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The Clean Network is a U.S. government-led, bi-partisan effort announced by then U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo in August 2020 to address what it describes as "the long-term threat to data privacy, security, human rights and principled collaboration posed to the free world from authoritarian malign actors." Its promoters state that it has resulted in an "alliance of democracies and companies," "based on democratic values."[1] According to the Trump administration, the Clean Network is intended to implement internationally accepted digital trust standards across a coalition of trusted partners.[2][3][4][5]
In December 2020, the United States announced that more than 60 nations, representing more than two thirds of the world's gross domestic product, and 200 telecom companies, have publicly committed to the principles of The Clean Network.[6][7][8] This alliance of democracies includes 27 of the 30 NATO members; 26 of the 27 EU members, 31 of the 37 OECD nations, 11 of the 12 Three Seas nations as well as Japan, Israel, Australia, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Canada, New Zealand, Vietnam and India.[9]
The term "Clean Network" was coined by U.S. Undersecretary of State Keith Krach, who initially led the initiative, which includes officials in the Treasury Department, the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, the National Security Council, and the Commerce Department. According to Bloomberg, Krach is credited with coordinating a variety of national and regional approaches to shape a more unified international project, relying on trust more than compulsion—a notable change in tone after years in which the Trump administration pursued a go-it-alone, "America First" strategy.[8] On April 22, 2021, David Ignatius of the Washington Post stated that Krach's Clean Network provides continuity with the Biden administration's desire to get democracies together on the same playing field on technology.[10]
Krach described the Huawei effort as a “beachhead” in a wider battle to unite against Chinese economic pressure in everything from investment to strategic materials that bears the hallmarks of 'good old fashioned' diplomacy, in contrast to a somewhat more confrontational style at the beginning of the administration.[8] The Wall Street Journal wrote that the Clean Network will be perhaps the "most enduring foreign-policy legacy" of the last four years.[11] Chinese foreign ministry spokesman Zhao Lijian referred to the Clean Network as a "US surveillance network" and "consolidation of US digital hegemony".[12]
Researchers have noted that the announcement of the Clean Network was met with indifference in many major European countries, among concerns that the initiative would fragment the internet, with many also skeptical of US claims that Huawei poses an uncontrollable security threat. Several European countries in the Clean Network have since allowed Huawei to build their non-core 5G networks.[13][14] A December 2021 op-ed by historian Arthur L. Herman and former U.S. national security advisor Robert C. O'Brien noted that only eight countries joined the US-led ban on Huawei's 5G equipment, compared to the more than 90 countries that signed up with Huawei, including several NATO members and regional allies.[15] Herman and O'Brien argued that the US have not offered a viable alternative to Huawei's network, and failed to utilize wide spectrum options.
On August 5, 2020, U.S. Secretary of StateMike Pompeo launched the Clean Network, which is the State Department’s comprehensive approach to address what it sees as the long-term threats to data privacy, security, and trusted collaboration posed by malign state actors. It is rooted in internationally accepted "Digital Trust Standards" and represents the execution of a multi-year, enduring strategy built on a coalition of trusted partners. According to Pompeo, the Clean Network emphasizes the importance of securing the entire 5G information technology ecosystem, including all extensions and accessories. The United States government sees these efforts as part of its commitment to an open, interoperable, reliable, and secure global Internet based on shared democratic values and respect for human rights.[16][17]
The State Department looked for a range of commitments from countries and foreign telecom providers to build their 5G networks without Huawei or ZTE equipment, and offered financing from the Exim Bank or USAID for Ericsson and Nokia equipment.[18][19] The State Department pressed countries and firms to sign MoUs and make official statements supporting the initiative.[16] The EU formed a task force on 5G network security in March 2019, which released standards in January 2020, known as the EU Toolbox on 5G Cybersecurity,[20] that did not explicitly ban Hauwei equipment, but instead suggested each country should evaluate high-risk suppliers. Countries that have committed to build networks implementing the EU Toolbox standards are counted as countries participating in the Clean Network.[21]
U.S. Undersecretary of State Krach in Brasília announcing Brazil becoming the 50th country to join Clean Network
According to Bloomberg, the Clean Network effort to create a united economic front has similarities with George Kennan's “long telegram” of 1946 to the Soviet Union. David Fidler, adjunct senior fellow for cybersecurity and global health at the Council on Foreign Relations, made this claim in a blog post in 2020. Kennan formulated the Cold War strategy of containment, which the Chinese claim is now being used against them.[8]
Under Secretary Krach traveled to Asia, Europe, South America, and the Middle East to secure commitments from more governments to join the U.S. effort. "The success of the Clean Network has taken all the momentum away from Huawei," Krach said. "When we looked at this six months ago it looked like Huawei was unstoppable."[4][22]
The Clean Network and the EU 5G Clean Toolbox, the U.S. government claims, have paved the way toward protecting citizens’ privacy, companies’ intellectual property, and countries’ national security from "aggressive intrusions" by malign actors, such as the Chinese Communist Party and its surveillance and data collection tools, such as Huawei. "Countries and companies are more and more asking the question, 'Who do we trust?'" Krach said. "The answer’s coming back, it’s certainly not Huawei because they’re the backbone of the Chinese Communist Party’s surveillance state."[4]
The "Clean Network" brand replaced the original name of "Economic Prosperity Network" in which trusted democracies and the private sector form an economic alliance. It was conceived to have three components from initiatives that were already underway: a Clean Network for communications that is free from untrusted vendors; a Blue Dot Network for global infrastructure investment to counter China's "Belt and Road" initiative; and an Energy Resource Governance Initiative to secure supplies of rare earth metals and other strategic minerals.[8]
U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi criticized Huawei's 5G rollout in European countries in 2020.
February 14, 2020 at the 2020 Munich Security Conference, U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi warned European countries they will "choose autocracy over democracy" if they let Huawei take part in rolling out 5G technology, in a sign of the bipartisan US political pressure over the Chinese company.[23]
February 18, 2020, at a press conference in London, Huawei's president of carrier business Ryan Ding announced, "We have 91 commercial 5G contracts worldwide, including 47 from Europe."
March 3, 2020 Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer (D-NY) led a bipartisan group of senators in urging Parliament to reconsider the Johnson government's decision to allow Huawei to supply some of the United Kingdom's 5G telecommunications structure.[24]
May 13, 2020, the Center for Strategic and International Studies publishes Clean Network's digital trust standard.[25]
May 18, 2020, the "5G Trifecta" announced which represents the onshoring of TSMC's semiconductors, locking down on Huawei's advanced semiconductors and the global roll out of the Clean Path stratagem.[26]
June 3, 2020, Canadian major telcos effectively lock Huawei out of 5G build. The decision of Bell and TELUS to shift to Ericsson and Nokia has left Huawei with no major carrier customers in Canada.[27]
June 10, 2020, Krach's bipartisan semiconductor bill, Chips for America Act, is introduced by Senators Warner and Cornyn.[28]José María Álvarez-Pallete, presidente of Telefónica Latínoamericana
June 24, 2020, Telefónica CEO and Chairman José María declares, "Telefónica is proud to be a 5G Clean Network company. Telefónica Spain and O2 (UK) are fully clean networks, and Telefónica Deutschland (Germany) and Vivo (Brazil) will be soon without equipment from any untrusted vendors."[29][30]
June 25, 2020, Under Secretary of State Krach welcomes the Czech Republic, Norway, Poland, Estonia, Romania, Denmark, Greece, New Zealand, Japan, Australia, Israel, and Latvia as members of Clean Network.[31]
June 29, 2020, Nokia and Ericsson chosen as Singapore's 5G network providers.[32]
July 4, 2020, Under Secretary Krach ties China's surveillance state with genocide and slave labor in Xinjiang on Cavuto Live.[33]
July 14, 2020, the United Kingdom announces plans to ban Huawei from future 5G networks. Specifically, UK mobile providers are being banned from buying new Huawei 5G equipment after December 31.[34]
July 22, 2020, French authorities limited Huawei by telling telecoms operators planning to buy Huawei equipment that they would not be able to renew licenses for the gear once they expire in 2028.[35]
August 5, 2020 - Announcement of the expansion of the Clean Network to include Clean Carrier, Clean Store, Clean Apps, Clean Cloud, and Clean Cable.[36]
August 10, 2020 - The Clean Network grew to 30 Clean Countries and Territories along with some of largest telecommunications companies, including Orange, Jio, Singtel, Telstra, SK, KT and all telcos in Canada, Norway, Vietnam, and Taiwan.[37]
August 11, 2020, U.S. State Department called on its allies and partners in government and industry around the world to join the growing tide to secure data from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)'s surveillance state and China's Great Firewall and said “Momentum for The Clean Network is growing.”[29]
August 24, 2020, India phases out equipment from Chinese companies from its telecom's networks over an escalating border dispute.[38]
The US delegation arrives in Taiwan to discuss The Clean Network.September 18, 2020, Krach became the highest-ranking State Department official since 1979 to visit Taiwan. He was there to represent the United States at the funeral of former president Lee. Krach welcomed Taiwan to the Clean Network with Taiwan's President Tsai. "Taiwan is a great partner, a great friend," Krach said. "They're a role model for capitalism and democracy in that part of the world."[39]
September 22, 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach begins European Clean Network tour including EU and NATO headquarters, to discuss the move toward clean 5G infrastructure and the goal of building a Transatlantic Clean Network.
September 28, 2020, Krach and Austrian Federal Minister Elisabeth Köstinger meet to discuss the U.S.-Austria partnership and multiple areas of economic collaboration through the Clean Network and the EU 5G Clean Toolbox.
September 30, 2020 – U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach and EU Commissioner Thierry Breton issued a joint statement on the synergies between the Clean Network and the EU 5G Clean Toolbox. Toolbox meets criteria for being part of the Clean Network.
September 30, 2020 – NATO seeks a 5G Clean NATO Network due to the strategic importance of having a non-fractured alliance.[40]
October 1, 2020, Portugal commits to implementing the EU 5G Clean Toolbox, joins Clean Network.[41]
October 2, 2020, Spain commits to implementing the EU 5G Clean Toolbox, joins Clean Network.[41]
Albanian Prime Minister Edi Rama and US Under Secretary of State Keith Krach in Clean Network press conferenceOctober 3, 2020, Albania: Prime Minister Edi Rama stated, "Albania sees its role in the region not just as a constructive role in building peace and strengthening dialogue, but as a proactive role in the 5G Clean Path." In addition to Albania's commitment to 5G Clean Path, Under Secretary Krach and Albania's Finance Minister Anila Denaj signed a Memorandum of Economic Cooperation, laying the foundation on 5G security.[42]
October 4, 2020, Germany prepares legislation that included two-phase reviews in building its 5G network.[43]
October 8, 2020, Luxembourg joins Clean Network.[44]
October 9, 2020, Belgium announce replacement of Huawei, joins the Clean Network. The Belgian capital, Brussels, is home to the European Union's executive body and had been 100% reliant on Chinese vendors for its radio networks. Belgium has now awarded their 5G contracts to Nokia instead of Huawei to complete their transition to a Clean Country.[45]
October 14, 2020 – Clean Network grew to over 40 Clean Countries, and 50 Clean Telcos.
