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Three Emperors Dinner
Three Emperors Dinner
Three Emperors Dinner
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The Dîner des trois empereurs or Three Emperors Dinner was a banquet held at Café Anglais in Paris, France on 7 June 1867.[1] It consisted of 16 courses with eight wines served over eight hours.

Overview

[edit]

The Three Emperors Dinner was prepared by chef Adolphe Dugléré at the request of King William I of Prussia who frequented the cafe during the Exposition Universelle. He requested a meal to be remembered and at which no expense was to be spared for himself and his guests, Tsar Alexander II of Russia, plus his son the Tsarevitch (who later became Tsar Alexander III), and Otto von Bismarck.

The name "Three Emperors Dinner" is something of a misnomer and apparently was applied retrospectively (apparently in analogy to the Battle of the Three Emperors), as only Alexander II bore the title of Emperor at the time. Wilhelm I would not be proclaimed Kaiser (Emperor) until 1871, whereas Alexander III would only ascend the Imperial Russian throne in 1881 after his father's assassination.

The cellar master, Claudius Burdel, was instructed to accompany the dishes with the greatest wines in the world, including a Roederer champagne in a special lead glass bottle, so Tsar Alexander could admire the bubbles and golden colour.[2]

The banquet consisted of 16 courses with eight wines served over eight hours. The cost of the meal was 400 francs per person[3] (over €9,000 in 2026 prices). The high price of the wines served contributed to the high price of the meal.[1]

At 1 o'clock in the morning, Tsar Alexander is reported to have complained that the meal had not contained foie gras. Burdel explained that it was not the custom in French cuisine to eat foie gras in June. The following October, he was sent three terrines of foie gras made by Dugléré as a gift.[4]

The table used for the banquet and a copy of the menu is on display at La Tour d'Argent restaurant in Paris.[5]

[edit]

The menu included the following, among the 16 courses:

MENU


Potages

Impératrice
Fontanges

Relevés

Soufflé à la reine
Filets de sole à la vénitienne
Escalope de turbot au gratin
Selle de mouton purée Bretonne

Entrées

Poulet à la portugaise
Pâté chaud de cailles
Homard à la parisienne

Digérer
Sorbets au champagne

Rôts

Canetons à la rouennaise
Ortolans sur canapés

Entremets

Aubergines à l'espagnole
Asperges en branches
Cassolette princesse

Dessert

Bombe glacée
Fruit

VINS

Madère retour de l'Inde 1810
Xérès 1821
Châteaux d'Yquem 1847
Chambertin 1846
Châteaux Margaux 1847
Château Latour 1847
Châteaux Lafite 1848
Champagne Roederer frappé

Potage impératrice consists of a chicken stock thickened with tapioca and finished with egg yolks and cream, to which poached rounds of chicken forcemeat, cockscombs, cocks' kidneys and green peas are added.[6]
Potage fontanges is a purée of fresh peas diluted with consommé with the addition of a chiffonade of sorrel and sprigs of chervil.[7]
Soufflé à la reine is a chicken soufflé with truffles[7]
Sauce vénitienne is a sauce of white wine, tarragon vinegar, shallots and chervil, mounted with butter and finished with chopped chervil and tarragon.[6]
Selle de mouton purée Bretonne is saddle of mutton with a purée of broad beans bound with Breton sauce.[7]
Poulet à la portugaise is whole chicken roasted with a covering of adobo paste consisting of tomato, red bell pepper, garlic, origanum, paprika, cayenne pepper, brown sugar, lemon juice, white wine, chicken stock and olive oil, stuffed with tomato flavoured rice.[6]
Pâté chaud de cailles is warm pâté of quail.
Homard à la parisienne is lobster cooked in court bouillon, cut into slices and glazed with aspic, with a garnish of tomatoes stuffed with a macédoine of vegetables, dressed with a mixture of mayonnaise and aspic and garnished with sliced truffle.
Canetons à la rouennaise is a dish of roast duckling stuffed with forcemeat. The legs and breasts are removed, the legs are grilled and the breasts are thinly sliced and arranged around the stuffing. The remaining carcass is pressed in a poultry press to extract all the juices and is added to a Rouennaise sauce, which is poured over the sliced duck.[6] (This dish is today the speciality of the house at La Tour d'Argent.)[8]
Ortolans sur canapés, ortolans (now a protected species) on toast.
Aubergines à l'espagnole is a dish of aubergine shells filled with chopped aubergine, tomato and ham and a gruyère gratin.
Cassolette princesse, (a.k.a. Cassolette argenteuil), A cassolette with a border of duchesse potatoes and an asparagus filling in cream sauce.[7]
Bombe glacée is an ice cream dessert.[7]

