Hubbry Logo
TakshakaTakshakaMain
Open search
Takshaka
Community hub
Takshaka
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Takshaka
Takshaka
Takshaka
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Takshaka
Idol of Takshaka at Taxakeshwar temple
Devanagariतक्षक
Sanskrit transliterationTakṣaka
AffiliationNāga
AbodeIndrapuri
Genealogy
ConsortUnnamed Nāgini
ChildrenAshvasena

Takshaka (Sanskrit: तक्षक, Takṣaka) is a Nagaraja in Hinduism and Buddhism. He is mentioned in the Hindu epic Mahabharata as well as in the Bhagavata Purana. He is described to be a king of the Nagas.

Takshaka are also known in Chinese and Japanese mythology as being one of the "eight Great Dragon Kings" (八大龍王 Hachi-dai Ryuu-ou),[1] they are the only snakes which can fly and also mentioned as the most venomous snakes, amongst Nanda (Nagaraja), Upananda, Sagara (Shakara), Vasuki, Balavan, Anavatapta and Utpala.

Hinduism

[edit]

The King of the Nagas

[edit]

Takshaka is mentioned as a King of the Nagas at (1,3).

Takshaka is mentioned as the friend of Indra, the king of gods, at (1-225,227,230). Takshaka, formerly dwelt in Kurukshetra and the forest of Khandava (modern-day Delhi) (1,3). Takshaka and Ashvasena were constant companions who lived in Kurukshetra on the banks of the Ikshumati (1,3). Srutasena, the younger brother of Takshaka, resided at the holy place called Mahadyumna with a view to obtaining the chiefship of the serpents (1,3). He was 4th king of Kamyaka.

Legend

[edit]

According to the Shrimad Bhagavatam, Takshaka belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty. He was a descendant of Rama. The name of Takshaka's son was Brihadbala, who was killed in battle by Abhimanyu, the son of Arjuna.

Takshaka lived in the Khandava forest (1,225). Nagas lived there with other tribes like the Pisachas, Rakshasas and Daityas and Danavas (clans of Asuras) (1,227). Arjuna burned that forest at the behest of Agni. At that time the Naga chief Takshaka was not there, having gone to Kurukshetra. But Ashvasena, the mighty son of Takshaka, was there. Arjuna slew Takshaka's wife, the mother of Ashvasena. But Ashvasena escaped (1-229,230) (4,2). To revenge upon the slaughter of his mother, Ashvasena attacked Arjuna during Kurukshetra War (8,90) (9,61), while he was battling with Karna. Ashvasena is mentioned here as born in the race of Airavata (8,90). The asura architect Mayasura who came there after Shiva warned him of the fall of Tripura is mentioned as escaping from the abode of Takshaka when Khandava Forest was burned (1,230) though some stories portray him as coming out to bow before Krishna and then guiding the Pandavas to a cave where an ancient treasure horde that also had the gandiva bow in it.

Revenge on Pandavas

[edit]
The snake sacrifice of Janamejaya as Astika tries to stop it

When Parikshit was cursed by a sage's son to die by a snake bite for insulting his father, Takshaka came to fulfil the curse. Takshaka did the deed by approaching in disguise (1,50) and biting Parikshit, the grandson of Arjuna and thus slaying him, while he was meditating on Lord Vishnu. He also prevented the possibility of getting any medical aid to the king, by bribing a priest in the Kasyapa clan, who was an expert in curing people from snake-poisoning (1,43).

Kashyapa alive tree what is burnt by Takshak (near Pond) and parikshit bitten by Takshak, folio from Birla razmnama

Later King Janamejaya, the son of Parikshit, fought a war at Takshasila (1,3) and expelled the Nagas headed by Takshaka from there too.

Utanka soon became another victim while he was passing through the domain of Takshaka. By visiting Janamejaya, Utanka invoked the ire of that Kuru king, which was directed at its full force, towards Takshaka and the Naga race. Janamejaya started a campaign at Takshasila where he massacred the Nagas, with the intent of exterminating the Naga race (1,52). Takshaka left his territory and escaped to the Deva territory where he sought protection from Deva king Indra (1,53). But Janamejaya's men traced him and brought him as a prisoner in order to execute him along with the other Naga chiefs (1,56). At that time, a learned sage named Astika, a boy in age, came and interfered. His mother Manasa was a Naga and father was a Brahmin. Janamejaya had to listen to the words of the learned Astika and set Takshaka free. He also stopped the massacre of the Nagas and ended all the enmity with them (1,56). From then on, the Nagas and Kurus lived in peace. Janamejaya became a peace-loving king as well.

