāṭaḥ. In contrast, the quiescent shva is entirely silent (null realization), marking the absence of a vowel and closing a preceding syllable, especially in medial positions under consonants without dagesh or following a long vowel. Tiberian rules specify that a shva after a long vowel is quiescent unless overridden by secondary stress markers like meteg. Thus, in שָׁלוֹם (šālôm, "peace"), the shva under lāmeḏ is silent, resulting in /ʃaˈlom/, as it follows the long holem and lacks gemination.[9][10] These realizations are further modulated by cantillation marks (ṭaʿămîm), which dictate phrasing in liturgical recitation and can alter shva status through prosody. Disjunctive accents, signaling pauses, often promote a vocal shva by emphasizing syllable boundaries, while conjunctive accents favor quiescence for fluid connection between words. For example, in phrases with a zaqef qāṭôn (a disjunctive mark), a medial shva may shift to vocal to support rhythmic emphasis, aligning with the Tiberian emphasis on melodic accuracy in biblical chanting. This interplay ensures the shva contributes to the overall cadence without disrupting the text's oral transmission.[9]In Modern Hebrew
In Modern Hebrew, the pronunciation of shva has been simplified compared to classical systems, drawing predominantly from Sephardi traditions where a vocal shva is realized as a short /e/ sound, akin to the segol vowel, while a silent shva functions as a syllable closure with no audible vowel.[11] This Sephardi-influenced pattern forms the basis of standard Israeli Hebrew phonology, as established in early 20th-century revival efforts led by figures like Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, who prioritized a uniform, accessible pronunciation for everyday use.[11] Although the dominant norm is Sephardi-based, traces of Ashkenazi heritage persist in some speakers, particularly among older generations or in liturgical contexts, where shva may occasionally surface as a reduced schwa /ə/ or be fully elided in fast-paced speech to facilitate fluency.[12] Modern grammars provide simplified rules to guide pronunciation: a shva under the first letter of a word or syllable is typically vocalized as /e/, initiating a new syllable, whereas a shva following a short vowel (like pataḥ or segol) is often silent, marking the end of the preceding syllable without adding sound. In practice, shva is pronounced /e/ if it begins a syllable and silent if it closes one, often disregarding traditional na/naḥ distinctions. For instance, in the word לְבַד (levad, "alone"), the initial shva is vocal /lɛˈvad/, while in מַלְכָּה (malka, "queen"), the shva after the short /a/ is silent /malˈka/.[13] However, these rules are not absolute, and inconsistencies arise due to the phonetic realities of spoken Hebrew, where shva pronunciation can vary for ease of articulation. A notable counterexample is שָׁדַדְתְּ (shadadet, "you [f.s.] robbed"), traditionally with a quiescent shva under the second dalet (/ʃaˈdat/), but commonly pronounced in Israeli speech as /ʃaˈdadet/ with a vocal /e/ to avoid the consonant cluster.[13] Such deviations highlight the tension between prescriptive grammar and natural speech patterns, often resolved through context or regional intonation. The influence of colloquial spoken Hebrew has significantly impacted written forms, with niqqud (including shva) frequently omitted in unpointed texts like newspapers, signs, and digital communication, leading to interpretive flexibility in reading.[11] This omission is especially common in advertising and informal writing, where words like פֶסְטִיבָל (festival) appear without full pointing, relying on readers' familiarity with standard pronunciations to infer vocal or silent shva.[11] As a result, shva's role in Modern Hebrew emphasizes practical communication over strict adherence to traditional distinctions.Regional and Dialectal Variations