October 17, 2020 – Clean Network added companies including Oracle, HP, Reliance Jio, NEC, Fujitsu, Cisco, NTT, SoftBank and VMware.[46]
October 20, 2020, Cyprus joins Clean Network. U.S. Undersecretary of State Krach and Cypriot Minister for Digital Policy Kyriacos Kokkinos sign a memorandum of understanding regarding "Clean" technologies in Cyprus.[47]
October 21, 2020 – Three Seas Initiative announced support for the Clean Network at annual conference in Estonia.
October 23, 2020 – US Under Secretary of State Krach signed three Clean Network memorandums of understanding with Prime Ministers in Bulgaria, Kosovo and North Macedonia.[48]
October 23, 2020 – Slovakia signs Joint Declaration on 5G Security, joins Clean Network.[49]
October 31, 2020 – Clean Network grew to 49 country members, representing two-thirds of global economic output.[50]
US Under Secretary of State Krach clasping hands with Ecuadorian President Lenín MorenoNovember 7, 2020 – Krach begins Latin American Clean Network tour to Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Panama, and the Dominican Republic to meet with government officials and business leaders.
November 10, 2020 – Brazil joins Clean Network as the 50th member.[2]
November 22, 2020 – Ecuador and the Dominican Republic joined The Clean Network.[7]
November 25, 2020 – Huawei sells off Honor phone business to a state-led consortium.[51]
December 23, 2020 – Ukraine announces, intent to join Clean Network because "joining the Clean Network will pave the way for more private sector investment in Ukraine, in particular the innovation sector."[52]
January 12, 2021 – Nauru announces joining The Clean Network.[53]
January 14, 2021 – Palau joins The Clean Network.[54]
January 15, 2021 – The European nation of Georgia signs MOU to join The Clean Network.[55]
May 22, 2021 – In Ethiopia, a Vodafone-led group with financial backing of the International Development Finance Corp wins contract to build a nationwide 5G-capable wireless network against Huawei.[56]
April 12, 2021 – Harvard Business School published "The Clean Network and the Future of Global Technology Competition."[57]
The United States issued warnings about the risks of reliance on Chinese telecommunication equipment, but acceptance of Huawei products increased around the world. According to Under Secretary Krach in late 2020, "when we looked at this six months ago it looked like Huawei was unstoppable. It looked like they were going to run the table in Europe and everywhere else.” At a February 18, 2020 press conference in London, Huawei's president of carrier business Ryan Ding announced, "We have 91 commercial 5G contracts worldwide, including 47 from Europe."[58] Following the U.S. government's campaign to reduce international reliance on Chinese-made telecommunications equipment, Huawei's deals outside of China decreased from 91 to 12.[59][58]
According to the United States, Chinese national intelligence laws can be used to force companies like Huawei, ZTE, and other Chinese telecommunication equipment vendors to turn over any information or data upon the request of the Chinese Communist Party government. The U.S. State Department argues that these laws thus make Huawei and similar vendors "an arm of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) surveillance state."[60]
Huawei was founded in 1987 by Ren Zhengfei, a veteran of the People's Liberation Army's engineering corps. Many of the company's crucial first contracts were with the Chinese army. In 1996, the Chinese government banned competition from foreign suppliers, and Huawei may have received a $30 billion line of credit from the China Development Bank, along with other state-backed financing.[61] This gave the company control over the Chinese domestic market and enabled it to fuel rapid international expansion by offering discounts. Forced technology transfers from foreign companies, and several cases of technology theft also contributed the company's growth, including the theft of router software from Cisco and a jury finding that Huawei committed industrial espionage against T-Mobile.
According to the United States, the rise of Huawei was the fulfillment of decades of careful planning. Supported by the CCP, Huawei benefited from state protection against foreign competitors, billions in funding from the Chinese government, as well as forced technology transfers and well documented instances of outright technology theft. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said, "Huawei was a trojan horse for Chinese intelligence and the CCP surveillance-state."[1]
Ren Zhengfei, founder of Huawei
The Chinese government rejects the accusation of bullying. In July, after U.S. regulators labeled Huawei and ZTE Corp. as threats to national security, a Foreign Ministry spokesman accused the U.S. of "abusing state power" to hurt Chinese companies "without any evidence." Huawei's U.S. website says: "Everything we develop and deliver to our customers is secure, trustworthy, and this has been consistent over a track record of 30 years." ZTE says it "attaches utmost importance to our customers’ security values."[8]
The U.S. claims that by building an alliance of democracies built on "democratic values" embodied in the Trust Standards, it has garnered international support and bipartisan backing.[1]
On April 12, 2021, Harvard Business School published a case study on "The Clean Network and the Future of Global Technology Competition," noting that "the controversial program to some heralded a new era of multilateral, democratic governance of the internet and to others augured a "splinternet" where market participants and countries had to choose between the U.S. and China."[57]
Clean 5G Infrastructure does not use any transmission, control, computing, or storage equipment from untrusted IT vendors, such as Huawei and ZTE, which are required by Chinese law to comply with directives of the CCP.[citation needed]
The Clean Path requires all network traffic from 5G standalone networks entering or exiting U.S. diplomatic facilities to transit only through equipment provided by trusted vendors to guard against untrusted vendors by blocking their ability to intercept and disseminate sensitive information to malign actors.
Secretary of State Mike Pompeo describes the 5G Clean Path on April 29, 2020
As first described by Secretary Pompeo on April 29, 2020, the 5G Clean Path is an attempt to create an end-to-end communication path that does not use any equipment from untrusted IT vendors. This includes transmission, control, computing, or storage equipment. The concern raised by Secretary Pompeo is that those vendors are required to comply with directives of the Chinese Communist Party, including possibly revealing private or confidential information. Similarly, mobile data traffic entering U.S. diplomatic systems will be subject to stringent requirements to protect its security.
The United States of America seeks to ensure untrusted People's Republic of China carriers are not directly connected with U.S. telecommunications networks because the U.S. believes that such companies pose a danger to U.S. national security.
The U.S. believes that PRC apps in mobile phone app stores threaten its citizens' "privacy, proliferate viruses, censor content, and spread propaganda and disinformation." President Trump previously signed two Executive Orders addressing alleged threats posed by TikTok and WeChat, on the basis that TikTok and WeChat capture vast swathes of data from their users and are subject to Chinese jurisdiction – which may lead to them being compelled to turn over private information to the CCP. The U.S. stated its goal to protect American people's sensitive personal and business information on their mobile phones from exploitation and theft.
The United States defined "Clean Apps" as a program to prevent untrusted smartphone manufacturers from pre-installing or marketing untrusted apps on their apps store. The United States Department of State claimed that Huawei, an arm of the PRC surveillance state is trading on the innovations and reputations of leading U.S. and foreign companies. The department recommended that these companies should remove their apps from Huawei's app store to ensure they are not partnering with a human rights abuser.
The United States defined the "Clean Cloud" as an effort "to prevent U.S. citizens' most sensitive personal information and businesses' most valuable intellectual property, including COVID-19 vaccine research, from being stored and processed on cloud-based systems built or operated by untrusted vendors, such as Alibaba, Baidu, China Mobile, China Telecom, and Tencent."
The United States defined the "Clean Cable" as an effort to "ensure the undersea cables connecting [the United States] to the global internet are not subverted for intelligence gathering by the PRC at hyper scale." The U.S. also announced a goal to work with other nations to ensure that undersea cables in other locations around the world are built by trusted vendors.
In December 2020, the United States announced more than 60 nations, representing two-thirds of the world's gross domestic product and 180 telecom companies have publicly committed to the principles of The Clean Network.[62][8]
"Clean Telcos" include Reliance Jio in India, Orange in France, Telefónica in Spain, O2 in the United Kingdom, Telstra in Australia, SK Telecom and KT in South Korea, NTT Docomo and SoftBank in Japan, Hrvatski Telekom in Croatia, Tele2 in Estonia, Cosmote in Greece, Three in Ireland, LMT in Latvia, Ziggo in the Netherlands, Plus in Poland, Telefónica Deutschland in Germany, Vivo in Brazil, Chunghwa in Taiwan, TDC in Denmark, O2 in the United Kingdom, Singtel, Starhub, and M1 in Singapore and all the major telcos in Canada, Japan, Taiwan, Luxembourg, and the United States.[7][30][62]
The ‘Trust Principle’ is based on democratic values which includes respect for the rule of law, property, press, human rights, and national sovereignty, protection of labor and the environment, and standards for transparency, integrity, and reciprocity.[63] Under Secretary Krach deployed the “Trust Principle” doctrine building the Clean Network Alliance of Democracies to protect global 5G infrastructure and creating a usable model for overcoming authoritarian economic threats.[64][65] "Trust Principle" doctrine serves as a new basis for 21st century international relations and as a peaceful alternative to China's “Power Principle,” of intimidation, retaliation, coercion, and retribution.[66][63]Leon Panetta, the Secretary of Defense under President Barack Obama said, “The Clean Network pioneered a trust-based model for countering authoritarian aggression across all areas of techno-economic competition.”[66][67]
The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) assembled a group of 25 experts from Asian, European, and U.S. companies and research centers. Their stated goal was to develop criteria to assess the trustworthiness of telecommunications equipment suppliers. The group produced a set of "Criteria for Security and Trust in Telecommunications Networks and Services" that are believed to provide governments and network operators additional tools to evaluate trustworthiness and security of equipment and suppliers, in tandem with the European Union's 5G Toolbox and the Prague Proposals.[25]
In May 2019, government officials from more than 30 countries, met in Prague with representatives from the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and industry. They discussed national security, economic, and commercial considerations that must be part of each country's evaluation of 5G vendors. They produced a document called the Prague Proposals that contain recommendations and principles for nations as they design, construct, and administer their 5G infrastructure.[68]
On September 30, 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach and EU Commissioner Thierry Breton issued a joint statement on the synergies between the Clean Network and the EU 5G Clean Toolbox.[69]
The 5G cybersecurity Toolbox was released by the European Commission with EU Member States. At the time of release the EC noted that European 5G suppliers are likely to comply with its directives. The Toolbox provides definitions and measurements on how to avoid the use of "high-risk" suppliers in the network. This is intended to include the Radio Access Network. Since January 2020, multiple EU Member States have announced steps to fulfill the 5G cybersecurity Toolbox's recommendations.