Other references

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Takshaka

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Takshaka is a prominent naga (serpent) king in Hindu mythology, depicted as a powerful and vengeful ruler of the serpents in the ancient epic Mahabharata. He is renowned for his close alliance with the god Indra, the protection of his kin during the divine conflagration of the Khandava forest orchestrated by Agni with the aid of Arjuna and Krishna, and his fatal bite on King Parikshit, which fulfilled a sage's curse and precipitated the great Sarpa Satra (snake sacrifice) by Parikshit's son, Janamejaya. In the Mahabharata's , Takshaka emerges as a formidable figure residing in the lush , a haven for nagas and other creatures. When the fire god , seeking to consume the forest to regain his strength, enlists the ' help, intervenes to shield Takshaka's son Aswasena and his kin from the flames, allowing Aswasena to flee to safety while countless others perish. Takshaka himself was absent from the forest at the time, having gone to . This event underscores Takshaka's stature among divine beings and sets the stage for later conflicts, as his son Aswasena later seeks revenge against during the by attempting to consume him with a fiery . Takshaka's most defining act occurs in the Astika Parva, where he becomes the instrument of retribution against , the grandson of . Enraged by Parikshit's insult to the sage Shamika—placing a dead snake on the meditating rishi's shoulders—Shamika's son Sringin curses the king to die within seven days from Takshaka's . Disguising himself ingeniously, Takshaka approaches Parikshit's fortified , sloughs off his coils to enter undetected, and delivers a lethal bite while the king rests, his poison burning like fire despite Parikshit's precautions. The sage Kasyapa, en route to revive the king with his antidote, is bribed by Takshaka with immense wealth to abandon his efforts, ensuring Parikshit's demise. The aftermath profoundly impacts the epic's narrative, as the grieving Janamejaya vows to exterminate all serpents through a massive yajna (sacrifice) presided over by the sage Vyasa. Thousands of nagas are drawn into the sacrificial fire, but Takshaka, hiding in Indra's celestial abode, is the last to face destruction; he plummets toward the flames only to be halted mid-air by the intervention of the brahmin youth Astika, who invokes boons to end the ritual and spare the remaining snakes. This episode not only frames the Mahabharata's oral transmission—recounted by Vaishampayana at the sacrifice—but also highlights themes of karma, divine protection, and reconciliation in Hindu lore. Beyond the , Takshaka appears in Puranic texts such as the , reinforcing his role in Parikshit's death as a manifestation of destined retribution. Takshaka also features prominently in Buddhist tradition as one of the eight principal Naga kings. He symbolizes the perilous duality of serpents in Hindu tradition—guardians of treasures and underworld realms, yet harbingers of death and renewal—often invoked in rituals to avert snakebites and honor naga deities.

In Hindu Mythology

Identity and Role

Takshaka is a prominent , or serpent king, in , revered as a chief among the Nagas in key texts such as the and the . He is depicted as a powerful and venomous entity, embodying the formidable nature of the Naga race with attributes including swift movement and the ability to traverse realms, often symbolizing the hidden forces of nature and the . His primary residences are associated with the , located in the region near modern-day , and the broader area, where he is said to have dwelt with his followers before key events in the epics. In the Mahabharata's , Takshaka is explicitly described as inhabiting the , a vast woodland protected due to his presence. Takshaka holds significant associations as a close friend and ally of , the Vedic god of thunder and king of the devas, who safeguards Takshaka's domain against threats. As a ruler over Naga tribes, he symbolizes the guardianship of subterranean treasures, palaces, and mystical realms in the netherworld, reflecting the Nagas' role as custodians of hidden wealth and knowledge in . Initial references to Takshaka appear in the Mahabharata's , portraying him as the illustrious Naga king whose alliance with underscores his elevated status among divine and serpentine beings. The similarly positions him as a preeminent serpent chief, emphasizing his authority and peril in narratives of cosmic order. These depictions highlight Takshaka's enduring role in major legends, such as the burning of the and the demise of King Parikshit, without which the epic's unfolding would lack key motivations.