In the Yemenite tradition of Hebrew pronunciation, the shva is realized as an ultra-short vowel, often transcribed as /ɛ/ or /ə/, with distinct hataf variants maintaining their reduced forms separate from full vowels. Mobile shva (shva na) appears as brief epenthetic sounds like [ǎ] after non-gutturals or harmonizing with adjacent vowels before gutturals, while quiescent shva (shva naḥ) remains silent. This preservation of short durations reflects the tradition's fidelity to Tiberian vocalization patterns, distinguishing it from more reduced realizations elsewhere.[14] Ashkenazi pronunciation, influenced by Yiddish and other European vernaculars, typically renders shva as a short /ɛ/ or omits it entirely in non-initial positions, leading to syllable contraction. For instance, in the word שָׁלוֹם (shalom), the shva under lamed is silent, resulting in /ʃɑˈlɔm/, though in rapid speech or certain dialects, a brief /ɛ/ may be inserted after the lamed as /ʃɑlˈɔm/ for clarity. Quiescent shva is consistently silent, contributing to a more consonantal flow compared to Sephardic variants. For initial vocal shva, words like שְׁלוֹשָׁה (shlosha, "three" [m.]) are pronounced /ʃɛloˈʃɑ/.[15][16] Non-Israeli Sephardic traditions pronounce mobile shva closer to a full short /e/, akin to segol, while rendering it silent in consonant clusters to avoid hiatus. In words like מַלְאָךְ (mal'akh, "angel"), the shva under lamed is elided, resulting in /malˈaχ/, emphasizing smooth transitions influenced by Iberian and Mediterranean substrates. This approach maintains vocalic clarity in open syllables but prioritizes silence in closed ones.[14][15] In Ladino (Judeo-Spanish) communities, shva is frequently elided in favor of full vowels or diphthongs, aligning with Romance phonology that disfavors reduced schwas; Hebrew loanwords thus adapt shva na to /e/ or merge it into preceding syllables, as seen in liturgical readings where textual shva does not disrupt Spanish-like prosody.[14] Mizrahi dialects, shaped by Arabic substrates, realize shva as very short vowels akin to Arabic's brief fatha or kasra (/a/ or /i/), with quiescent forms dropped to facilitate guttural assimilation. This results in a fluid, vowel-harmonic quality, where shva under gutturals may echo the following vowel's timbre, differing from the more uniform /e/ in Sephardic norms.[14] These diaspora variations contrast with the standardized Modern Hebrew pronunciation, which simplifies shva to /e/ or silence based on position, blending Sephardic clarity with Ashkenazi reductions for broader accessibility.[15]Traditional Classification
Shva Na
In traditional Masoretic Hebrew grammar, the shva na (שְׁוָא נָע), or "moving shewa," is a diacritical mark (ְ) that indicates a vocalized, pronounced vowel sound under a consonant, functioning as a short, indeterminate vowel typically rendered as /ĕ/ or an obscure half-e in Tiberian pronunciation.[4] This contrasts with the quiescent shva naḥ, which is silent and serves merely as a syllable divider.[4] The shva na occurs under specific conditions that mark the beginning of a new syllable. According to the 16th-century Masoretic scholar Eliyahu Levita in Masoret ha-Masoret, these include: (1) under the first letter of a word; (2) as the second of two consecutive shvas; (3) under a letter immediately following a long vowel; (4) under a letter bearing a dagesh forte (strong dot indicating gemination); and (5) under the first of two identical consecutive letters.[17] These rules ensure the shva na acts as a vocal element, often after a short vowel or in positions that require syllabic closure from the prior consonant.[4] Examples illustrate its application: in לְךָ (lekhā, "to you"), the shva under ל is na as it begins the word; in נַפְשְׁךָ (nafshkha, "your soul"), the second shva under שׁ is na following a prior silent one; in הַמֹּשְׁלִים (hamoshlim, "the rulers"), it follows a long vowel under מֹ; in דַּבְּרוּ (dabberū, "they spoke"), it appears under בּ with dagesh forte; and in הַלְלוּ (hallelū, "praise"), it is under the first ל of doubled letters.[17] In prosody, the shva na serves as the nucleus of an open syllable, closely uniting with the following syllable as a grace-note and contributing to the rhythmic structure of biblical verse by preventing consonant clusters from forming invalid syllables.[4]Shva Naḥ