In March 2019, a number of EU the Heads of State or Governments called for a joint approach to the security of 5G networks. Following this, the European Commission adopted the Commission Recommendation on the Cybersecurity of 5G, which set out a number of actions at national and Union level to strengthen the cybersecurity of 5G networks.[70]
The proponents of the Clean Network state that Clean Network partnerships are grounded in democratic values that form the basis of trust: integrity, accountability, transparency, reciprocity, and respect for the rule of law, property, labor, sovereignty, human rights, and the planet. This creates a “high-integrity, level playing field for reliable collaboration with the understanding that there is no prosperity without liberty.”[1]
A key tenet for the Clean Network's Trust Principles is human rights. Huawei is allegedly the backbone of the CCP's surveillance state and is accused of assisting human rights abuses against the people in the mass-detention of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang internment camps and employing forced Uyghur labor in its supply chain.[4][71]
U.S. Undersecretary of State Keith Krach and EU Commissioner for Internal Market Mr. Thierry Breton meet on 30 September 2020.
On September 30, 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach and EU Commissioner for Internal Market Thierry Breton met in Brussels to discuss cooperation in securing telecommunications infrastructure. They also sought ways to further advance U.S.-EU digital cooperation and secure technology supply chains.
They stated that this is essential to protect peoples’ personal data, companies’ intellectual property, and national security. According to their discussions, both the Clean Network program and the 5G Toolbox share the same goal of developing, deploying, and commercializing 5G networks based on the principles of free competition, transparency, and the rule of law. Under Secretary Keith Krach and Commissioner Thierry Breton urged stakeholders to carefully weigh the long-term impact of allowing “high-risk suppliers” access – directly or indirectly – to their 5G networks when building their telecommunications infrastructure and services.[69]
On September 30, 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach and EU Commissioner Thierry Breton met in Brussels to discuss cooperation in securing telecommunications infrastructure. They also sought ways to further advance U.S.-EU digital cooperation and secure technology supply chains.[69]
Secretary of State Michael R. Pompeo, with Spokesperson Morgan Ortagus, describe the role of NATO in maintaining the Clean Network.
On September 30, 2020, NATO Deputy Secretary General Mircea Geoana noted that 25 NATO countries have committed to being "Clean Countries". He emphasized the strategic importance of having a secure 5G Clean NATO Network, which is non-fractured, because, he said, "the Alliance is only as strong as its weakest link." He also praised the U.S.-EU joint statement on the synergies between the Clean Network and the EU 5G Clean Toolbox.[72]
On October 21, 2020, at an annual conference in Estonia, the Three Seas Initiative announced its support for the Clean Network.
As of late 2020, 27 NATO members have committed to being "Clean Countries" on both sides of the Atlantic by allowing only trusted vendors in their 5G networks. Between September 21 and October 4, 2020, Under Secretary of State Keith Krach visited eight European countries, including EU and NATO headquarters, to discuss the goal of building a Transatlantic Clean Network. Under Secretary of State Krach said, "Countries and companies are terrified of China’s retaliation. The CCP cannot retaliate against everyone. That is where the EU comes in, the Transatlantic Alliance comes in, NATO comes in. The bottom line is the tide has turned. Countries and companies now understand that the central issue is not about technology, but trust."[46]
The Washington Times described U.S. Undersecretary of State Keith Krach's initial move to put Huawei on the defensive as the "5G trifecta in competition with China" based on onshoring of Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company's (TSMC) semiconductors, the prohibition of advanced semiconductors from Huawei, and the roll-out of the Clean Path strategy. The 5G trifecta served as the launchpad for the Clean Network.[73]
First, Krach's team partnered with the Commerce Department to secure an announcement from TSMC that it will build the world's most advanced five-nanometer chip fabrication facility in Arizona. This was the largest onshoring in American history and seen by the United States as a leap forward in securing the semiconductor supply chain and 5G security for the United States and its partners. It provides a "Made in America" source for chips powering everything from smartphones, to 5G base stations, to advanced artificial intelligence.[74]
The New York Times called the onshoring announcement of $12 billion semiconductor plant a win for the Trump administration, which has called for building up U.S. manufacturing capabilities and has criticized the fragility of a tech supply chain heavily centered in China.[74]
The impact catalyzed a critical piece of legislation that Krach championed called the Chip Act, a bipartisan, bicameral bill that will help bring semiconductors production vital to national security back to the United States. Republican Senator John Cornyn and Democrat Senator Mark Warner said, "America's innovation in semiconductors undergirds our entire innovation economy, driving the advances we see in autonomous vehicles, supercomputing, IoT devices and more. Unfortunately, our complacency has allowed our adversaries to catch up." The Chip Act reinvests in this national priority by providing targeted tax incentives for advanced manufacturing, funding research in microelectronics, and emphasizing the need for multilateral engagement with our allies in bringing greater attention to security threats to the global supply chain. The Bill passed unanimously in the House and 96–4 in the Senate.[74]
Second, the State Department successfully launched its 5G Clean Path initiative, which requires all 5G data entering or exiting facilities to transit only through trusted equipment, and never through from untrusted vendors such as Huawei and ZTE.[73]
Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki called on other European countries to adopt a Clean Path.
Many companies and countries like Japan, Albania and Taiwan have already adopted the Clean Path. Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki called on all countries and companies, especially the Europeans, to adopt a Clean Path to secure their 5G networks. U.S. Ambassador to NATO Kay Bailey Hutchison has called for a 5G Clean NATO Network with a Clean Path feeding into its military bases.[73]
The Clean Path stratagem raised the cost for telco operators who were contemplating Huawei 5G by creating a critical mass of network traffic from their customers that required that all sources feeding into it had to run on only trusted equipment.[73]
Third, Krach's State Department team succeeded in expanding the Foreign Direct Product Rule to prevent Huawei from "dodging" U.S. export controls. Senate Democratic Leader Chuck Schumer (D-NY) and Senator Tom Cotton (R-AR), joined by over a dozen other senators, sent a bipartisan letter to President Trump because they were concerned about Commerce Department saying it would issue licenses to allow U.S. firms to conduct business with Huawei. This rule effectively blocked Huawei's access to advanced semiconductors required for 5G and sophisticated smartphones, leading to Huawei selling its Honor budget smartphone brand to a Chinese consortium six months later.[51]
As of November 2020, the United States announced that more than 50 nations were committed to the principles of The Clean Network.[7] On November 10, 2020, Brazil became the 50th member.[2] On November 22, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announced that Ecuador, and the Dominican Republic also joined The Clean Network. Undersecretary Krach said "the participation of the Dominican Republic in the Clean Network paves the way for the expansion of investments by the US private sector and strengthens mutual guarantees for like-minded partners in the region and other parts of the world."[75][76]
U.S. Undersecretary of State Keith Krach signs a memorandum of understanding regarding "Clean" technologies in Cyprus.
Spain: Committed to implementing the EU 5G Clean Toolbox.
Portugal: Committed to implementing the EU 5G Clean Toolbox.
Slovakia: Committed to signing a Joint Declaration on 5G Security.
Slovenia: Signed a Joint Declaration on 5G Security.
Albania: Prime Minister Edi Rama stated, "Albania sees its role in the region not just as a constructive role in building peace and strengthening dialogue, but as a proactive role in the 5G Clean Path." In addition to Albania's commitment to 5G Clean Path, Under Secretary Krach and Albania's Finance Minister Anila Denaj signed a Memorandum of Economic Cooperation, laying the foundation to a memorandum of understanding on 5G security.[42][73]
The Clean Network has received support from members of both major U.S. political parties. At the Munich Security Conference in February 2020, U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) warned European countries they will "choose autocracy over democracy" if they let Huawei take part in rolling out 5G technology, in a sign of the bipartisan US political pressure over the Chinese company. She added it would be the "most insidious form of aggression" if 5G communications were to come under the control of an "anti-democratic government".[23]
U.S. President Joe Biden speaking
According the Wall Street Journal, U.S. President Joe Biden is expected to continue the Clean Network's ideals by continuing to "advance Washington’s tough, new attitude toward China but with an approach that relies more on pressure from U.S. allies, sanctions and other tools to shape Beijing’s behavior."[78]
Another article predicted that Biden would limit China's influence by continuing to support the Clean Network plan of building alliances with allies, partners, and like-minded countries to promote values of human rights, democratic principles, and market economies. As of December 2020, Biden has not yet laid out his detailed China strategy, but Biden aides are expected to adopt the State Department's Clean Network and expand it to a broader set of commercial and strategic pacts to put pressure on Beijing.[79]
According to Bloomberg, "there’s a good chance the Biden administration will pick up where Krach leaves off, assuming he isn’t asked to stay on."[8]
In April 2022, Kurt Campbell, Biden's “Asia Chief” Head of Indo-Pacific Affairs at the U.S. National Security Council, stated, “Almost all the work that Keith Krach did at the State Department, including trusted networks, the Blue Dot Network, etc., have been followed on in the Biden Administration and, in many respects, that's the highest tribute.”[80]
Biden's pick for Secretary of State, Antony Blinken, laid out his strategy for pushing back on China's various bad behaviors in a Hudson Institute event, where he promised to rally allies and put our values back at the center of our foreign policy toward. “When we’re working with allies and partners, it’s 50 or 60% of GDP. That’s a lot more weight and a lot harder for China to ignore. China sees alliances as a core source of strength for the United States, something they don’t share and enjoy.” The Clean Network includes 53 countries, representing 66% of the worlds GDP, on the Clean Network, plus 180 telcos on top of that.[1]
According to the United States, The Clean Network is the first step in a vision of constructing a network of networks—like-minded countries, companies and civil society that operate by a set of trust principles for all areas of collaboration. It is an alliance of democracies with the goal of creating an equitable and unifying geo-economic network for multiple areas of collaboration.