Family and Associations

Takshaka is depicted as the son of the sage , a prominent in , and his wife , who is considered the mother of all serpents and Nagas. This parentage places him firmly within the divine serpentine lineage originating from these ancient figures, as detailed in epic and Puranic texts. As a key member of the Naga hierarchy, Takshaka shares sibling relationships with other renowned Naga kings, including , who serves as the king of the Nagas and is famously associated with , and (also known as Ananta), the eternal serpent that supports during his cosmic repose. These brothers, all offspring of and , represent the foundational figures of the Naga clan, embodying the serpentine world's royal and protective roles in mythological narratives. Takshaka is the father of Ashvasena, a notable Naga offspring who upholds the family's vengeful and resilient traits in traditional accounts. His consort remains unnamed in primary sources, identified only as a female Naga whose lineage reinforces Takshaka's ties to the broader serpentine realm. While Takshaka's primary identity is serpentine, certain Puranic traditions suggest distant connections to human dynasties like the line through mythological intermingling of Nagas and mortals, though these links are secondary to his Naga heritage.

Burning of Khandava Forest

The god , afflicted by indigestion after consuming vast quantities of clarified butter during King Shvetaki's twelve-year sacrifice, sought a remedy from , who advised him to devour the teeming with creatures. To achieve this, approached and , granting them divine weapons—a bow called to and a discus to —to prevent escapes and counter Indra's protective interventions, as the forest sheltered Takshaka, a close friend of the storm god. As the resident king of the Nagas in Khandava, Takshaka had journeyed to prior to the conflagration, thus avoiding the flames himself. , honoring his longstanding friendship with Takshaka, unleashed torrential rains and summoned celestials to aid the forest's denizens in fleeing the blaze, but Arjuna's unerring arrows formed an impenetrable barrier, piercing birds, animals, and other escapees while countering the deluge. This alliance between Takshaka and marked an early point of contention with the , sowing seeds of enmity that would endure. During the inferno, Takshaka's wife—a powerful and daughter of a Naga king—perished while attempting to shield their son Ashvasena by swallowing him, only for to slay her with a precise ; Ashvasena briefly escaped through Indra's gale but was later cursed by , , and Krishna for his deception. The loss of his wife fueled Takshaka's grudge against , though Ashvasena survived to seek vengeance years later by allying with in the , disguising himself as an aimed at Arjuna's neck; Krishna thwarted the strike by sinking their into the , causing the shaft to merely dislodge Arjuna's . These events are detailed in the 's (sections 225–230), which narrates the forest's destruction, and (section 90), recounting Ashvasena's retaliatory ploy.

Theft of the Earrings

In the , the legend of the theft of the earrings highlights Takshaka's cunning as a Naga king interacting with the human realm. , a devoted disciple of the sage Veda—who himself was a of the renowned Ayoda-Dhaumya—was completing his period of study when his guru's wife requested a pair of earrings as her guru-dakshina, or teacher's fee. She instructed him to obtain them from Queen Madayanti, the wife of King Paushya, within a strict deadline of the fourth day to ensure they could be used in a sacred . Uttanka promptly set out and approached King Paushya, who, after initial hesitation due to a prior that had temporarily turned him into a cannibal, directed him to the queen. Queen Madayanti, recognizing the legitimacy of Uttanka's request, willingly parted with her precious earrings—described as jewels that granted the wearer freedom from hunger, thirst, and aging—but warned him of their allure to beings, particularly the serpents who coveted them. As Uttanka journeyed back, Takshaka, disguised as a naked beggar, seized the opportunity when Uttanka briefly set the earrings down to fetch water, snatching them and fleeing in his true serpentine form into a hole leading to the subterranean realm of Nagaloka. Determined to fulfill his duty, pursued Takshaka into the Naga domain, where he encountered divine intervention. A noble youth—revealed to be —provided him with a swift horse that was actually the fire god in disguise. By blowing into the horse's ears as instructed, Uttanka unleashed a blazing inferno that scorched the Naga world, compelling Takshaka to emerge and plead for mercy, returning the earrings. In this version, Uttanka accepted the restitution without further enmity at the time, though the encounter underscored Takshaka's thievish instincts and the precarious balance between human sages and the Naga underworld. He arrived just in time to present the earrings to his guru's wife, earning her blessings for his perseverance. This episode, detailed in the Adi Parva's Paushya Parva (Section 54 in some editions), illustrates themes of loyalty to one's teacher, the perils of divine artifacts crossing realms, and the Nagas' opportunistic nature, setting a precedent for Takshaka's antagonistic role in broader snake lore without invoking later conflicts.

