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Athletic pubalgia
Athletic pubalgia
Athletic pubalgia
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Athletic pubalgia
SpecialtySports medicine Edit this on Wikidata

Athletic pubalgia, also called sports hernia,[1] core injury,[2] hockey hernia,[3] hockey groin,[1] Gilmore's groin,[1] or groin disruption,[4] is a medical condition of the pubic joint affecting athletes.[5]

It is a syndrome characterized by chronic groin pain in athletes and a dilated superficial ring of the inguinal canal. Football and ice hockey players are affected most frequently. Both recreational and professional athletes may be affected.

Presentation

[edit]

Symptoms include pain during sports movements, particularly hip extension, and twisting and turning. This pain usually radiates to the adductor muscle region and even the testicles, although it is often difficult for the patient to pinpoint the exact location.

Following sporting activity the person with athletic pubalgia will be stiff and sore. The day after a match, getting out of bed or a car will be difficult. Any exertion that increases intra-abdominal pressure, such as coughing, sneezing, or sporting activity can cause pain. In the early stages, the person may be able to continue playing their sport, but the problem usually gets progressively worse.

As pain in the groin and pelvis can be referred from a number of problems, including injuries to the lumbar spine, the hip joint, the sacro-iliac joint, the abdomen, and the genito-urinary system, diagnosis of athletic pubalgia requires skillful differentiation and pubic examination in certain cases where there is intense groin pain.

Diagnosis

[edit]

The diagnosis is based on the patient's history, clinical signs, and, increasingly, an MRI exam.[6] Symptoms can often be reproduced by maneuvers such as performing sit-ups or crunches. Pain can also be elicited with the patient in a "frog position", in which the patient is supine with knees bent and heels together.[7]

The exact lesion may differ, but common pathologic findings at operation are:

Several of these lesions may occur simultaneously. Also, many athletes have concomitant weakness or tearing of the adductor muscles or labral tears of the hip. When the adductor muscles are tight post injury, that can be enough to trigger symptoms.

Treatment

[edit]

Conservative therapies (gentle stretching and a short period of rest[10]) may temporarily alleviate the pain, but definitive treatment consists of surgical repair followed by a structured rehabilitation.[9][11] The first conservative treatment option should be to restore normal motion after the adductor has begun to heal (usually 6–8 weeks post injury). Sleeping in a prone position with the hip on the affected side flexed and externally rotated can be a cure in some individuals.[12]

Early rehabilitation for sports hernias often emphasizes targeted strengthening around the symptomatic area. This approach typically involves exercises designed to engage and challenge the gluteal muscles and posterior chain.[13][14] The goal is to build supporting strength, which may contribute to improved stability and function during recovery.[15]

Incidence

[edit]

The exact incidence of these entities is unknown: some believe it is the most common cause of chronic groin pain in athletes, while others argue that it is only rare.[16]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Athletic pubalgia

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Athletic pubalgia, also known as sports hernia, is a painful involving strain or partial tear of the muscles, , or ligaments in the lower abdomen and region, without the protrusion of abdominal contents characteristic of a true . It manifests as chronic, activity-related pain stemming from disruption or weakening of the rectus abdominis attachment to the , often accompanied by adductor pathology. This condition primarily affects athletes in high-intensity sports requiring explosive movements, such as soccer, hockey, and football, where it accounts for up to 28% of chronic injuries. The hallmark symptom of athletic pubalgia is a deep, aching pain in the or lower that intensifies during physical exertion, such as sprinting, twisting, kicking, or sudden directional changes, and typically subsides with rest. Patients often report tenderness over the , pain with resisted hip adduction or sit-ups, and a sensation of or instability in the pelvic region, which can lead to compensatory overuse injuries in the or adductor muscles if untreated. Unlike traditional hernias, there is no visible bulge, though prolonged cases may predispose individuals to secondary inguinal hernias. The pain is insidious in onset, gradually worsening with continued activity, and can become disabling, forcing athletes to cease participation in sports. Causes of athletic pubalgia arise from repetitive biomechanical stress on the and surrounding structures, including from unbalanced forces between the abdominal obliques and adductors during vigorous training or competition. Risk factors include participation in sports with frequent cutting, pivoting, or kicking motions—such as soccer (affecting up to 58% of cases in some cohorts) and running—and inadequate core strength or flexibility, which exacerbate the imbalance at the pubic bone. It particularly affects professional soccer players, with a of up to 10% in that group due to intense training volumes. Diagnosis relies on a thorough history and , including provocative tests like the adduction squeeze or resisted abdominal contraction to elicit , followed by such as MRI to visualize aponeurotic or adductor . X-rays may rule out bony abnormalities like stress fractures, while can assess dynamic issues. Treatment begins conservatively in most cases, with initial rest for 7-10 days, ice application, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and a structured program focusing on core stabilization, pelvic alignment, and adductor within 6-8 weeks. For cases, surgical intervention—such as open or laparoscopic reinforcement of the inguinal floor or adductor —offers high , allowing most athletes to return to pre-injury levels after 6-12 weeks of postoperative rehabilitation emphasizing gradual loading and proprioceptive training. Early intervention is crucial to prevent chronicity and associated complications like .