Shva Naḥ (שְׁוָא נָח), also termed quiescent shewa or silent shewa, denotes the non-vocalic form of the shva niqqud in traditional Masoretic Hebrew, serving as a syllable divider without phonetic value. It marks a consonant that closes a preceding syllable, effectively indicating the absence of a vowel sound under that consonant.[4] This silent shva typically occurs under consonants lacking dagesh, especially following short vowels where it concludes the prior syllable, or within medial consonant clusters to delineate boundaries. It appears in the interior of words under syllable-closing consonants and at word ends only in specific cases, such as final forms like ך or after vowelless sequences. For example, in שָׁלוֹם (šālôm, "peace"), the shva beneath the lamed is naḥ, yielding pronunciation as shā-lōm with the lamed closing the initial syllable. Similarly, מַלְכִּי (mal-khi, "your king") features a silent shva under the lamed, distinguishing it from vocal forms.[4][18] In Masoretic orthography, shva naḥ plays a crucial role in avoiding misreadings of consonant clusters by explicitly signaling syllable closures and structural divisions, thereby preserving the intended phonological and morphological parsing of words.[4]Ḥataf Shva
The Ḥataf Shva, also referred to as composite shewa or half-vowel, is a specialized niqqud diacritic in Tiberian Hebrew that combines the shva sign (two vertical dots) with elements of patah (ֲ), segol (ֱ), or qamatz (ֳ), positioned exclusively under the guttural consonants aleph (א), he (ה), ayin (ע), and chet (ח). This form serves as a reduced or half-vowel, distinct from the simple shva, and is employed when a vocal shva would otherwise occur under these letters. According to traditional Masoretic notation, the Ḥataf Shva ensures proper syllabic articulation by providing a minimal vowel quality that gutturals can accommodate, preventing the elision typical of non-guttural contexts.[4] Pronunciation of the Ḥataf Shva involves a very brief, obscure vowel sound: approximately /ă/ for the hataf-patah (ֲ), /ĕ/ for the hataf-segol (ֱ), and /ŏ/ for the hataf-qamatz (ֳ), which are more defined than the fleeting /ĕ/ of a standard vocal shva but still subordinate to adjacent full vowels. For instance, in the word אֱלֹהִים (ʾĕlōhīm, "God"), the hataf-segol under aleph renders a short /ɛ/ sound, facilitating smooth transition into the following syllable. Similarly, חֲמוֹר (ḥămôr, "donkey") uses hataf-patah under chet for a reduced /a/, while אֳהֲבָה (ʾŏhābâ, "love") employs hataf-qamatz under aleph to approximate a short /ɔ/. These pronunciations reflect the Masoretes' intent to maintain rhythmic and phonetic balance in biblical recitation.[4] The Masoretic rationale for the Ḥataf Shva stems from the phonetic incompatibility of guttural letters with a simple shva na (vocal shva), as these consonants—characterized by pharyngeal or glottal qualities—cannot sustain an ultra-short vowel without additional support, leading to the "rejection" of the plain shva form at syllable onset. Instead, the composite structure "floats" a partial vowel element, ensuring the guttural initiates a syllable without full silence or undue emphasis. This adaptation appears consistently in Masoretic texts to preserve the integrity of word roots and morphological patterns, such as in verbal forms where gutturals occupy the second radical position.[4]Shva Ga'aya
Shva Ga'aya (שְׁוָא גַּעְיָא), also known as meteg-shva or shva with ga'aya (secondary stress mark), refers to a vocal shva (שְׁוָא נָע) accompanied by a meteg (גַּעְיָא), a vertical stroke placed to the left of the vowel sign, in traditional Masoretic notation. This combination marks a secondary stress on the syllable, ensuring the shva is pronounced as a short /ɛ/ or /ə/ sound rather than being elided, and it imparts additional prosodic weight to prevent assimilation in reading or chanting. The meteg functions as a "bridle" to guide pronunciation, distinguishing it from an unmarked vocal shva by emphasizing the syllable's role in rhythmic or emphatic contexts within the verse.