Additional “clean initiatives” have been announced—Clean Path, Clean Carrier, Clean Store, Clean App, Clean Cable, and Clean Cloud. In his Senate testimony, Undersecretary of State Keith Krach shared his vision for the next wave that includes Clean Data Centers, Clean Currency, Clean Data, Clean Drones, Clean Security, and Clean Things (i.e., Internet of Things).[81]
The Clean Network is a collection of networks that consists of multiple forms and lines of economic collaboration organized by sectors, regions, and industries. Forms of collaboration include commerce, investment, supply, chains, money flows, research, safeguarding assets, research, logistics, procurement, trade, policy, and standards. The lines of collaboration include sectors such as energy, healthcare, digital, agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, minerals, infrastructure, finance, space, and security.[1]
The Clean Network team's strategy is based on the idea that the fastest way to construct a network is to build a “network of networks” as evidenced by integrating with the Clean EU 5G Cybersecurity Toolbox, collaborating on the Clean 5G NATO Network concept, and getting the recent endorsement by the Three Seas Initiative, a geo-economic network that comprises 12 Eastern European countries.[1]
The Clean Network team's vision is to utilize Metcalfe's law for maximum network effect because as the number of members and areas of collaboration grows and the brand builds, the power of the Clean Network increases at an exponential rate. Krach has stated that the power of the Clean Network enables it to accomplish its noble democratic mission. The core principles enable fast, frictionless, and trusted collaboration critical to the members’ shared future.[1][8]
According to the U.S. State Department, the next dimension of adjacent areas outside of tech have already begun—Clean Infrastructure and Clean Financing which is called the Blue Dot Network; Clean Minerals which is called the Energy Resource Governance initiative; and Clean Supply Chains with Clean Labor Practices. The Clean Network has the potential to be used as an umbrella network for existing regional initiatives like the Indo-Pacific Strategy, Three Seas Initiative, Transatlantic Partnership, EU-Asia Connectivity Initiative and American CRECE.[1][8]
In April 2022, the White House announced that United States with 60 partners from around the globe launched the Declaration for the Future of the Internet.[82]
Chinese foreign ministry spokesman Zhao Lijian referred to the Clean Network as a "US surveillance network" and "consolidation of US digital hegemony". Zhao stated that "In the era of globalization, 5G development should be jointly developed and shared by all countries. The practice of politicizing the 5G issue and creating small circles is not conducive to the development of 5G, goes against the principle of fair competition, and does not conform to the common interests of the international community."[12]
Krach was nominated for the 2022 Nobel Peace Prize for his ‘Trust Principle’ doctrine in developing the Clean Network Alliance of Democracies.[64] Conversely, Krach was among 28 former Trump administration officials sanctioned by the Chinese government on January 20, 2021, a move which the incoming Biden administration described as "unproductive and cynical."[83]
A March 2021 GLOBSEC study noted the United States' effort to contain China in Europe has not been met with universal support in the region. Ukraine and Serbia both signed deals with Huawei despite American pressure, while Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan all attempted to navigate a dedicate balance between geopolitical rivalries.[13] Xuewen Gu of the University of Bonn's Center for Global Studies noted that the US did not make great headway in convincing its European allies that Huawei poses an uncontrollable security threat, with several of the countries listed in the Clean Network already broken their commitments to the initiative.[14] Gu argued that this is due European leaders' suspicions of closed networks, such as China's own Great Firewall, and that the Clean Network would run in contrary to the spirit of an open, worldwide internet. Gu also noted European concerns that the Clean Network could potentially split the world's cyberspace in half, forcing European governments to take sides between China and the USA.[14]Der Spiegel's Patrick Beuth referred to Mike Pompeo's announcement of the Clean Network as "noise" and "a pathetic document in contemporary history", and criticized Pompeo's characterization of Chinese networks as "unclean" and "spread viruses".[84]
Andy Müller-Maguhn gave a statement in June 2021 at a hearing on "Innovative Technologies and Standardization in a Geopolitical Perspective" of the Committee for Foreign Affairs of the German federal parliament. In view of the Clean Network Initiative he made the connection from the NOBUS-Strategy to a renewed America First policy under Trump which continued with the lack of detachment from the policy by the Biden administration. The compartmentalization the network would work against the principle of net neutrality and towards the balkanization of the internet. The limiting of communication between parties would increase the likelihood of conflict and arouse in him associations with war preparations.[85]
A number of countries and telecom providers listed in the Clean Network however did not formally ban cooperation with Huawei. The government of Japan for instance noted that it did not join US efforts to ban Huawei, but will undertake its own steps to address national security concerns.[86]Vodafone in Spain utilizes Huawei in its 5G network alongside Ericsson,[87] and in June 2020 the Spanish government granted Huawei a security clearance in working with Telefónica in building its core 5G network.[88] While the three major telecommunications providers in Portugal - Vodafone, NOS, and Altice excluded Huawei equipment in their core 5G networks without stated reasons, the Portuguese government has not banned Huawei and noted that such decisions "has nothing to do with the options or impositions of the Portuguese government".[89]Telefónica Germany announced that it would continue to cooperate with Huawei in its 4G and non-core 5G networks, alongside Ericsson with its 5G core networks.[90]Netherlands' KPN announced that it had struck a deal with Huawei in building its non-core 5G network, as well as switching from Ericsson to Huawei in its 4G network, with the company noting that removing Huawei equipment would be costly and disruptive.[91]
Following the end of US President Donald Trump's term in January 2021, the then President of Brazil and Trump ally, Jair Bolsonaro, reversed course and allowed Huawei to participate in Brazil's 5G auction due to opposition within the government and industry as well as mounting financial costs.[92]
In June 2023, the European Union was contemplating the implementation of a mandatory ban on member countries engaging with companies that were identified as posing security threats within their 5G infrastructure, which included companies such as Huawei.[93]
The Clean Network was a United States Department of State initiative launched on August 5, 2020, by Secretary of State Mike Pompeo to secure global telecommunications and digital infrastructure against risks from untrusted vendors, particularly Chinese firms such as Huawei and ZTE controlled by the Chinese Communist Party.[1] The program promoted "clean" alternatives across five pillars—clean carriers, clouds, apps, application stores, and data paths—ensuring that 5G networks, cloud services, and mobile applications utilized only providers adhering to democratic standards of privacy, data security, and supply chain integrity, thereby protecting citizens' private information, companies' intellectual property, and national security from surveillance and coercion.[2] Under the direction of Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment Keith Krach, the Clean Network achieved rapid international adoption, with more than 30 countries and territories joining by late 2020, expanding to over 60 nations representing approximately two-thirds of global GDP, alongside commitments from 180 telecommunications operators and 1,800 app developers to exclude high-risk equipment and services.[3][4] This effort marked a pivotal shift in global 5G deployment, countering Chinese market dominance through voluntary alliances among democracies, including 27 of 30 NATO members and 26 of 27 European Union states, while facing criticism from some quarters for potentially fragmenting international digital trade standards.[5][6]
Definition and Objectives
Core Principles and Goals
The Clean Network initiative rests on the principle of constructing telecommunications infrastructure—beginning with 5G and extending to future wireless generations—using only trusted vendors and partners free from influence by authoritarian regimes, specifically excluding entities like Huawei, ZTE, and other Chinese firms subject to Chinese national intelligence laws that mandate cooperation with state security apparatus.[2] This exclusion targets risks of embedded backdoors, data interception, and surveillance, as evidenced by documented instances of Chinese telecom equipment facilitating espionage, such as the 2018 Bloomberg report on alleged supply-chain compromises in server hardware, though contested by affected parties.[7] The framework prioritizes supply chains grounded in democratic norms, contrasting with models reliant on state-subsidized dominance that undermine competitive markets.Central goals encompass safeguarding data privacy, intellectual property, and human rights against long-term threats from digital authoritarianism, where untrusted networks could enable mass surveillance akin to China's social credit system or enable censorship exports.[2] By fostering "clean" carriers, paths, apps, stores, and clouds, the initiative aims to prevent the free world's data flows from routing through PRC-controlled infrastructure, thereby reducing vulnerabilities to cyber threats and economic coercion.[8] Under Secretary Keith Krach emphasized trust principles derived from shared values: integrity, accountability, transparency, reciprocity, and rule of law, which guide partner selection and operational standards to ensure interoperability without compromising security.The program seeks to build a voluntary global coalition of governments, enterprises, and investors committed to these standards, demonstrated by over 30 countries pledging adherence by late 2020, including commitments to remove high-risk vendors from core networks by 2023 in line with risk assessments from bodies like the UK's Huawei Cyber Security Evaluation Centre, which identified unacceptable risks in successor equipment.[2] Ultimately, it counters the Chinese Communist Party's strategy to monopolize 5Ginfrastructure, promoting diversified, resilient alternatives that align economic incentives with geopolitical security.[7]
Security Rationale and Threats Addressed
The Clean Network initiative was established to counter the security risks posed by telecommunications equipment and services from untrusted vendors, particularly those domiciled in China and subject to the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) influence. Under Chinese laws such as the 2017 National Intelligence Law, companies including Huawei and ZTE are obligated to cooperate with state intelligence efforts, potentially enabling unauthorized access to data flows and network infrastructure.[2][9] This legal framework, combined with the CCP's fusion of civilian and military technology development, raises concerns over embedded backdoors that could facilitate espionage or sabotage without detection.[7]Key threats addressed include pervasive surveillance and data exfiltration, as Chinese vendors' integration into 5G core networks could allow interception of sensitive communications, personal data, and intellectual property across borders. U.S. officials cited Huawei's historical involvement in cyber intrusions, such as the 2018 Bloomberg-reported supply chain attacks via manipulated hardware, and documented intellectual property theft cases exceeding $600 billion annually attributed to Chinese state actors by the U.S. Trade Representative.[8][10] The initiative targets these vulnerabilities by promoting trusted alternatives, thereby mitigating risks to national security, economic competitiveness, and democratic alliances reliant on secure digital infrastructure.[2]Beyond espionage, the rationale encompasses potential disruptions to critical infrastructure, where untrusted 5G elements could enable remote manipulation during conflicts or crises, given China's military-civil fusion strategy documented in its 2017 State Council policy. Empirical evidence includes the U.S. government's 2019 designation of Huawei as a national security threat based on intelligence assessments of undisclosed capabilities in deployed equipment, prompting over 30 countries to join the Clean Network by restricting such vendors by 2021.[10] This approach prioritizes supply chain integrity to prevent cascading failures in sectors like healthcare, finance, and defense, where data integrity underpins operational resilience.[7]