Definition and Overview

Definition

Athletic pubalgia is defined as a involving strain or tear of the tendons and muscles in the area, particularly around the , without evidence of a true defect. This condition, distinct from inguinal hernias, arises from weakening or tearing of the structures, leading to debilitating pain during . It is known by several alternative names, including sports , Gilmore's , core muscle , and pubic inguinal , reflecting the varied terminologies used in to describe this entity. These terms highlight its association with athletic overuse rather than a palpable bulge or surgical . The general characteristics of athletic pubalgia include chronic in athletes, typically triggered by repetitive stress or sudden directional changes, which create an imbalance between the stronger hip adductor muscles and the weaker lower abdominal muscles. This imbalance disrupts the biomechanical stability across the , often resulting in insidious onset that worsens with exertion and may force cessation of sports participation. Historically, athletic pubalgia was first described in the 1980s among soccer players, when Jerry Gilmore identified it as a severe musculotendinous in three professional athletes unable to play due to . This initial recognition in high-demand kicking sports marked the beginning of increased awareness and research into the syndrome.

Epidemiology

Athletic pubalgia, also known as sports , is a significant cause of chronic pain among athletes, accounting for approximately 5-10% of chronic injuries in elite-level competitors. In high-impact sports, it represents about 6% of all athletic injuries overall. The condition is particularly prevalent in sports involving repetitive twisting, cutting, and kicking motions, where -related issues can comprise up to 18% of total injuries in professional soccer players. Similarly, in , athletic pubalgia contributes substantially to , often linked to the sport's demands for rapid directional changes. Demographically, athletic pubalgia predominantly affects males, with a male-to-female ratio exceeding 10:1, as evidenced by studies showing over 97% of cases occurring in men. The typical age range is 20 to 40 years, with a age of around 33 years among diagnosed patients; it is rare in non-athletes and pediatric populations. This skew toward younger male athletes aligns with participation rates in high-risk sports, though increasing female involvement in such activities may alter future trends. Risk varies markedly by sport, with the highest incidences in those requiring explosive lateral movements, such as soccer, rugby, , , and . In professional soccer, annual incidence rates for related long-standing pubic pain range from 2% to 5%, based on prospective cohort studies of elite players. shows comparable rates, often exceeding those in non-contact sports like running, where prevalence is lower but still notable among distance runners. Geographic and seasonal variations reflect sport-specific participation and competition intensity, with higher reports from regions like and where soccer and hockey are prominent. Incidence peaks during high-level competitive seasons due to intensified training and match loads. Reports of athletic pubalgia have increased since the 1990s, attributable to improved diagnostic recognition rather than a true rise in occurrence.