[19][20] In Masoretic manuscripts, shva ga'aya appears particularly in initial syllables or before other accented elements to maintain syllable integrity and avoid hiatus, often in words with gutturals or complex consonant clusters where elision might occur. For instance, וַיִּרְא֖וּ (vayir'u, "and they saw") from Genesis 27:27 features shva ga'aya under the resh, with the meteg under the preceding yod's hiriq indicating secondary stress to ensure the shva is vocal during cantillation. Similarly, קוֹלְךָ (qol-kha, "your voice") from Song of Songs 2:14 uses the meteg to reinforce the vocal quality of the shva under lamed after a long vowel. This usage aligns with early grammarians' observations that such markings preserve the shva's mobility under secondary accents.[19][20][2] The distinction from a plain shva na lies in the added meteg, which elevates the shva's role in the verse's stress pattern, often signaling a counter-tone or euphonic pause to aid in liturgical recitation. Unlike silent shva (שְׁוָא נָח), which quiesces the consonant without sound, shva ga'aya actively contributes to the phonetic flow by demanding pronunciation, thus preventing potential misreading in chanting traditions. This notation reflects the Masoretes' precision in encoding prosody, as seen in consistent applications across biblical texts to balance emphasis without altering primary accents.[19][20]Modern Usage and Analysis
T'nua Hatufa
In modern Hebrew linguistics, t'nua hatufa (תְּנוּעָה חֲטוּפָה), or "stolen movement," refers to the interpretation of the vocal shva (שְׁוָא נָע) as a furtive or reduced vowel, often associated with the ḥataf forms under gutturals or in traditional pronunciations where it may take on qualities influenced by adjacent vowels. This approach views the shva not solely as a binary vocal or silent marker but as a remnant of a full vowel diminished due to syllable structure or historical processes in Tiberian vocalization.[21] Under this framework, the shva na can exhibit articulatory features influenced by neighboring vowels in certain contexts, resulting in a brief, unstressed sound that maintains prosodic flow. For instance, in traditional readings like Yemenite Hebrew, a shva may adopt qualities from adjacent vowels, such as in לְעוֹלָם (le'olam), where the initial shva under the lamed is pronounced with a colored reduction influenced by the following cholam in some dialects.[21] This model provides an alternative to the traditional binary classification of shva na (vocal) versus shva naḥ (silent), emphasizing phonetic reduction from full niqqud. It aligns with patterns in spoken Israeli Hebrew, where vocal shva is typically realized as a short /e/ or schwa-like sound, though without consistent borrowing in standard pronunciation.[22]Phonetic Interpretation
In Hebrew phonology, the shva functions primarily as an indicator of vowel reduction or absence, influencing syllable formation and consonant clustering. The vocal shva (shva na) is phonetically realized as a short mid-front vowel or [ɛ], serving as a schwa-like approximant that breaks up potential consonant clusters in open syllables, while the resting shva (shva naḥ) is realized as null (Ø), allowing consonants to form clusters without intervening vocalic material. This dual status underscores shva's role in maintaining phonological well-formedness, where the approximant variant prevents hiatus or invalid onsets, and the null variant permits efficient syllable closure.[23] The interaction of shva with stress is particularly notable, as pre-tonic shvas—those appearing in the syllable immediately preceding the stressed one—are frequently vocalized, contributing to rhythmic patterns in pronunciation. For instance, in words like מְדִינָה (medina, "state"), the initial shva under mem is pronounced as , forming an open syllable /me.diˈna/, which supports the language's trochaic stress tendencies. In contrast, post-tonic or medial shvas in closed syllables tend toward elision, reducing articulatory effort while preserving stress placement.