Death of Parikshit

King Parikshit, grandson of Arjuna and heir to the Pandava throne, was renowned for his valor but met his end through a grave act of indiscretion during a hunt. Exhausted and parched after pursuing a deer, he encountered the rishi Shamika, who was immersed in deep meditation under a vow of silence. Frustrated by the sage's lack of response to his repeated questions about water and the deer's direction, Parikshit impulsively garlanded Shamika with a dead snake taken from his arrow, thereby insulting the ascetic. The incident was witnessed by Shringin, the young son of Shamika, who returned from his studies enraged upon hearing the details from a companion. In a fit of righteous fury, Shringin invoked the power of his ascetic penance, touched water, and pronounced a upon : within seven days, the king would meet his death by the venomous bite of Takshaka, the formidable king of the Nagas. Shamika, upon regaining his senses, lamented the curse but could not revoke it, as it had been empowered by his son's spiritual merit; he instead sent a disciple to warn Parikshit of the impending doom. Takshaka learned of the curse through Naga informants who overheard the pronouncement, and he eagerly embraced the opportunity for retribution, possibly fueled by lingering resentment from the earlier destruction of the where many Nagas perished. Forewarned, fortified himself against the threat by retreating to a grand palace on an island in the , encircled by deep waters and manned by vigilant guards skilled in repelling serpents; the structure was further safeguarded with protective mantras and herbs to neutralize poison. Despite these measures, on the seventh day, Takshaka orchestrated his approach by enlisting fellow Nagas disguised as ascetics bearing offerings of fruit, , and water to the king. Concealing himself within one particularly inviting fruit by assuming the form of a tiny worm, Takshaka evaded detection and was presented among the gifts. Parikshit, selecting the fruit to eat, bit into it, whereupon Takshaka swiftly uncoiled, wrapped around the king's neck, and struck with his fangs at the precise fated moment. Meanwhile, the sage Kasyapa, a Brahmana rishi intending to cure Parikshit of the poison with his antidote on the seventh day, was met en route by Takshaka. Takshaka demonstrated the potency of his venom by withering and then reviving a banian tree, then bribed Kasyapa with immense wealth to abandon his mission, which Kasyapa accepted and returned home. With no cure forthcoming, Parikshit's body succumbed rapidly to the lethal venom, marking the fulfillment of Shringin's curse and the transition to the Kali Yuga. Devastated by his father's sudden demise, Parikshit's son pledged vengeance against Takshaka and the entire Naga race, vowing to eradicate them through a grand sacrificial rite. This tragic episode, emblematic of retribution's inexorable pull and the fragility of royal hubris, underscores themes of dharma's consequences in ancient narratives. The account appears in the 's (sections 41–44) and is recounted with similar details in the (Canto 1, chapters 17–19).