Historical Background
Pre-2020 Foundations in 5G Security Concerns
The architectural shift toward 5G networks, standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) in June 2018, introduced amplified security vulnerabilities compared to prior generations due to increased software-defined elements, edge computing deployment, and support for billions of Internet of Things devices.[11] These features expanded potential attack surfaces, including remote management capabilities and virtualized core functions, heightening risks of supply chain compromise where untrusted components could embed persistent backdoors or facilitate data exfiltration undetectable by standard cybersecurity measures.[11] A July 2019 Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) report emphasized that 5G's reliance on global supply chains exacerbates threats from malicious hardware insertions, counterfeit parts, or manufacturing flaws introduced by vendors under adversarial influence, potentially undermining network integrity, confidentiality, and availability across critical sectors like energy, finance, and defense.[11]US intelligence assessments identified Chinese telecommunications firms, notably Huawei and ZTE, as primary vectors for these risks, citing their market dominance—Huawei controlled approximately 28% of global mobile infrastructure market share by 2018—and obligations under China's 2017 National Intelligence Law to cooperate with state intelligence efforts, including data provision or technical assistance.[12] In February 2018, directors of the CIA, NSA, FBI, and other intelligence agencies publicly warned US businesses and consumers against procuring Huawei or ZTE equipment, asserting it posed unacceptable national security threats due to potential espionage facilitation.[13] FBI Director Christopher Wray reiterated in January 2019 that Huawei's network access could enable the Chinese government to "maliciously modify or steal information," underscoring causal pathways from vendor compliance with Beijing's directives to systemic vulnerabilities in deployed infrastructure.[14]Allied nations acted on similar intelligence: Australia prohibited Huawei and ZTE from its 5G rollout in August 2018, determining the firms' equipment presented "significant network security risks" incompatible with protecting national telecommunications.[12] New Zealand's signals intelligence agency rejected a Huawei-led 5G consortium bid in November 2018 for equivalent cyber risks.[12] In the US, Section 889 of the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, enacted August 2018, barred federal executive agencies from using or contracting with Huawei or ZTE systems deemed to pose "unacceptable risks" to US networks.[11] The Department of Defense's April 2019 analysis further highlighted 5Gsupply chain perils from Chinese components, including embedded malware or hardware trojans, as barriers to secure military and civilian adoption.[15]These pre-2020 developments crystallized around empirical evidence of Huawei's opaque practices, including prior intellectual property theft convictions and export control violations, rather than unsubstantiated speculation, laying groundwork for coordinated exclusion of high-risk vendors to preserve democratic alliances' technological sovereignty.[12] By May 2019, the Commerce Department's addition of Huawei to the Entity List restricted its access to US-origin technologies, reflecting determinations that the firm's activities threatened USnational security and foreign policy interests amid accelerating 5G deployments.[12]
Launch and Early Implementation (2020)
The Clean Network initiative was publicly announced on August 5, 2020, by U.S. Secretary of StateMike Pompeo as an expansion of the 5G Clean Path policy, which had been introduced on April 29, 2020, to secure data flows by excluding untrusted vendors.[2][1] The program outlined five key "clean" elements—Clean Carrier, Clean Store, Clean Apps, Clean Cloud, and Clean Cable—aimed at preventing the use of Chinese telecommunications and technology infrastructure from companies like Huawei, ZTE, and their affiliates in global networks.[1] This approach sought to mitigate risks of espionage and data theft, citing Chinese laws that compel companies to cooperate with state intelligence agencies.[1]Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment Keith Krach led the diplomatic push for adoption, emphasizing partnerships with trusted providers from democratic nations.[16] Early implementation efforts included Krach's European tour from September 21 to October 4, 2020, visiting eight countries, the European Union headquarters, and NATO to advocate for alignment with Clean Network principles.[17] During this period, commitments emerged from nations such as the Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Romania, Denmark, Latvia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom to exclude untrusted equipment from their 5G and broader telecom infrastructures.[2][3]By late 2020, initial telco partners included major carriers like Orange in France and Reliance in India, which began aligning with clean standards by phasing out high-risk vendors.[18] These steps represented the first wave of international buy-in, with over a dozen countries and territories pledging adherence, covering significant portions of global GDP and telecom markets.[18] The U.S. also restricted federal use of untrusted apps and cloud services, enforcing domestic implementation alongside global outreach.[2]
Expansion and Policy Shifts (2021–2025)
![Edi Rama, Prime Minister of Albania, meeting with Keith Krach][float-right]Following the inauguration of President Joe Biden on January 20, 2021, the Clean Network initiative experienced continued but moderated expansion, with several nations committing to exclude untrusted vendors from their telecommunications infrastructure. In the Western Balkans, Albania, Kosovo, and North Macedonia aligned with Clean Network principles, pledging to avoid Huawei and other high-risk providers in 5G deployments amid concerns over China's Digital Silk Road influence.[19] This built on the rapid growth in 2020, extending the coalition of democracies rejecting Chinese Communist Party-controlled technology. By 2023, adoption had reached approximately 60 countries and 180 telecommunications operators, representing two-thirds of global GDP and significantly limiting market access for entities like Huawei.[20]Policy under the Biden administration shifted from the Trump-era's aggressive, branded diplomatic campaign to a more integrated, multilateral approach emphasizing alliances and supply chain resilience, while retaining key restrictions on untrusted equipment. Although the State Department archived the Clean Network webpage under the prior administration's domain, the Biden team upheld Huawei's placement on the entity list and advanced domestic measures such as the Secure and Trusted Communications Networks Reimbursement Program, which allocated $1.9 billion in June 2022 for removing and replacing prohibited equipment from U.S. networks.[21] Internationally, efforts aligned with frameworks like the EU's 5G Toolbox and Quad partnerships, promoting trusted vendors without the explicit "Clean Network" labeling, as evidenced by ongoing U.S. advocacy for secure 5G in regions like the Western Balkans into 2025.[22]These developments reflected a pragmatic continuity in countering security risks from Chinese technology, despite reduced emphasis on the initiative's nomenclature; empirical outcomes included Huawei's declining share of high-risk 5G contracts globally, dropping from over 30 in 2019 to fewer than 10 by 2023 in aligned markets.[23] By October 2025, the embedded standards had influenced broader digital sovereignty policies, with reports indicating expansion to 68 countries through sustained bans and vendor exclusions.[24]
Operational Components
Clean 5G Infrastructure and Core Networks
The Clean 5G component of the Clean Network initiative emphasizes the deployment of 5G radio access networks (RAN) and core infrastructure using vendors free from influence by authoritarian regimes, particularly excluding those with ties to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) such as Huawei and ZTE.[2] This approach aims to mitigate risks of espionage, data manipulation, and network disruption inherent in equipment from untrusted suppliers, drawing on established security frameworks like the Prague 5G Security Proposals from May 2019 and the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) trust criteria from May 2020.[2] Core networks, which handle critical functions like authentication, billing, and datarouting, are prioritized for trusted architectures to prevent backdoors or embedded vulnerabilities that could enable foreign intelligence operations.[3]Trusted vendors identified under the initiative include Ericsson (Sweden), Nokia (Finland), and Samsung (South Korea), selected for their adherence to democratic governance, transparency in supply chains, and verifiable security practices absent CCP oversight.[2] These providers offer open RAN architectures compatible with multi-vendor ecosystems, facilitating interoperability and reducing single-point failures, as demonstrated in deployments like Singapore's 5G rollout on June 29, 2020, which favored Nokia and Ericsson over Huawei.[3] In contrast, untrusted vendors like Huawei and ZTE are barred due to documented CCP laws mandating cooperation with intelligence agencies, including China's 2017 National Intelligence Law, which compels firms to assist state security efforts without disclosure.[2]Adoption accelerated following the initiative's expansion on August 5, 2020, with over 50 countries committing to clean 5G paths.[2] Notable examples include the United Kingdom's July 14, 2020, decision to purge Huawei from its 5G networks by 2027, citing high-risk profiles; Canada's June 3, 2020, exclusion of Huawei from core infrastructure; and Estonia, Romania, and Latvia's June 25, 2020, pledges for trusted alternatives.[3] Telecom operators like Spain's Telefónica, which declared a clean 5G network on June 24, 2020, and Brazil's Vivo, committed to phasing out untrusted gear, enabling scalable, resilient cores that support edge computing without compromising sovereignty.[3] These shifts contributed to Huawei's market share decline in democratic markets, from leading in over 90 countries pre-2020 to exclusion in key allies by late 2020.[3]
Clean Path, Carrier, Store, and Apps
The 5G Clean Path initiative, announced by U.S. Secretary of StateMike Pompeo on April 29, 2020, establishes secure end-to-end communication pathways for 5G networks by excluding transmission, control, computing, or storage equipment from untrusted vendors, primarily those subject to Chinese Communist Party (CCP) influence such as Huawei and ZTE.[2][25] This approach aims to prevent risks like data interception or network disruption, drawing on evidence of Chinese vendors' legal obligations under China's National Intelligence Law to assist state intelligence activities, which could enable unauthorized access to sensitive traffic.[7] Initially applied to all 5Gtraffic entering and exiting U.S. diplomatic facilities, the Clean Path expanded as a foundational element of the broader Clean Network, promoting trusted alternatives from vendors in democratic nations to maintain data integrity across international links.[3]Clean Carrier extends these protections to mobile network operators, requiring carriers to avoid untrusted Chinese telecommunications equipment and apps that could compromise user data or enable surveillance.[1] Launched as part of the August 5, 2020, Clean Network expansion, it targets operators serving over a billion users globally by encouraging partnerships with vetted infrastructure, citing documented instances of Huawei's involvement in espionage, such as the 2018 conviction of a Huawei CFO-related entity for sanctions violations and broader reports of backdoor access in carrier networks.[2] U.S. Under Secretary Keith Krach emphasized that Clean Carriers would prioritize democratic providers, leading to commitments from operators in regions like Europe and the Indo-Pacific to phase out high-risk vendors by 2023–2025 timelines in aligned policies.[8]Clean Store focuses on app stores operated by trusted entities that exclude applications from untrusted PRC developers, particularly those linked to the CCP or military, to mitigate malware distribution and data exfiltration risks.[26] Announced alongside Clean Carrier on August 5, 2020, it responds to threats like PRC apps harvesting user data without consent, as evidenced by U.S. government bans on apps such as TikTok and WeChat in 2020 for national security reasons due to their ties to ByteDance and Tencent, respectively, which face CCP oversight.[1] Major stores like Google Play and Apple App Store were urged to implement rigorous vetting, resulting in removals of thousands of risky apps by 2021.[7]Clean Apps complements Clean Store by promoting applications developed outside untrusted ecosystems, free from embedded spyware or CCP-mandated censorship, ensuring they adhere to privacy standards without backchannels to authoritarian regimes.[2] This pillar, also unveiled August 5, 2020, addresses empirical cases of app-based threats, including PRC-linked software used for influence operations, as detailed in U.S. intelligence assessments of over 200 high-risk apps by 2020.[26] Adoption involved developer certifications and international alignments, fostering a market for secure apps from allies, with early endorsements from tech firms in Japan and Australia by late 2020.[8]