[24] Allophonic variations of shva depend on syllabic context: in open syllables, it manifests as the approximant [ə]-like , adding a subtle vocalic nucleus, whereas in closed syllables or at word boundaries following short vowels, it undergoes elision to Ø, merging consonants without pause. This variation is evident in examples such as קָטָן (katan, "small"), where the medial shva naḥ under tet is elided, yielding /kaˈtan/ and streamlining the closed syllable structure. Such patterns reflect broader phonological processes of vowel reduction under prosodic constraints.[23] Comparatively, the resting shva parallels the Arabic sukūn, a diacritic denoting vowel absence in Semitic orthographies, both serving to mark quiescent consonants and facilitate consonant gemination or clustering without phonetic vowel insertion. In Arabic, sukūn explicitly signals silence akin to shva naḥ, originating from roots implying stillness (e.g., skn "to be quiet"), highlighting shared Semitic strategies for encoding phonological nullity.[25]Comparison with Other Niqqud
The shva (שְׁוָא) differs from the hiriq (חִירִיק) in both its phonetic realization and syllabic function within the Tiberian vocalization system. While the hiriq represents a full short vowel /i/, the shva typically denotes a reduced vowel /ə/ when vocal (shva na) or complete absence of a vowel when silent (shva naḥ), serving primarily to indicate syllable boundaries rather than a distinct vocalic quality.[26] This contrast highlights the hiriq's role in stressed or open syllables with a clear /i/ sound, whereas the shva often appears in unstressed positions, contributing to the rhythmic flow without adding substantial vowel length.[27] In comparison to the pataḥ (פַּתַח) and segol (סֶגּוֹל), the shva under guttural consonants (ḥet, ʿayin, he, alef) manifests as ḥataf forms—ḥataf-pataḥ (ֲ) and ḥataf-segol (ֱ)—which mimic but abbreviate the full vowels. The full pataḥ conveys an /a/ sound, and the segol a short /ɛ/, both as independent vowels in open or closed syllables; in contrast, the ḥataf variants are ultra-short reductions (/ă/ and /ɛ̆/, respectively), used exclusively under gutturals to avoid awkward consonantal clusters while preserving a vestigial vocalic trace. These ḥataf shvas thus bridge the gap between zero vowel and full vowel, but their brevity distinguishes them from the more prominent articulation of pataḥ and segol.[28] The representation and interpretation of shva also vary across Masoretic vocalization traditions, such as Tiberian, Palestinian, and Babylonian systems. In the Tiberian system, shva is depicted as two vertical dots (ְ) and can be vocal or silent, with ḥataf forms for gutturals; the Palestinian system lacks distinct ḥataf vowels, employing simple shva under gutturals instead, which results in a more uniform but less nuanced rendering.[29] The Babylonian vocalization, by contrast, uses a different graphic form for shva (often a horizontal line or dots in a line) and integrates it into a system with additional vowel distinctions, where shva may align more closely with reduced /e/ sounds but without the Tiberian dichotomy of na and naḥ.[30] These variations reflect regional phonological preferences, with Tiberian emerging as the most standardized for biblical texts.[31]| Niqqud | Symbol | Phonetic Value (Tiberian) | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shva (standard) | ְ | /ə/ (vocal) or ∅ (silent) | Reduced or absent vowel, often under non-gutturals; indicates syllable division. |
| Hiriq | ִ | /i/ | Full short high vowel; used in open or closed syllables for clear /i/ sound. |
| Pataḥ | ַ | /a/ | Full short low vowel; appears under any consonant for /a/ quality. |
| Segol | ֶ | /ɛ/ | Full short mid vowel; typically in closed syllables. |
| Ḥataf-pataḥ | ֲ | /ă/ | Reduced low vowel under gutturals; abbreviates pataḥ. |
| Ḥataf-segol | ֱ | /ɛ̆/ | Reduced mid vowel under gutturals; abbreviates segol. |
Representation
Unicode Encoding