– Source:[2]

Re-creation

[edit]

Australian chef Shannon Bennett attempted to recreate the banquet in 2002. It took six months to plan and required some changes due to key ingredients and wines no longer being available. Even using the nearest modern equivalent ingredients and wines, the cost of the meal was AUS$7,500 per person. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast the documentary Three Emperors Dinner about the original banquet and the modern recreation in 2003.[9]

See also

[edit]
[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Three Emperors Dinner

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from Grokipedia
The Three Emperors Dinner, known in French as the Dîner des trois empereurs, was a legendary banquet held on 7 June 1867 at the in , , during the Exposition Universelle of 1867. It gathered , his son the (future Alexander III), King William I of , and Prussian Chancellor for a diplomatic and gastronomic occasion amid intricate Franco-Prussian-Russian relations. Crafted by acclaimed chef Adolphe Dugléré, a pupil of the renowned Antonin Carême, the meal comprised 16 elaborate courses paired with eight exceptional wines, served over eight hours at a staggering cost of 400 francs per person—equivalent to approximately 10,500 euros as of 2025. This event epitomized the zenith of 19th-century haute cuisine, showcasing the Café Anglais's reputation as one of Paris's premier establishments. The menu, structured in the classic French style, opened with potages such as impératrice and Fontanges, followed by relevés including filets de sole à la vénitienne and escalopes de turbot au gratin. Entrées featured items like pâté chaud de cailles and homard à la parisienne, while roasts included canetons à la rouennaise and the rare ortolans sur canapés—small songbirds eaten whole, a delicacy now protected by law. The meal concluded with entremets such as asperges en branche and desserts including bombes glacées. The wine pairings elevated the dinner's prestige, featuring legendary bottles like the 1847 Château d’Yquem, 1847 , 1848 Château Lafite, and 1846 . Beyond its culinary splendor, the banquet symbolized fleeting European harmony on the eve of the , with the original menu preserved as a historical artifact at La Tour d’Argent restaurant in . Its influence endures, inspiring recreations by modern chefs and affirming Dugléré's contributions to French gastronomy, including eponymous dishes like soufflé à la reine.

Historical Background

The Exposition Universelle of 1867

The Exposition Universelle of 1867 was a grand international exhibition held in , , organized by to highlight the achievements of the Second French Empire in , industry, fine arts, and culture. Spanning 68.7 hectares on the , the event featured elaborate pavilions from 42 participating countries, showcasing technological innovations, luxury goods, and artistic displays in a central iron-and-glass structure along with nearly 100 auxiliary buildings. It ran from April 1 to November 3, 1867, drawing an estimated 15 million visitors and involving over 50,000 exhibitors who presented advancements in machinery, textiles, and colonial products, underscoring 's role as a leader in global progress. Politically, the exposition served as a strategic platform for to bolster the prestige of his regime amid domestic reforms and international rivalries, coinciding with Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann's transformation of into a modern capital. By inviting rulers from across , including a notable of 12 heads of state on July 1, the event provided a neutral venue for diplomatic interactions during a period of escalating tensions that would culminate in the three years later. This gathering emphasized France's diplomatic centrality, allowing monarchs to engage in informal discussions away from formal treaty negotiations, thereby reinforcing alliances and projecting imperial harmony. The exposition's series of high-profile receptions and banquets created an atmosphere conducive to elite social and political exchanges, exemplified by events like the Three Emperors Dinner.