Sarpa Satra Sacrifice

To avenge the death of his father , King , with the assistance of the sage as a sadasya and other learned , conducted the , a grand snake sacrifice designed to eradicate the entire Naga race. The ritual, presided over by ritwiks including Chandabhargava as Hotri, Kautsa as Udgatri, as Brahmana, and Sarngarva and as Adhvaryus, involved chanting powerful mantras that irresistibly drew all snakes from across the world into the sacrificial fire. As libations of were poured, countless serpents fell headlong into the flames, their bodies consumed in a blaze that produced rivers of fat and marrow, filling the air with a foul stench. Takshaka, the primary target of the sacrifice due to his role in Parikshit's demise, sought refuge in the heavenly abode of upon learning of the ritual. Concealing himself in Indra's upper garment, Takshaka believed himself protected, as Indra had assured him of safety, stating that the Grandsire () had been pacified on his behalf. However, when the priests invoked Takshaka's name in the mantras, the force of the sacrifice began pulling him inexorably toward the fire, even from . Alarmed by the prospect of the curse extending to him, Indra hastily cast Takshaka aside and fled to his own quarters, leaving the serpent dangling in mid-air, trembling on the edge of the flames. The sage Astika, a young and grandson of the Naga king —born to the sage Jaratkaru and the Naga princess —arrived at the sacrifice forewarned by his uncle of the impending doom to their race. Demonstrating profound knowledge of the and Shastras, Astika impressed and the assembled sages, earning the king's promise of a boon. Astika then requested that the be halted immediately, invoking the boon to spare the remaining snakes, including the vulnerable Takshaka who hovered above the fire. , bound by his word and moved by Astika's wisdom, commanded the ritual to cease, thus rescuing Takshaka and preventing the total annihilation of the Nagas. The resulted in the destruction of a vast number of snakes, significantly diminishing the Naga population, but Astika's intervention ensured the survival of Takshaka and others, fulfilling a that the sacrifice would not exterminate the race entirely. This event frames the narration of the itself, as the sage Vaishampayana recited the epic to and his court during the ongoing ritual before its abrupt end. The account is detailed in the of the , specifically sections 53 through 58 in traditional numbering.

In Buddhist Tradition

As a Naga King

In Buddhist tradition, Takshaka holds the status of one of the Eight Great Naga Kings, known as Nagarajas, who are revered as powerful serpent deities within the cosmological hierarchy. These kings are frequently depicted as part of the divine assembly attending the Buddha's teachings, symbolizing the integration of pre-existing serpent lore into the Buddhist pantheon. One common enumeration from Mahāyāna texts like the includes Nanda, Upananda, Sagara, , Takshaka, Manasvin, Anavatapta, and Utpalaka, with Takshaka typically ranked as the fifth, underscoring his prominent yet balanced position among these guardians of the natural and subterranean realms. Note that lists vary across traditions; for example, Tibetan classifications may include different names such as , Padma, , and others. As a Naga King, Takshaka embodies attributes of immense power and duality, portrayed as a serpentine being capable of flight, venomous potency, and dominion over waters and hidden treasures, reflecting the broader Naga role in controlling elemental forces and protecting subterranean wealth. In tantric depictions, he appears as a red-hued serpent with a svastika on his hood, often in a posture of reverence with folded hands, associating him with protective energies and invocations. These qualities position him as a benevolent cosmological figure, distinct from more adversarial portrayals elsewhere, emphasizing guardianship over chaotic natural forces. Takshaka's specific role extends to serving as a divine protector of sacred sites, notably as the appointed Nāgarāja guardian of Vārāṇasī (Benares), where he oversees spiritual integrity in tantric Buddhist contexts such as the cremation grounds and directional mandalas. He is said to reside in opulent underworld palaces within the Naga realm, realms of beauty and peril beneath the earth or waters, from which he emerges to safeguard Buddhist practitioners and sites. This protective function aligns with his inclusion in texts like the , where he joins the assembly of dragon kings to affirm the universality of the Buddha's teachings, and in tantric works such as the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa, highlighting his cosmological significance.