Clean Cloud, Cable, and Telcos
The Clean Cloud component of the Clean Network initiative aims to protect sensitive personal data and intellectual property from storage on cloud systems vulnerable to access by foreign adversaries, specifically targeting providers linked to the People's Republic of China such as Alibaba, Baidu, and Tencent.[1] Announced on August 5, 2020, as part of the program's expansion, it encourages the use of trusted cloud providers to mitigate risks of data exfiltration or surveillance through unsecure platforms.[1] Companies like Cisco have aligned with the initiative by offering Clean Network-compatible cloud solutions.[2]Clean Cable focuses on securing undersea submarine cables that form the backbone of global internet connectivity, ensuring they are not owned, operated, or compromised by untrusted vendors capable of intelligence gathering.[1] Introduced alongside Clean Cloud in the August 5, 2020, announcement, this effort addresses vulnerabilities in the international cable network, where China-linked entities have sought increasing involvement in construction and operation.[1] It promotes partnerships with reliable international actors to maintain secure transoceanic data transmission routes.[1]Clean Telcos designates telecommunications companies worldwide that commit to deploying only trusted vendors for their infrastructure, thereby excluding high-risk suppliers like Huawei and ZTE.[2] Under Secretary Keith Krach highlighted this on June 25, 2020, emphasizing the role of major global telcos in building secure networks.[2] By December 17, 2020, the initiative had secured commitments from 180 Clean Telcos across 53 countries and territories, representing a significant portion of global mobile users and advancing network resilience against espionage threats.[3] Subsequent reports indicate growth to over 200 Clean Telcos, covering approximately 1.9 billion subscribers.[27]
Trust Standards and Frameworks
The Trust Doctrine and Digital Standards
The Trust Doctrine, formulated by Keith Krach during his tenure as U.S. Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment from 2019 to 2021, establishes trust as the core principle for secure and prosperous global economic and technological partnerships. It prioritizes democratic values such as integrity, accountability, transparency, and reciprocity, while mandating respect for the rule of law, human rights, property rights, privacy, sovereignty, and environmental stewardship.[28][29] This framework contrasts sharply with authoritarian strategies, exemplified by the Chinese Communist Party's reliance on coercion, concealment, co-option, and control to dominate sectors like 5G telecommunications.[28]In application to digital standards, the Trust Doctrine sets benchmarks for evaluating technology vendors and infrastructure components within initiatives like the Clean Network. Trusted providers are required to operate without ties to entities subject to authoritarian influence, ensuring supply chain transparency to mitigate risks of embedded backdoors or data exfiltration.[29] For instance, it advocates excluding vendors like Huawei and ZTE, which U.S. intelligence assessments have linked to potential espionage due to mandatory cooperation with Chinese national security laws.[2] Digital standards under this doctrine emphasize interoperability, open architectures, and compliance with international norms for cybersecurity, such as those outlined in OECD privacy guidelines and ITU telecommunications recommendations, to foster resilient networks resistant to state-sponsored threats.[29]The doctrine's implementation promotes verifiable adherence through multi-stakeholder verification, including government certifications, independent audits, and alliances among democracies. By August 2020, it underpinned the Clean Network's rapid expansion to over 30 countries committing to trusted 5G vendors, representing a significant market exclusion of untrusted Chinese equipment estimated at $100 billion in lost opportunities for Huawei.[29] Critics from Chinese state media have dismissed these standards as protectionist, but proponents cite empirical evidence of espionage incidents, including the 2018 Bloomberg report on Chinese supply chain compromises, to justify the risk-based approach.[29] Ongoing efforts, such as the Krach Institute for Tech Diplomacy's advocacy, seek to codify these principles into global frameworks, ensuring digital ecosystems prioritize security over cost in vendor selection.[30]
Integration with Global Proposals and Toolboxes
The Clean Network initiative was explicitly designed for compatibility with international 5G security frameworks, drawing on established digital trust standards to promote interoperability and collective risk mitigation. It operationalized principles from multi-stakeholder efforts, such as those outlined by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), which emphasize vendor transparency, supply chain integrity, and protection against espionage risks in telecommunications infrastructure.[31][2]A primary point of alignment occurred with the European Union's 5G Toolbox, a coordinated set of risk management measures adopted by EU member states on January 29, 2020, following a 2019 risk assessment that identified threats from high-risk vendors. On October 17, 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach and European Commissioner for Internal Market Thierry Breton released a joint statement affirming the synergies between the Clean Network and the EU Toolbox, stating that the latter "fits the criteria for trusted, clean infrastructure" by safeguarding data privacy, intellectual property, and national security against untrusted actors.[32] This integration facilitated transatlantic cooperation, with the Toolbox's emphasis on diversified supply chains and vendor audits complementing the Clean Network's exclusion of entities like Huawei and ZTE from core networks.[33]The Clean Network also incorporated elements from the Prague Proposals, issued after the May 2019 Prague 5G Security Conference hosted by the Czech Republic, which called for national strategies to exclude high-risk vendors, enhance cybersecurity standards, and foster international collaboration on 5G deployment. These proposals provided a foundational blueprint for the Clean Network's vendor trust criteria, influencing its expansion to over 50 countries by late 2020 and enabling harmonized policies that avoided fragmented "splinternets."[34] By aligning with such toolkits, the initiative aimed to set de facto global norms without mandating new standards, prioritizing empirical risk assessments over politically driven vendor preferences.[2]
International Collaborations
Engagements with the European Union and NATO
On October 17, 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach and European Commission Internal Market Commissioner Thierry Breton issued a joint statement integrating the EU's 5G Toolbox into The Clean Network framework, emphasizing transatlantic cooperation to secure telecommunications infrastructure against untrusted vendors such as Huawei and ZTE.[32][17] This alignment built on the EU's January 2020 5G Toolbox recommendations, which called for risk assessments and mitigation measures for high-risk suppliers, by promoting trusted vendors and clean paths for data flows to protect privacy, intellectual property, and national security.[2] The partnership facilitated commitments from 26 of the 27 EU member states to The Clean Network principles, excluding Hungary, which maintained ties with Chinese vendors.[18]Specific bilateral engagements reinforced this cooperation; for instance, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—EU and NATO members—signed U.S.-led declarations on 5G security in 2019 and 2020, pledging to exclude untrusted equipment from core networks.[35] Despite these advances, implementation varied, with some EU countries like Germany and France imposing partial restrictions on Huawei rather than outright bans, reflecting differing assessments of supply chain risks.[36]Regarding NATO, The Clean Network sought to synchronize alliance-wide 5G security to prevent vulnerabilities in joint operations, as articulated in a U.S. fact sheet on October 17, 2020, which stressed that "the Alliance is only as strong as its weakest link" and advocated for a non-fractured Clean NATO Network.[17] By October 23, 2020, announcements confirmed NATO's alignment with Clean Network standards for 5G, aiming to safeguard against interference from authoritarian actors.[37] Krach later declared that "NATO is now 'in sync' on 5G security," attributing this to diplomatic efforts that encouraged allies to prioritize secure infrastructure over cost considerations.[18] However, as of 2020, the United States remained the only NATO member to have fully restricted Chinese vendors from its 5G networks, highlighting ongoing challenges in uniform adoption across the alliance.[38]
Initiatives in the Three Seas and Beyond
The Three Seas Initiative, a cooperation forum of twelve EU member states spanning the Baltic, Black, and Adriatic Seas, endorsed the Clean Network during its virtual summit hosted by Estonia on October 21, 2020.[3] This announcement reflected the initiative's emphasis on enhancing regional digital infrastructure resilience against risks from untrusted telecommunications vendors.[39]U.S. Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment Keith Krach attended the summit to advance Clean Network adoption, highlighting alignment with shared values of transparency and free-market principles in technology deployment.[40] The United States pledged up to $1 billion in financing for Three Seas infrastructure projects, including digital connectivity, with the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation committing $300 million specifically to the Three Seas Investment Fund.[41][42]Eleven of the twelve Three Seas countries joined the Clean Network, committing to exclude high-risk providers such as Huawei and ZTE from core 5G infrastructure.[2] Specific adherents included Estonia (October 2019), Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Romania, Bulgaria, Estonia, and others, with bans on untrusted vendors enacted through national legislation or procurement policies.[3][35] Hungary remained the outlier, permitting Huawei participation in its networks despite regional trends.[43] These commitments advanced secure cross-border data flows and interoperability within the region, supporting the initiative's North-South connectivity goals.Beyond the core Three Seas area, Clean Network outreach extended to Mediterranean and Balkan neighbors. In Cyprus, on October 20, 2020, the U.S. and Cyprus signed a Memorandum of Understanding on science and technology cooperation, aligning the island nation with Clean Network standards for 5G security and the EU Toolbox framework.[44][45] Krach's visit facilitated this agreement, emphasizing protection of sensitive data from authoritarian surveillance risks.[40] In the Western Balkans, Albania committed to Clean Network principles in 2020, with Prime Minister Edi Rama pledging exclusion of Huawei from 5G rollout; similar agreements were secured with North Macedonia, Kosovo, and Bulgaria.[46][18] Georgia also joined via a 2020 MOU, extending secure network standards to the Caucasus.[18] These expansions fostered a broader coalition of trusted partners, countering Chinese Digital Silk Road influence in adjacent regions.[19]
Diplomatic Outreach to Latin America and Other Regions