The Meeting of European Monarchs

During the Exposition Universelle of 1867 in , Prussian King William I arranged a private meeting with Russian Alexander II around early June to foster closer bilateral relations amid rising tensions with . The discussions focused on potential alliances to counter French dominance in European affairs and to bolster Prussian efforts toward German unification under Prussian leadership. Otto von Bismarck, serving as Prussian Minister-President and Chancellor, played a pivotal role in the talks, advocating for Russo-Prussian cooperation on the —concerns over Ottoman decline and Russian interests in the —and the broader balance of power in . These conversations occurred against the backdrop of post-Crimean War realignments, where Prussia sought Russian neutrality or support to offset French and Austrian opposition to its ambitions. The meeting in early June 1867 marked the culmination of these diplomatic exchanges, immediately leading into the celebratory banquet that evening. It reinforced Russo-Prussian ties, laying groundwork for future collaborations that contributed to the formation of the German Empire in 1871 and the League of the Three Emperors in 1873.

The Dinner Event

Venue and Organization

The Three Emperors Dinner took place at the , a prestigious restaurant situated at 24 Boulevard des Italiens in , renowned during the Second Empire for its luxurious interiors and role as a central venue for elite Parisian society. Established in 1802 and rebuilt in 1822, the café offered opulent private dining rooms that catered to the , foreign dignitaries, and cultural luminaries amid the grandeur of III's era. The selection of this location aligned with the event's diplomatic context, as it provided a discreet yet extravagant setting for the private gathering of European monarchs during the Exposition Universelle of 1867. The banquet was held in the café's "Grand Seize" salon, a spacious and elegantly appointed private room designed to accommodate intimate high-society functions with elaborate decor and impeccable service. Organization of the event was initiated at the request of Prussian King William I, a frequent patron of the during his stay in for the exposition, with Prussian court officials overseeing the arrangements to ensure protocol and splendor. Chef Dugléré, who had assumed leadership of the restaurant's kitchens in 1866 after apprenticing under , directed the culinary and logistical planning, coordinating a team to create table settings, floral arrangements, and an orchestrated service for approximately 12 to 16 guests, including the principals and their aides. Logistically, the dinner extended over eight hours in the evening, embodying the Second Empire's emphasis on protracted, ceremonial French dining traditions with sequential courses presented in a formal progression. Preparations involved procuring premium ingredients, some sourced from specialized suppliers across and beyond, to meet the exacting standards of the occasion. The per-person cost reached 400 francs—equivalent to roughly €11,000 in 2025 , largely due to the inclusion of exceptional wines and rare components—highlighting the event's extravagance and the café's status as a pinnacle of 19th-century .

Key Attendees

The primary attendees at the Three Emperors Dinner were King William I of , who served as the host, , the tsar's son Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich (later Alexander III), and , the Prussian minister-president and key advisor to William I. William I, then aged 70 and ruler of since 1861, organized the intimate banquet to strengthen diplomatic ties between and Russia amid the tensions of the ongoing European power balance. , the reigning since 1855 and the only actual emperor present at the time, was accompanied by his 22-year-old heir, who would succeed him in 1881 following 's assassination. , aged 52 and instrumental in Prussian foreign policy, attended as William I's closest confidant, leveraging the occasion to discuss mutual interests against French influence under . The event's name, "Three Emperors Dinner," emerged retrospectively, as William I was proclaimed (Kaiser Wilhelm I) only in 1871 after the , while Alexander Alexandrovich became Alexander III much later. In 1867, the gathering symbolized Prussian aspirations for greater influence, with Alexander II pursuing a pro-Prussian stance in Russian foreign policy to counterbalance and . The dinner, held privately at the away from the official Exposition Universelle events, allowed for candid exchanges among these leaders, fostering a sense of camaraderie through shared toasts to enduring alliances and European peace. Though specific transcripts of conversations are scarce, contemporary accounts describe the atmosphere as one of diplomatic warmth, with discussions reinforcing the informal Prussian-Russian entente that would shape events leading to the 1870s alliances.