The shva is encoded in the Unicode Standard within the Hebrew block, which spans from U+0590 to U+05FF.[34] Specifically, the basic shva (sheva na) is represented by the code point U+05B0, named "HEBREW POINT SHEVA," and appears as a nonspacing mark ◌ְ.[34] As a combining diacritic, the shva is positioned below the base Hebrew consonant it modifies, forming a grapheme cluster through sequence combination. For instance, the combination of the Hebrew letter bet (U+05D1, ב) followed by U+05B0 yields בְ, indicating the shva under the bet.[34] This nonspacing mark has a combining class of 10 (below-right), ensuring proper stacking in bidirectional text rendering. The reduced vowel forms known as hataf shva—hataf segol, hataf patah, and hataf qamatz—have distinct code points in the same block: U+05B1 (◌ֱ, HEBREW POINT HATAF SEGOL), U+05B2 (◌ֲ, HEBREW POINT HATAF PATAH), and U+05B3 (◌ֳ, HEBREW POINT HATAF QAMATS), respectively.[34] These are also combining nonspacing marks, used for half-vowel notations under consonants. Legacy character encodings for Hebrew, such as ISO/IEC 8859-8 (also known as Latin/Hebrew), do not support niqqud like the shva, as they cover only consonantal letters and lack provisions for vowel points or diacritics.[35] This limitation has led to compatibility challenges in migrating pre-Unicode Hebrew texts, often requiring conversion to Unicode for full niqqud representation.[36] In HTML and XML contexts, the shva can be inserted using the numeric character reference ְ (decimal) or ְ (hexadecimal), ensuring consistent rendering across browsers supporting the Hebrew Unicode block.[37]Typographic Rendering
The typographic rendering of shva in Hebrew text features it as a combining diacritic positioned beneath the base letter, most commonly appearing as two vertical dots stacked one above the other. This standard form is defined in the Unicode Hebrew block, where font designers have latitude to vary the dots' size, spacing, and curvature while maintaining recognizability.[34] When shva co-occurs with other marks like dagesh, it adheres to specific stacking rules suited to Hebrew's right-to-left script: shva aligns below the base letter, typically offset slightly to the right for optimal visibility under curved letters like bet or kaf, while the dagesh—a central dot—sits within the letter's interior without interfering with the shva's placement. In cases of multiple diacritics, such as shva combined with meteg or cantillation marks, rendering engines apply canonical combining class reordering or invisible characters like the combining grapheme joiner (U+034F) to preserve the intended vertical and horizontal positioning.[38] Digital display of shva presents challenges due to its status as a combining mark, particularly in web browsers and PDF renderers, where inconsistent support for bidirectional text and font metrics can cause misalignment—such as shva dots shifting leftward or overlapping adjacent letters. For instance, older PDF viewers may fail to stack shva correctly under final-form letters like pe sofit, while some mobile browsers exhibit positioning errors in vocalized Torah portions. These issues are mitigated in modern systems through advanced OpenType features in Hebrew-supporting fonts.[38] Representative examples illustrate font-specific styles: the Frank-Ruehl font, a classic 20th-century design widely used in printed Hebrew texts, renders shva as distinct, evenly spaced dots for clear legibility in pointed scripture. In comparison, the David font adopts a more condensed approach, with the dots appearing closer together and slightly elongated, enhancing compactness in book layouts.[39][40] Accessibility considerations for shva in pointed text involve screen readers, which typically announce it as a reduced vowel (e.g., /ə/) or pause, but encounter difficulties with niqqud stacking, often linearizing complex combinations and omitting subtle positional cues essential for pronunciation in Biblical Hebrew. This can hinder blind users studying vocalized texts, necessitating audio aids or simplified unpointed alternatives for effective navigation.[41]References
- https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Gesenius%27_Hebrew_Grammar/10._The_Half_Vowels_and_the_Syllable_Divider_(%C5%A0ew%C3%A2)