Anatomy and Pathophysiology

Relevant Anatomy

Athletic pubalgia primarily involves the complex interplay of musculoskeletal and fascial structures in the groin and pelvic region, centered around the pubic symphysis and inguinal canal. The pubic symphysis, a fibrocartilaginous joint between the two pubic bones, serves as a critical attachment site for several muscles that stabilize the pelvis during dynamic activities. The rectus abdominis muscle inserts directly onto the superior aspect of the pubic bone via its tendon, forming a broad aponeurotic plate that measures approximately 1.65 cm wide by 1.02 cm long, often oval-shaped. Adjacent to this, the adductor longus originates from the anterior pubic body, with a footprint spanning about 1.95 cm long by 1.23 cm wide in a semilunar configuration, while the gracilis attaches inferiorly on the pubic symphysis to contribute to hip adduction. The pyramidalis muscle, a small triangular structure present in most individuals, originates from the anterior surface of the pubic crest and pubic symphysis, overlies the rectus abdominis within the rectus sheath, and inserts into the linea alba, providing minor tension to the linea alba. The , a passage through the lower approximately 4 cm long, is bounded by key fascial and tendinous elements that support intra-abdominal contents. Its anterior wall is reinforced by the external oblique aponeurosis, which splits to form the superficial inguinal ring and contributes to the canal's overall integrity. Posteriorly, the canal is lined by the , a thin layer of that forms the floor and can vary in thickness, with the —formed by the fusion of the internal oblique and transversus abdominis tendons—providing additional reinforcement medially as it inserts onto the . These components collectively maintain the canal's stability against intra-abdominal pressure. Biomechanically, these structures converge to form the "groin triangle," a conceptual region delineated superiorly by the (from to ), medially by the line separating the adductor compartment, and laterally by the line to the femoroacetabular joint. This triangle encompasses the attachments and , enabling coordinated force transmission during movements such as hip adduction and trunk , where tensile stresses are absorbed by the rectus abdominis-adductor and posterior inguinal wall to prevent excessive pelvic motion. Anatomical variations in this region can influence susceptibility to overload, notably posterior wall weakness due to thinner or less reinforced transversalis fascia, which may occur congenitally or through repetitive strain, altering the load distribution across the groin triangle. Other variants include differences in the rectus abdominis shape (e.g., circular versus oval) and the presence or absence of the , affecting fascial tension dynamics. Gender-related differences, such as narrower inguinal rings in females, may also modulate these structures' resilience.

Causes and Risk Factors

Athletic pubalgia primarily arises from repetitive microtrauma to the soft tissues attaching to the pubic bone, particularly involving strain on the adductor tendons and posterior inguinal wall due to forceful adduction against resistance. This leads to attenuation or tearing of structures such as the and rectus abdominis insertion, often without a true . A key mechanism is the imbalance between strong hip adductors and relatively weaker abdominal muscles, which generates excessive stress on the attachments during dynamic activities. The condition is multifactorial in etiology, commonly stemming from overuse in sports requiring sudden directional changes, such as soccer or , where repetitive twisting and acceleration overload the region. Acute trauma, including direct tackles or hyperextension events, can also precipitate by causing partial ruptures of the adductor longus or rectus abdominis . Concurrent hip joint pathologies, notably (FAI), contribute in a significant subset of cases by altering pelvic mechanics and increasing stress. Non-modifiable risk factors include male sex, which accounts for over 90% of cases due to differences in pelvic anatomy and , and a history of prior injury, which doubles the recurrence risk. Modifiable risk factors encompass inadequate core and strength—such as adductor strength below 80% of abductor strength—inadequate flexibility, and high volumes without sufficient recovery, particularly in skill positions or explosive activities like . Biomechanically, athletic pubalgia involves increased shear forces across the during high-demand movements like kicking or sprinting, where the symphysis acts as a fulcrum, exacerbating from muscular imbalances and pelvic rotation deficits. Decreased hip and leg length discrepancies further heighten vulnerability by disrupting pelvic stability.

Signs and Symptoms

Clinical Presentation

Athletic pubalgia, also known as sports hernia, typically manifests with an insidious onset of chronic, dull, aching pain in the and lower abdominal region, often described as deep and unilateral. This pain may radiate to the proximal adductor muscles, inner thigh, , or testicles, and is primarily activity-related, resolving with rest but recurring upon resumption of sports. The pain is commonly provoked by movements involving sudden acceleration, deceleration, twisting, cutting, kicking, or lateral shifts, as well as by Valsalva maneuvers such as coughing or sneezing. In some cases, it worsens with sit-ups or other core-engaging activities, and advanced progression may include stiffness following periods of rest. The condition often develops gradually over weeks to months, initially limited to post-exercise soreness but potentially becoming constant and interfering with daily activities if untreated. Symptoms can persist for several months to years before seeking , with up to 43% of cases progressing to bilateral involvement. history frequently reveals a recent escalation in training intensity, volume, or demands, alongside prior episodes of minor strains. It predominantly affects male athletes in sports requiring repetitive kicking, sprinting, or directional changes, such as soccer, , and .