The Menu and Service

Structure of the Courses

The Three Emperors Dinner featured a meticulously structured 16-course menu, emblematic of 19th-century French banqueting, where dishes were presented sequentially in a fixed progression rather than an format. This format allowed for a leisurely pace, enabling conversation among dignitaries while plates were cleared (removes) between courses, utilizing the emerging à la russe service style—wherein waiters portioned food from platters at the table—for the event's refined presentations with elaborate garnishes. The entire meal unfolded over approximately eight hours, emphasizing seasonal and luxurious ingredients such as truffles, , ortolans, and fresh to showcase opulence and culinary precision. The menu commenced with two potages, or soups, to open the palate: Potage Impératrice, a chicken consommé thickened with , finished with yolks and , and garnished with poached breasts; and Potage Fontanges, a delicate of peas, , , leeks, and other , finished with . These were followed by , substantial main courses highlighting fish and : à la Reine, a light soufflé of and in a creamy sauce; Filets de Sole à la Vénitienne, sole fillets poached in with a subtle Venetian sauce; Escalope de au , turbot slices gratineed with cheese; and Selle de Mouton Purée Bretonne, saddle of mutton accompanied by a purée of artichokes and . Subsequent entrées offered smaller, more intricate dishes: Poulet à la Portugaise, braised with and tricolored peppers; Pâté Chaud de Cailles, warm encased in ; Homard à la Parisienne, medallions with a of vegetables; and Sorbets au Champagne, refreshing sorbets in chilled Champagne to aid digestion. The rôtis, or roasts, then arrived as the meal's hearty climax: Canetons à la Rouennaise, young ducklings with Bordeaux sauce and ; and Ortolans sur Canapés, songbirds roasted and served on toasted bread points. The progression concluded with entremets and desserts, providing lighter vegetable and sweet elements: Aubergines à l’Espagnole, eggplant prepared with a Spanish-style ; Asperges en Branches, whole spears from premium varieties; Cassolette Princesse, a medley of vegetable in a sauce; and , a molded bombe infused with flavors, accompanied by fresh fruits. Each course was garnished extravagantly to enhance visual and sensory appeal, underscoring the banquets' role as a diplomatic and cultural spectacle.

Wines and Pairings

The selection of wines for the Three Emperors Dinner was curated by the ' cellar master, Claudius Burdel, who was tasked with assembling the finest vintages available to complement the banquet's grandeur. Eight exceptional wines were chosen, emphasizing rarity and prestige, many predating and drawn from the cellars of Europe's elite producers to underscore the event's diplomatic and opulent nature. Note that some sources vary on exact vintages, such as (1810 or 1846). The wines followed a deliberate aligned with the meal's progression, starting with fortified options to stimulate the during appetizers, transitioning to crisp whites for courses, robust reds for the main meat dishes to enhance their flavors, and concluding with sweet and sparkling varieties for desserts. This approach not only balanced the rich, multi-course menu but also highlighted the sensory harmony central to 19th-century . Specific glassware, such as tulip-shaped stems for reds to concentrate aromas and flutes for Champagne, was employed to optimize the tasting experience. The following table enumerates the eight wines, their types, and approximate pairings based on the banquet's structure:
WineVintageTypeApproximate Pairing
Madère retour de l'Inde1810Fortified Appetizers and soups
Xérès1821Early courses
Château d'Yquem1847Sweet Sauternes or desserts
Chambertin1846Red Meat relevés
Château Margaux1847Red Roasted mains
Château Latour1847Red Roasted mains
Château Lafite1848Red Roasted mains
Louis Roederer ChampagneSpecial SparklingSorbets and dessert
These vintages exemplified rarity, with the and selections hailing from legendary estates classified in the 1855 Exposition and earlier, while the Roederer was specially produced in a clear crystal bottle at the II's request to admire its golden hue, reflecting contributions from Russian imperial preferences. The total assemblage symbolized the opulence, as the cost per person—400 francs—encompassed unlimited access to these treasures, far exceeding typical lavish banquets of the era. Service was meticulously handled by Burdel and his team of sommeliers, who decanted and poured the wines tableside to maintain freshness and —chilling the Champagne in ice and allowing reds to breathe. Toasts were woven into the evening's flow, such as salutes to France, , and after key courses, further elevating the diplomatic atmosphere over the eight-hour duration. This orchestration not only facilitated seamless progression but also reinforced the dinner's status as a pinnacle of 19th-century .