In November 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment Keith Krach conducted a diplomatic tour of Latin America to advance the Clean Network initiative, visiting Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Panama, and the Dominican Republic.[18] The delegation engaged with government officials and business leaders to highlight risks associated with Chinese telecommunications vendors like Huawei and ZTE, while promoting trusted alternatives for 5G infrastructure and data security.[47] This outreach emphasized private sector-led development and innovation investment to counterbalance Chinese influence in regional telecom markets.[2]Brazil emerged as the first Latin American participant, joining the Clean Network as its 50th member on November 10, 2020, following commitments to exclude untrusted vendors from sensitive networks.[3]Ecuador followed shortly thereafter, endorsing the initiative's principles and becoming the 51st member during the same tour.[33]Jamaica and the Dominican Republic also acceded soon after, expanding the alliance's footprint in the Caribbean.[48] These accessions represented a strategic push to build a coalition of democracies prioritizing network trustworthiness over cost-driven selections from high-risk providers.[2]Separate diplomatic efforts targeted Mexico, where U.S. Ambassador Christopher Landau publicly urged participation in November 2020, framing the Clean Network as essential for protecting national data sovereignty amid Huawei's market penetration.[49] Although Mexico did not formally join, the advocacy underscored broader U.S. aims to insulate Latin American telecom sectors from potential espionage and supply-chain vulnerabilities linked to Chinese firms.[50] Outreach extended to other regions through analogous engagements, though Latin America marked a pivotal focus for countering the Digital Silk Road's expansion in the Western Hemisphere.[51]
Subsequent evaluations noted mixed adherence, with some signatories like Spain's Telefónica retaining Huawei equipment despite initial pledges, highlighting challenges in enforcing Clean Network standards amid economic pressures.[52] Nonetheless, the diplomatic push facilitated early commitments from over four Latin American and Caribbean nations, contributing to the initiative's rapid growth to represent two-thirds of global GDP within months of launch.[18]
Impacts and Effectiveness
Restrictions on Huawei, ZTE, and Chinese Vendors
The Clean Network initiative, launched by the U.S. Department of State in August 2020, explicitly targeted high-risk vendors such as Huawei Technologies and ZTE Corporation by advocating for their exclusion from telecommunications infrastructure, including 5G networks, to mitigate national security threats posed by potential espionage, data interception, and supply chain vulnerabilities linked to the Chinese Communist Party's influence over these firms.[2] The program built on prior U.S. measures, including Huawei's designation on the Department of Commerce's Entity List in May 2019, which restricted U.S. exports of technology to the company, and prohibitions under the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 that barred federal agencies from procuring equipment from Huawei and ZTE.[53] These restrictions were justified by intelligence assessments citing risks of embedded backdoors and mandatory cooperation with Chinese intelligence under national laws like the 2017 National Intelligence Law.[12]Allied nations aligned with Clean Network principles implemented similar bans, significantly curtailing market access for these vendors. Australia prohibited Huawei and ZTE from supplying 5G equipment in August 2018, citing cybersecurity risks, a move predating but reinforced by the initiative.[12] The United Kingdom ordered the removal of Huawei equipment from 5G networks by 2027 in July 2020, following a government review that highlighted unacceptable risks to national security.[54]Japan effectively barred Huawei and ZTE from core 5G infrastructure in December 2018 through procurement guidelines favoring trusted vendors.[12] In Europe, eleven EU member states, including Sweden (ban enacted November 2020 and upheld in June 2023), Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria, invoked the EU's 5GToolbox to restrict or ban high-risk vendors by mid-2024, with Germany mandating a phase-out of Huawei and ZTE components from 5G core networks by end-2026 and full critical components by 2029.[55][56][54]
These measures extended to other Chinese vendors like Hytera and Hikvision under Clean Network's "Clean Path" pillar, which sought to prevent routing U.S. data through PRC-controlled undersea cables and apps.[2] By 2021, over 30 countries had publicly committed to Clean Network-aligned policies, reducing Huawei's global 5G contract share from a projected dominance to under 30% in restricted markets, though the firm retained influence in non-aligned regions like parts of Africa and Latin America where security concerns were weighed against cost advantages.[57] Empirical analyses indicate that while bans increased deployment costs by 20-60% in affected networks due to reliance on alternatives like Ericsson and Nokia, they enhanced resilience against documented PRC cyber operations, such as those attributed to Huawei-linked actors in U.S. indictments.[12][58]
Achievements in Enhancing Global Network Security
The Clean Network initiative facilitated commitments from over 30 countries and territories to procure telecommunications equipment exclusively from trusted vendors, thereby excluding high-risk Chinese suppliers such as Huawei and ZTE from critical 5G infrastructure by August 2020.[3] This included the United Kingdom's decision on July 14, 2020, to ban Huawei from its 5G networks and require the removal of existing equipment by 2027, citing unacceptable risks to national security from potential espionage enabled by Chinese national intelligence laws.[2] Similarly, Sweden enacted restrictions in October 2020 prohibiting Huawei and ZTE from supplying 5G core networks or radio access, a move aligned with assessments of supply chain vulnerabilities.[3] These actions diversified global 5G supply chains toward vendors like Ericsson, Nokia, and Samsung, reducing dependency on entities subject to Beijing's mandatory intelligence cooperation requirements under Article 7 of China's 2017 National Intelligence Law.[59]By November 2020, the coalition expanded to include Brazil as the 50th participant, alongside Ecuador and the Dominican Republic, encompassing nations representing over two-thirds of global GDP and more than 180 telecommunications operators committed to "Clean Carrier" principles that barred data routing through untrusted PRC-based mobile network operators.[60] This scale created interoperability barriers for Huawei-dependent networks, as "Clean Path" standards ensured end-to-end secure data transmission without PRC vendor hardware or software, effectively isolating clean networks from potential infiltration vectors.[2] In India, the initiative prompted a phase-out of Huawei equipment starting August 24, 2020, prioritizing domestic and allied alternatives to safeguard border and economic data flows amid heightened Sino-Indian tensions.[3]The program's emphasis on trusted clouds and apps further bolstered network security by promoting alternatives to PRC-dominated platforms, with commitments from providers to avoid data processing via entities like Tencent or Alibaba clouds, which operate under similar intelligence-sharing mandates.[1] Empirical outcomes included measurable declines in Huawei's European market share for 5G contracts, dropping from dominance in early bids to exclusion in key markets like the Czech Republic, Estonia, and Latvia by late 2020, as operators shifted to mitigate documented risks of firmware-level exploits and state-directed cyber operations linked to Chinese vendors.[2] These shifts enhanced resilience against supply-chain attacks, as evidenced by NATO-aligned countries' unified adoption of clean standards, which precluded the integration of hardware potentially pre-configured for remote access by foreign intelligence.[17] Overall, the initiative's diplomatic momentum prevented Huawei from securing foundational roles in next-generation networks across democratic alliances, preserving data sovereignty and forestalling the normalization of authoritarian-influenced infrastructure.[43]
Economic Consequences and Market Shifts
The Clean Network initiative, launched in August 2020, accelerated the exclusion of Huawei and ZTE from 5G infrastructure contracts in participating nations, leading to measurable declines in their global market penetration outside China. By early 2021, over 50 countries had aligned with the framework, representing two-thirds of global GDP, which curtailed Huawei's ability to secure high-profile deals in regions like Europe and the Indo-Pacific.[3][18]Huawei's carrier business revenues fell 29% from 2020 to 2021, with 5G equipment orders dropping significantly in markets such as the United Kingdom, where a January 2020 ban—reinforced by Clean Network principles—eliminated Huawei from core networks.[61] This shift contributed to Huawei's overall market capitalization decline of approximately 50% from its 2019 peak by mid-2020, as investors reacted to restricted access in democratic markets.[62]Competitors like Ericsson and Nokia capitalized on these restrictions, securing expanded contracts and boosting their financial performance. Ericsson reported a 10% year-over-year increase in 5Gradio access network sales in Q3 2020, attributing gains partly to Huawei's exclusion in Europe and Asia-Pacific, with shares rising 20% that year amid heightened demand for alternatives.[63]Nokia similarly saw its 5G deal pipeline grow, including Singapore's June 2020 selection of Nokia and Ericsson as sole vendors, bypassing Huawei entirely.[62] These vendors' market shares in restricted regions rose collectively by 15-20% in 2020-2021, fostering a more diversified supplier base less reliant on subsidized Chinese pricing.[62] However, recent data indicates Huawei has regained ground in non-aligned markets, holding 31% of global radio access network share in 2023, underscoring the initiative's uneven impact amid China's domestic protections for its vendors.[64]Adopting countries incurred upfront economic costs from equipment rip-and-replace, though these were framed by proponents as investments against long-term vulnerabilities. In the UK, BT estimated £458 million (about $612 million) in expenses by 2023 to remove Huawei gear from non-core 5G sites, with full phase-out projected by 2027.[65] Broader European telco analyses from 2019 projected an additional €55 billion ($62 billion) for 5G rollout if excluding Chinese vendors, due to higher pricing from Western alternatives, though actual implementations varied by nation.[66] In the US, the 2019 Secure and Trusted Communications Networks Act mandated removal of Huawei/ZTE equipment, with a conservative $3.5 billion estimate for replacing post-2016 installations, funded partly by a $1.9 billion federal reimbursement program.[67] Critics, including some industry reports, argue these costs elevated consumer prices and delayed deployments, yet empirical evidence from early adopters like Australia shows no sustained 5G lag, with diversified sourcing enhancing supply chain resilience against geopolitical disruptions.[68]
Criticisms and Counterarguments
Claims of Protectionism and Hypocrisy
Critics, including the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation (ITIF), have characterized the Clean Network as protectionist, arguing that its exclusion of Chinese vendors like Huawei and ZTE from supply chains prioritizes domestic and allied firms over global competition, potentially raising costs for 5G infrastructure and undermining U.S. leadership in digital trade.[6] The initiative's framework, which limited participation to "trusted" providers from democracies, was seen by some analysts as erecting national barriers akin to those the U.S. had previously criticized in other contexts, such as Europe's data localization rules.[69]Proponents of this view, including telecom policy experts, contended that the policy discriminated against cost-effective Chinese equipment, which had captured significant market share—Huawei held about 30% of global 5G base station contracts by mid-2020—favoring pricier alternatives from vendors like Ericsson and Nokia, thereby distorting market dynamics under the guise of security. However, defenders of the initiative, such as Under Secretary Keith Krach, emphasized that exclusions stemmed from verifiable risks under China's 2017 National Intelligence Law, which mandates corporate assistance to state intelligence without judicial oversight, rather than economic favoritism.[70]On hypocrisy, detractors highlighted U.S. surveillance practices revealed by Edward Snowden in 2013, including NSA programs like PRISM that accessed data from tech giants such as Google and Apple, as evidence that Washington lacked moral authority to decry foreign espionage while pursuing a "clean" network.[71] Chinese state-affiliated outlets, such as CGTN, amplified these claims by citing a 2020 Wall Street Journal report on U.S.-linked spyware in apps and a Danish cable-tapping scandal involving American intelligence, portraying the Clean Network as selective outrage amid America's own global data interception efforts.[72][73] These arguments, often from outlets with ties to the Chinese Communist Party, overlook key distinctions: U.S. programs operate under legal frameworks like the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act requiring warrants, whereas Chinese laws impose blanket obligations on firms, enabling unconsented data access without transparency or recourse.[71]Empirical assessments, such as those from cybersecurity firms, have noted that while U.S. vendors faced their own vulnerabilities—e.g., SolarWinds hack in 2020 affecting government networks—the Clean Network's focus on vendor trustworthiness addressed state-directed threats, not equivalent to private-sector breaches or targeted FISA-authorized collection.[6] Critics' hypocrisy charges thus rest on equating democratic oversight with authoritarian mandates, a comparison contested by first-hand accounts of Chinese tech firms' compliance with regime demands, as documented in U.S. intelligence reports.[2]