Physical Examination Findings

The physical examination for athletic pubalgia focuses on identifying objective signs of provocation and tenderness in the and pubic region, distinguishing it from true or other differentials. typically reveals localized tenderness over the , , or , often at the insertion of the rectus abdominis or adductor longus. A key finding is the absence of a true hernia bulge, though weakness or dilation may be appreciated at the external inguinal ring. During the , such as coughing or straining, patients may exhibit increased or subtle inguinal floor laxity without visible protrusion. Specific maneuvers are employed to reproduce symptoms and localize . The adductor squeeze test involves the patient lying with hips flexed to 90 degrees, squeezing a fist or ball placed between the knees; it is positive if sharp occurs, particularly when measured on a 0-10 numeric rating scale. Resisted hip adduction, performed in hip flexion or extension, elicits tenderness at the adductor origin on the pubic . Additionally, the resisted test, with legs extended and feet flexed, reproduces at the inferolateral edge of the distal rectus abdominis while palpating the insertion site. A consensus diagnostic criterion requires at least three of the following: pinpoint tenderness over the , palpable tenderness over the deep inguinal ring, pain or dilation of the external ring without , at the adductor longus origin, or dull radiating to the or inner . Associated signs include reduced range of motion, particularly in flexion or adduction, due to inhibition. Core weakness may be evident on functional tests such as the plank, where demonstrate inability to maintain neutral spine alignment or pelvic stability.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Approach

The diagnostic approach to athletic pubalgia begins with a thorough clinical , emphasizing a detailed to identify patterns suggestive of the condition. Key elements include the onset of symptoms, which is often insidious rather than traumatic, associated sports activities such as soccer, , or that involve kicking, twisting, or rapid directional changes, and any of prior groin or core injuries that may contribute to biomechanical imbalances. Clinicians also assess for red flags, such as unexplained weight loss, night , or systemic symptoms, to rule out serious pathologies before proceeding. Diagnostic criteria often incorporate standardized classification systems, such as the Hölmich clinical examination protocol, which evaluates groin pain through a battery of reliable tests including resisted hip adduction, passive hip extension, and long-lever hip flexion to localize pain to adductor or involvement, demonstrating good intra- and interobserver reliability ( > 0.6). Alternatively, the Doha agreement classification framework categorizes groin pain into defined entities like adductor-related, iliopsoas-related, inguinal-related, or pain based on history and targeted physical tests, aiding in precise syndromic identification. This step-by-step process integrates history with physical findings to raise suspicion in athletes presenting with chronic, activity-aggravated groin discomfort. Differential diagnosis is crucial given the nonspecific nature of symptoms, requiring distinction from conditions such as true (evidenced by a palpable bulge on ), hip (associated with joint stiffness and limited in older athletes), stress fractures of the pubic ramus (eliciting focal bony tenderness), urological disorders like (accompanied by urinary symptoms or perineal pain), and lumbar radiculopathy (radiating pain with neurological deficits). Clinical decision-making hinges on high suspicion in young male athletes from high-risk sports with positive exam findings; primary care providers should refer to specialists or multidisciplinary teams for confirmation when symptoms persist beyond initial conservative measures. A major challenge in diagnosing athletic pubalgia is the frequent delay due to vague, overlapping symptoms that mimic less severe strains, leading to an average time from symptom onset to definitive diagnosis of approximately 6 to 12 months, with means reported around 9 months in cohort studies. This delay underscores the need for heightened awareness and systematic evaluation to prevent prolonged disability in athletes.