Culinary Significance

Innovations by Adolphe Dugléré

Adolphe Dugléré (1805–1884), a leading figure in 19th-century French gastronomy, served as head chef at the renowned in starting in 1866, where he elevated the restaurant to the pinnacle of Parisian dining. Trained under the master chef and having previously acted as chef to the , Dugléré brought a refined approach to that emphasized precision, elegance, and the use of superior ingredients. His tenure at the , which became synonymous with culinary excellence, also influenced subsequent generations of chefs through principles of structured service and flavor balance. For the Three Emperors Dinner on June 7, 1867, Dugléré crafted a menu of 16 courses that exemplified his innovative techniques, focusing on the refinement of classic preparations to create harmonious, multi-layered flavors suitable for an international audience of monarchs. He prioritized fresh, seasonal ingredients, such as vibrant green peas and for the Potage Fontanges—a velvety diluted with , garnished with of and chervil sprigs—to provide a light yet sophisticated opening that balanced acidity and earthiness without overwhelming the palate. This dish, prepared tableside where possible, highlighted Dugléré's skill in reductions and precise seasoning, ensuring clarity of taste amid the dinner's elaborate progression. Dugléré's approach extended to integrating regional specialties with French precision, as seen in the Canetons à la rouennaise, a roast duckling from stuffed with , where the legs were grilled and the breasts thinly sliced and pressed in a silver device to extract rich juices for a velvety . This technique not only maximized flavor extraction but also showcased his emphasis on , with the pressed elements served dramatically to underscore French culinary supremacy while adapting to diverse preferences through subtle flavor balances that avoided monotony across courses. By customizing elements like these—employing exacting , controlled reductions, and artful garnishes—Dugléré transformed traditional recipes into elevated expressions of gastronomic artistry, setting a benchmark for fare.

Lasting Influence on Haute Cuisine

The Three Emperors Dinner marked the zenith of Second Empire cuisine, embodying the height of French culinary prestige in shortly before the of 1870–1871 upended the nation's political and cultural dominance. Held amid the grandeur of the 1867 Exposition Universelle, the banquet's opulent 16-course menu, blending sophisticated French techniques with symbolic international elements, exemplified the era's as a tool of and diplomatic display. This event underscored the synthesis of refined gastronomic arts that influenced royal courts across the continent, signaling a transitional moment where French culinary leadership began to inspire emulation in emerging powers like and . The dinner's cultural significance lay in elevating chefs to the status of artists within , with Dugléré, its mastermind and a protégé of Antonin Carême, hailed by as the "Mozart of the kitchen" for his innovative presentations and flavor harmonies. Specific dishes, such as the canard à la presse (), where the bird's juices are extracted tableside for a rich sauce, became enduring staples of the classic French repertoire, symbolizing theatrical luxury and technical mastery that persisted beyond the Second . The event's emphasis on sequential courses, precise service à la russe, and lavish pairings reinforced the chef's role as a creator of experiential art, a notion that permeated subsequent European banqueting traditions. In the years following the dinner, the attendees—already Tsar Alexander II, his son (who became Tsar Alexander III in 1881), and King Wilhelm I (who became in 1871)—were all emperors, giving the banquet its retrospective iconic name. Referenced in gastronomic histories at 400 francs per person, it established benchmarks for scale and splendor in state dinners and elite gatherings, inspiring the multi-course tasting menus that define contemporary . Its legacy endures in scholarly works on , highlighting how such banquets shaped global standards for luxury and refinement.

Modern Recreations

The 2002 Australian Recreation

In 2002, Australian chef Shannon Bennett organized a recreation of the Three Emperors Dinner at his restaurant Vue de Monde in Melbourne, aiming to revive historical culinary techniques through faithful replication of the original menu. The event featured all 16 courses from the 1867 banquet, prepared with period-appropriate ingredients where possible, including dishes such as Soufflé à la Reine (a chicken soufflé with truffles), Pâté Chaud de Cailles (warm quail pâté), Ortolan sur Canapés, and Bombe Glacée as the ice cream dessert. The dinner cost A$7,500 per person and mirrored the original's structure of eight wines paired across the courses. Planning required six months of research into the historical menu preserved at Tour d'Argent in , with adaptations made for modern sourcing challenges, particularly for rare ingredients and vintage wines. The recreation was served over eight hours, emphasizing authenticity in methods like manual pressing for the duck course (Caneton de à la Presse). The event was documented in the 2003 Australian Broadcasting Corporation documentary The 3 Emperors Dinner: Recreating a Culinary Past, which explored the original banquet's history alongside Bennett's preparation process and the revival's execution.