Role in Buddhist Texts

In Buddhist scriptures, Takshaka appears prominently as one of the eight great dragon kings (nāgarājas), semi-divine serpent beings who attend 's assembly and demonstrate submission to his teachings. In the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra), a foundational Mahāyāna text, Takshaka is one of the eight dragon kings listed alongside Nanda, Upananda, Sāgara, Vāsuki, Manasvin, Anavatapta, and Utpalaka as part of the vast congregation at Rājagṛha, where each king arrives with hundreds of thousands of followers. These nāgas gaze in astonishment at 's miraculous display of a ray of light illuminating the ten directions, symbolizing the universal reach of the . Following this, the dragon kings, including Takshaka, join other assemblies in praising through verses that extol the kings and the profundity of enlightenment, underscoring their reverence and integration into the Buddhist . Takshaka's interactions with enlightened figures highlight themes of authority and protection. In the Lotus Sutra, the eight dragon kings collectively vow to safeguard the sūtra's teachings after its exposition, scattering jeweled flowers and committing to defend the against hindrances, reflecting the Buddha's subduing of primal forces. This submission illustrates the conversion of potentially fierce nāgas—embodiments of worldly power and peril—into devoted guardians, a motif echoed in broader Mahāyāna narratives where nāgas offer treasures or shelter to bodhisattvas. In tantric texts such as the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa (a 6th-century Kriyā ), Takshaka attends Mañjuśrī's teachings as a nāgarāja, further emphasizing his role in esoteric assemblies. Additionally, in the Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra (chapter 17 of the Candragarbha), Takshaka serves as a divine protector of Vārāṇasī, associating him with the safeguarding of sacred sites and the spread of Buddhist doctrine. Doctrinally, Takshaka symbolizes the transformation of venomous delusions—representing ego, attachment, and primal instincts—into protective wisdom within Buddhism. His presence in the Lotus Sutra audience exemplifies the sūtra's emphasis on the universality of enlightenment, where even subterranean nāgas attain insight into impermanence and karma, mirroring the Buddha's taming of nāgas in earlier traditions. In Pāli Canon references to nāga kings, such as the Nāga Saṃyutta of the Saṃyutta Nikāya, similar serpent lords listen to discourses on these principles and pledge allegiance, with Takshaka embodying this archetype as a fierce being redeemed through the Dharma's power. This role underscores Buddhism's capacity to convert adversarial forces into allies, promoting harmony between the human and subterranean realms. In later tantric works like the Vajravārāhī-sādhana and Ḍākārṇava, Takshaka appears as a red serpent deity in maṇḍalas, guarding directional realms and invoking rituals for subduing inner poisons, thus linking his narrative to meditative practices for ego transcendence.

In Other Traditions

East Asian Adaptations

In East Asian mythology, particularly in Chinese and Japanese Buddhist traditions, Takshaka is identified as one of the Eight Great Dragon Kings (Hachi-dai Ryū-ō or Bā dà lóng wáng), powerful naga deities who protect the and control natural elements like rain and rivers. This adaptation stems from the transmission of Indian naga lore through Buddhist texts such as the , where Takshaka and the other dragon kings pledge to safeguard the sutra's teachings.

Symbolism and Legacy

In , Takshaka embodies themes of vengeance, s, and rebirth, as exemplified by his fatal bite on King , which was foretold through a and led to cycles of retribution in the epics. This serpentine figure highlights the consequences of past actions, with his role in the sacrifice underscoring divine justice and the inescapability of fate, drawing from narratives in the . In Buddhist traditions, Takshaka represents transformation and , often depicted as a naga king safeguarding sacred realms, reflecting the broader motif of serpents as guardians against harm while symbolizing renewal through shedding. The duality of destruction and fertility in Takshaka's serpentine imagery arises from nagas' association with both destructive wrath—such as forest burnings and royal deaths—and life-giving forces tied to water and earth, as seen in Puranic descriptions of naga domains. Takshaka's cultural impact extends to visual arts and oral traditions, inspiring intricate temple carvings where naga figures, including guardians akin to Takshaka, serve as protective motifs in Indian and Southeast Asian . For instance, stone naga sculptures from 12th-13th century temples depict coiled serpents as fierce yet benevolent protectors of natural elements like rivers, echoing Takshaka's epic ferocity. In Southeast Asian contexts, such as Cambodian and Thai wats, multi-headed naga balustrades symbolize cosmic guardianship, with Takshaka's influencing these representations of serpents as threshold deities warding off . Folk tales across further perpetuate Takshaka's legacy through stories of naga kings meting out justice, while modern occasionally reinterprets his vengeance in novels exploring mythological retribution, though archaeological evidence for direct Takshaka remains limited. Takshaka's enduring legacy shapes concepts of in Hindu epics, where his actions propel narratives of karma and moral reckoning, as in the Mahabharata's exploration of curses leading to rebirth and resolution. Ecologically, this symbolism manifests in Hindu festivals like Nag Panchami, which venerates serpents for their role in and , commemorating the cessation of snake sacrifices prompted by Takshaka's lineage and promoting reverence for reptiles as embodiments of natural balance. Puranic cross-references suggest untapped potential for deeper symbolic analysis, but current sources emphasize his influence on ethical themes over exhaustive material evidence.
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.