Imaging and Tests

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) serves as the gold standard for evaluating athletic pubalgia, providing detailed visualization of soft tissue structures around the and groin. It typically reveals at the , tears in the adductor tendons, and the secondary cleft sign, characterized by linear high signal intensity on T2-weighted images extending from the along the inferior pubic ramus, indicating adductor or rectus abdominis-adductor disruption. High signal intensity on T2-weighted sequences specifically denotes or in the pubic bone or surrounding soft tissues. MRI demonstrates approximately 68% sensitivity and 100% specificity for rectus abdominis , and 86% sensitivity and 89% specificity for adductor injuries when correlated with surgical findings. Dynamic is a valuable adjunct for detecting inguinal wall defects, particularly posterior wall weakness in the , which may not be evident on static imaging. Performed with patient straining or , it identifies bulges or deficiencies in the and , aiding in the diagnosis of subtle hernias contributing to athletic pubalgia. Plain radiographs (X-rays) are initially used to exclude osseous pathology, such as avulsion fractures at the or adductor origins, which can mimic or coexist with soft tissue injuries. These fractures appear as irregular bone margins or displaced fragments on anteroposterior views of the . Diagnostic injections, such as fluoroscopically or ultrasound-guided local anesthetic into the or adductor origins, confirm the pain source by providing temporary relief if athletic pubalgia is the . Positive response to lidocaine injection helps differentiate athletic pubalgia from other pathologies. Despite their utility, imaging modalities have limitations; MRI and may appear normal in early or mild cases, potentially delaying until symptoms persist. Additionally, advanced like MRI involves higher costs and limited availability compared to X-rays or , influencing clinical decision-making in resource-constrained settings.

Management

Conservative Treatment

The conservative treatment of athletic pubalgia begins with immediate steps for suspected lower abdominal pain after exercise, including resting immediately and avoiding activities that increase abdominal pressure such as pull-ups, sit-ups, heavy lifting, laughing, coughing, or straining; lying flat to relax the area if needed; observing for worsening symptoms; applying ice packs (wrapped in cloth) for 15-20 minutes every 2-3 hours in the acute phase; and taking ibuprofen for pain if there are no contraindications such as stomach issues. Patients should seek prompt medical evaluation, which may include a physical exam and imaging such as ultrasound or MRI. This is followed by a multimodal initial approach aimed at reducing and allowing tissue recovery. This typically involves relative rest for 7-10 days to avoid aggravating activities such as kicking or sprinting, application of for 15-20 minutes every 2-3 hours in the acute phase, and the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen or naproxen to manage pain and swelling. Activity modification is emphasized, focusing on low-impact alternatives to maintain fitness without exacerbating symptoms. Physical therapy forms the cornerstone of conservative management, typically spanning 6-8 weeks in a phased protocol to restore function and prevent recurrence. Early phases (weeks 1-2) prioritize core stabilization exercises, such as transversus abdominis , posterior pelvic tilts, and isometric planks, alongside gentle flexibility work including and adductor stretches to address muscle imbalances. Intermediate phases (weeks 2-4) incorporate adductor strengthening through resisted side-stepping and bridges, progressing to dynamic movements. The final phase (weeks 4-8) introduces a structured return-to-sport program with sport-specific drills, , and functional testing to ensure safe reintegration, often achieving pain reduction of 50-80% and improved adduction strength. Adjunctive therapies complement to enhance outcomes, particularly in cases involving or persistent . techniques, such as and joint mobilizations, can accelerate relief by up to 50% within 4 weeks. Modalities like or (TENS) provide short-term symptom control, though evidence for their standalone efficacy is moderate to low. training, integrated into core exercises, targets associated weaknesses and supports overall stability. Success rates for conservative treatment are favorable in mild to moderate cases, with 70-90% of athletes achieving symptom resolution and return to sport within 6-8 weeks, particularly when is prioritized over rest alone. Randomized trials and systematic reviews demonstrate that exercise-based rehabilitation outperforms passive interventions, yielding 65-80% pain reduction and higher functional recovery rates.