Chinese Government Responses and Propaganda
The Chinese government condemned the Clean Network initiative shortly after its announcement on August 5, 2020, by U.S. Secretary of StateMike Pompeo, framing it as a discriminatory campaign driven by protectionism and a desire to preserve U.S. hegemony in global telecommunications rather than legitimate security imperatives. Foreign Ministry spokesperson Hua Chunying responded on August 6, 2020, via social media, accusing the U.S. of hypocrisy by stating, "Talking CLEAN while doing DIRTY. How ironic!"—a reference to U.S. surveillance programs like PRISM exposed by Edward Snowden in 2013.[74][75] The ministry's statements emphasized that the initiative lacked evidence of specific threats from Chinese vendors and served primarily to exclude companies like Huawei from international markets.[76]State-controlled media amplified these critiques through coordinated narratives portraying the Clean Network as a "filthy" or "dirty" scheme that undermined global cooperation and internet freedom. On August 9, 2020, the Global Times, a tabloid affiliated with the People's Daily and mouthpiece for the Chinese Communist Party, published an op-ed titled "The Hidden, Dirty Secrets Behind the US Clean Network Program," alleging it masked U.S. efforts to coerce allies into boycotting Chinese technology and suppress competition.[77] Another Global Times piece on August 6, 2020, described the program as exposing "Pompeo's madness," claiming it politicized cybersecurity to target apps like WeChat and TikTok without substantiation.[78] The People's Daily, in a November 12, 2020, commentary by international affairs expert Lu Chuanying, labeled it a "discriminatory, exclusive, and politicized 'filthy network'" that threatened cyberspace stability and echoed Cold War divisions.[79] These outlets frequently contrasted China's purported openness with U.S. actions, citing alliances like the Five Eyes as evidence of Western surveillance dominance.In counterprogramming, Foreign Minister Wang Yi announced China's Global Initiative on Data Security on September 8, 2020, positioning it as a multilateral framework to promote trustworthy data flows and rebuke U.S. "groundless accusations" under pretexts like the Clean Network.[80] The initiative, endorsed by nations including Pakistan, Syria, Cambodia, and Laos, sought to rally support for Chinese standards in digital infrastructure, implicitly advancing alternatives like the Digital Silk Road.[81] Huawei, central to the initiative's targeting, issued statements denying backdoor risks and asserting that U.S. restrictions stemmed from fears of technological competition, with founder Ren Zhengfei arguing in interviews that no concrete evidence of espionage had been provided despite years of scrutiny.[12] These responses collectively aimed to delegitimize the Clean Network by redirecting scrutiny toward U.S. practices and portraying China as a defender of equitable global tech access, though state media's alignment with party directives underscores their role in propagating official narratives over independent analysis.[76]
Empirical Debates on Costs Versus Benefits
Proponents of the Clean Network initiative argue that excluding untrusted vendors like Huawei and ZTE from 5G and other telecommunications infrastructure yields net security benefits by mitigating risks of espionage, data interception, and network sabotage, as mandated under China's 2017 National Intelligence Law requiring corporate assistance to state intelligence efforts.[82] However, empirical quantification of these benefits remains challenging, with no publicly documented instances of Huawei-facilitated backdoors or exploits in deployed networks, though independent audits have identified persistent vulnerabilities in Huawei equipment, such as unauthorized access flaws and outdated encryption protocols.[82][59] Critics contend that such risks are speculative and outweighed by measurable economic costs, including elevated procurement expenses and deployment delays, as Huawei's hardware is often 20-30% cheaper than alternatives from Ericsson or Nokia due to scale and subsidies.[68]Rip-and-replace costs provide concrete empirical evidence of short-term burdens. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission estimated $1.618 billion required to remove and replace Huawei and ZTE equipment from rural networks, with actual approved reimbursements totaling $1.9 billion against higher submitted claims of nearly $5 billion.[83][84] The United Kingdom's 2020 decision to phase out Huawei from 5G networks incurred £500 million ($612 million) for BT alone in core network removal, alongside broader economic projections of up to £7 billion in lost productivity from delayed 5G rollout by up to three years.[65][85] Australia's exclusion of Huawei, implemented in 2018, was estimated by Huawei-commissioned analysis to cost $11.9 billion in foregone GDP over 15 years and $300 million annually in higher equipment prices, though independent verification of these figures is limited and potentially inflated by the sponsor's interests.[86][87]On the benefits side, market data indicates supply chain diversification and gains for trusted vendors. Following Clean Network advocacy, Huawei's global RAN market share outside China declined, enabling Ericsson and Nokia to capture increased contracts; for instance, in North America, Ericsson and Huawei held over 60% combined share in early 2025, but bans shifted Western preferences toward the former.[88] By 2021, over 30 countries aligned with the initiative had restricted high-risk vendors, correlating with Huawei's exclusion from sensitive 5G core infrastructure in regions like Europe and the Indo-Pacific, potentially averting long-term dependencies on opaque supply chains subsidized by Chinese state entities.[16] Empirical security gains are inferred from reduced exposure rather than direct metrics, as U.S. intelligence assessments highlight Huawei's integration risks without declassified exploit evidence, prompting debates over whether proactive exclusion justifies costs absent proven incidents.[14][89]Analyses diverge on net impact. A 2019 Technology Policy Institute panel noted that while bans impose upfront costs—higher in Europe due to Huawei's entrenched presence—they foster innovation in secure alternatives, with U.S. rural networks' reliance underscoring transition challenges but also highlighting mitigation via audits like the UK's HCSEC board, which flagged code issues without confirming state-directed backdoors.[68] Huawei-funded studies emphasize GDP losses and rollout delays, yet overlook intangible benefits like preserved intellectual property and alliance interoperability, as seen in NATO-aligned nations prioritizing trusted networks amid geopolitical tensions.[90] Overall, empirical evidence tilts toward verifiable costs in billions, with benefits accruing asymmetrically through risk reduction whose value hinges on crediting unobservable averted threats, fueling ongoing contention between economic immediacy and strategic prudence.[12]
Future Prospects
Developments Under Recent Administrations
The Clean Network initiative was formally announced by U.S. Secretary of StateMike Pompeo on August 5, 2020, as a multipart strategy to exclude untrusted vendors—primarily Huawei, ZTE, and other Chinese telecommunications firms—from global 5G networks, undersea cables, data storage, and apps, emphasizing trusted partners from democratic nations.[2] Under the Trump administration, Under Secretary of State Keith Krach led diplomatic efforts, securing commitments from over 60 countries and more than 200 telecom companies by January 2021 to avoid high-risk Chinese suppliers, with notable accessions including Brazil as the 50th partner.[3] These pledges focused on empirical risks of data interception and espionage, backed by U.S. intelligence assessments of Chinese Communist Party influence over firms like Huawei.[91]The incoming Biden administration upheld core Trump-era restrictions on Huawei and ZTE, retaining the company's placement on the Commerce Department's Entity List since May 2019, which limits access to U.S. semiconductors and software essential for 5G equipment. In November 2022, the Federal Communications Commission, under Biden-appointed leadership, prohibited approvals for new telecommunications or video surveillance equipment from Huawei and ZTE, citing national security risks including potential intelligence gathering, and extended bans to federal grants and subsidies.[92] This action implemented bipartisan legislation from the 2022 National Defense Authorization Act, removing an estimated 500,000 pieces of existing risky equipment at a cost of up to $5 billion to U.S. taxpayers, while enforcing rip-and-replace mandates.[58]Biden officials tightened export controls in October 2022 and beyond, targeting advanced computing chips and manufacturing tools to Huawei, further hampering its recovery in 5G and emerging technologies like AI-integrated networks, as evidenced by the firm's reported revenue stagnation in its carrier business unit through 2024.[93] However, the explicit "Clean Network" diplomatic branding and alliance-building outreach diminished post-2021, with U.S. policy shifting toward integrated multilateral frameworks, such as the 2022 Quad critical and emerging technology working group and AUKUS Pillar II for secure telecom standards, rather than standalone pledges.[9] Critics from think tanks like the Heritage Foundation argued this de-emphasis risked eroding momentum against Chinese vendors, though empirical data showed sustained global market exclusion of Huawei in allied 5G auctions, with its international revenue share dropping below 20% by 2023.[91] No formal reversal occurred, and restrictions persisted into 2025 amid ongoing U.S.-China tech decoupling.
Challenges from Emerging Technologies and Geopolitics
The transition from 5G to 6G networks introduces technical complexities that challenge the Clean Network's emphasis on excluding untrusted vendors, as 6G architectures will integrate quantum computing, AI-driven automation, and edge processing, potentially magnifying espionage risks from compromised hardware embedded early in supply chains. Quantum advancements threaten existing cryptographic protocols, necessitating post-quantum cryptography implementations that require verifiable hardware integrity to prevent backdoor exploitation, a vulnerability heightened if Chinese firms dominate foundational components.[94][95] China's state-backed investments in quantum and 6G research, including through entities like Huawei, position it to export integrated solutions that bypass Clean Network restrictions in cost-sensitive markets.[96]Geopolitically, the Clean Network contends with China's Digital Silk Road (DSR), which by 2025—marking its 10th anniversary—has facilitated over $124 billion in Belt and Road Initiative agreements in the first half of the year alone, embedding Chinese telecommunications and data infrastructure in developing regions.[97][98] This expansion forces binary choices between U.S.-aligned "clean" stacks and Chinese alternatives, particularly in the Global South and Western Balkans, where economic dependencies and infrastructure gaps incentivize DSR adoption despite security concerns.[99][22] U.S. efforts to counter DSR, such as through alliances in Saudi Arabia for AI chip access, remain stalled amid negotiations as of September 2025, underscoring alliance cohesion challenges amid U.S.-China rivalry.[100]In regions like the Middle East, Chinese undersea cable projects under DSR compete directly with Clean Network principles, enabling data routing through Beijing-influenced pathways that evade Western oversight.[101] The U.S.-China competition extends to AI geopolitics beyond bilateral ties, with third parties leveraging Chinese tech for sovereignty gains, diluting Clean Network momentum.[102] Empirical data on network breaches, such as those attributed to Huawei-linked supply chains, reinforce causal links between untrusted vendors and heightened geopolitical vulnerabilities, yet adoption barriers persist due to DSR's financing models.[103]
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