Surgical Treatment

Surgical treatment for athletic pubalgia is indicated when conservative measures, such as and rest, fail to alleviate symptoms after 6 to 12 weeks of , particularly in cases of persistent that impairs athletic performance. Specific indications include identifiable defects on imaging, such as adductor tendon avulsions or tears in the posterior inguinal wall, where nonoperative approaches have not addressed underlying structural weaknesses. In athletes with chronic symptoms exceeding 3 to 6 months, aims to restore anatomical integrity and enable return to sport, often after confirming via MRI-guided defects or diagnostic injections. Common surgical procedures for athletic pubalgia include open repairs and laparoscopic approaches, each targeting the weakened or adductor attachments without a true sac. Open techniques, such as the Gilmore procedure, involve plication of the , reapproximation of the to the , and reinforcement with synthetic mesh to strengthen the posterior inguinal wall. Minimal open repairs focus on decompression of the genital branch of the and tension-free suturing of the posterior wall, while broader repairs address the rectus abdominis-adductor by reattaching torn tissues in layers to recreate the anatomy. Laparoscopic methods, including totally extraperitoneal (TEP) or transabdominal preperitoneal (TAPP) repairs, use mesh to reinforce hernia-like defects in the , often with smaller incisions and reduced recovery time compared to open surgery. In cases of concomitant adductor strain, an adductor may be performed to release tight structures and improve hip , sometimes bilaterally if symptoms suggest multifocal involvement. Postoperative care emphasizes a structured rehabilitation protocol to minimize complications and optimize recovery. Patients receive immediate pain management and early physical therapy initiation within 1-2 weeks, with protected weight-bearing as needed during the first 0-2 weeks to restore core strength, flexibility, and endurance. Return to full athletic activity generally occurs between 6 and 12 weeks post-surgery, with isolated repairs allowing earlier resumption (around 4 weeks) compared to procedures involving adductor release (up to 12 weeks). Complication rates are low, with recurrence occurring in approximately 5% to 10% of cases, often managed with revision surgery; other risks include nerve entrapment or , mitigated through meticulous technique and postoperative monitoring.

Prognosis and Prevention

Prognosis

The prognosis for athletic pubalgia is generally favorable with appropriate treatment, with return-to-sport rates ranging from 80% to 96% at pre-injury levels across various athlete populations. Conservative management typically allows return to activity in 9 to 18 weeks, while surgical intervention facilitates earlier recovery, often within 6 to 12 weeks post-procedure. Meta-analyses indicate that surgery yields higher success rates for elite athletes, with approximately 90% achieving full return compared to 14% to 100% with conservative approaches, particularly in high-demand sports like soccer where rates exceed 95% post-surgery. Early diagnosis significantly enhances outcomes by reducing symptom duration, which correlates with higher success in both conservative and surgical pathways; delayed treatment increases the risk of persistent symptoms and poorer recovery. Comorbidities, such as (FAI), adversely affect prognosis if unaddressed, with return rates as low as 25% to 50% following isolated pubalgia in affected individuals, whereas combined treatment of FAI and pubalgia achieves 89% return without limitations. Recurrence rates post-treatment range from 7% to 24%, rising to 20% to 30% in cases with untreated comorbidities or delayed intervention. Long-term implications include potential ongoing if untreated, leading to reduced activity levels and . In professional athletes, return rates are high (e.g., over 90% in soccer players). Overall, timely intervention minimizes these risks and supports sustained athletic participation.

Prevention Strategies

Prevention of athletic pubalgia emphasizes targeted training modifications to address muscle imbalances and overload risks commonly seen in high-demand sports. Balanced exercise programs incorporating core and adductor strengthening have demonstrated efficacy in reducing injury incidence. For instance, exercises such as Copenhagen planks, which isolate the adductor longus and , and side bridges, which enhance oblique and transverse abdominis stability, are integrated into preventive regimens to bolster resilience. Gradual progression of training volume and intensity allows adaptation and minimizes strain on the and surrounding tendons. Screening and monitoring protocols play a crucial role in early identification of at-risk athletes. Pre-season assessments using the adductor squeeze test measure isometric strength and detect potential asymmetries between limbs, which may be associated with elevated risk. Regular flexibility routines targeting hip flexors and hamstrings, such as dynamic lunges and hamstring stretches held for 20-30 seconds, help maintain optimal and prevent compensatory overload. Optimizing equipment and technique further mitigates exposure to precipitating mechanisms. Proper with adequate cushioning and arch support reduces lower extremity kinetic chain disruptions during impact activities, while coaching on controlled pivoting and twisting—such as maintaining trunk alignment during directional changes—limits torsional forces on the groin. Warm-up protocols featuring dynamic stretches, including leg swings and walking lunges for 5-10 minutes, prepare muscles for eccentric demands and have been shown to decrease injury rates. Evidence from controlled studies underscores these strategies' impact, particularly in team sports. The FIFA 11+ warm-up program, which combines neuromuscular training, strengthening, and dynamic stretching, has been associated with a 30-50% reduction in groin injuries among soccer players through consistent implementation twice weekly. In elite settings, multidisciplinary teams comprising physiotherapists, strength coaches, and sports physicians facilitate individualized prevention plans, integrating screening data with sport-specific modifications to achieve up to 40% lower injury incidence.

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