Subsequent Interpretations and Dishes

Following the landmark 2002 recreation in , subsequent interpretations of the Three Emperors Dinner have largely focused on individual dishes rather than full banquets, emphasizing historical homage and contemporary refinements in . A prime example is La Tour d'Argent's enduring " of the Three Emperors," a truffled terrine originally gifted to the dignitaries in October 1867 after the event, now served by the spoonful from whole goose liver and remaining a signature item on the restaurant's menu. This dish exemplifies an institutional adaptation, with modern preparations maintaining the classic technique of whole-liver presentation while adhering to rigorous sourcing standards for the goose liver. Partial recreations of select courses have appeared in culinary and media, often highlighting desserts like the berry-caramel bombe to showcase 19th-century techniques in accessible formats. These efforts underscore an educational emphasis in workshops, where the dinner's recipes serve as case studies for evolving presentation and flavor balancing. Modern iterations also integrate sustainability, such as exploring ethical alternatives to traditional production, like naturally fattened goose livers from acorn-fed birds, to align with contemporary ethical standards without altering core flavors. The original menu and table service from the 1867 banquet are preserved and displayed at in , which acquired artifacts from the former , allowing public access to this culinary milestone. Dishes from the dinner feature in historical French cookbooks as exemplars of classical , inspiring chefs to adapt elements like the potage or sautés for fusion menus in European restaurants.

References

  1. https://www.lemonde.fr/series-d-ete/article/2020/08/17/un-jour-un-festin-en-1867-le-diner-des-trois-empereurs_6049093_3451060.html
  2. https://westgarthwines.com/blogs/news/feast-fit-for-three-kings
  3. https://www.geriwalton.com/french-miscellany-in-the-1860s/
  4. http://www.theoldfoodie.com/2006/06/dinner-of-three-emperors.html
  5. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1867-paris
  6. https://americanhistory.si.edu/steinwaydiary/annotations/?id=946
  7. https://library.brown.edu/cds/paris/worldfairs.html
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321090293_When_Germany_became_the_new_France_Royal_Dining_at_the_Bavarian_Court_of_Maximilian_II_and_the_Political_Gastronomy_of_Johann_Rottenhofer_in_Transnational_European_Perspective_1830-1870
  9. https://www.nytimes.com/1867/06/03/archives/european-news-an-understanding-between-russia-and-prussia-on-the.html
  10. https://genovefa.bsg.univ-paris3.fr/files/cuisine/LivretExpositionCuisine2024WEBr%C3%A9duit.pdf
  11. https://www.foodreference.com/html/wadolpheduglere.html
  12. https://lostpastremembered.blogspot.com/2012/06/dinner-of-three-emperors-berry-caramel.html
  13. https://www.officialdata.org/france/inflation
  14. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Three-Emperors-Dinner
  15. https://chambertinages.com/2022/12/15/le-diner-des-trois-empereurs/
  16. http://menus.free.fr/index_fichiers/Page2511.htm
  17. https://eatingarchitecture.tumblr.com/post/25707443855/three-emperors-dinner
  18. https://www.paris-bistro.com/univers/cafes-et-histoire/le-diner-des-trois-empereurs-au-cafe-anglais
  19. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolphe-Duglere
  20. https://frenchfood.com/father-of-french-cuisine/
  21. http://archive.sciendo.com/IRSR/irsr.2017.7.issue-1/irsr-2017-0006/irsr-2017-0006.pdf
  22. https://www.revuedesdeuxmondes.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/82e11c9bbbed3c90ecc8d8798264b565.pdf
  23. https://belgiandandy.blogspot.com/2024/08/the-art-and-legacy-of-christofle-duck.html
  24. https://hal.science/hal-01639169
  25. https://www.smh.com.au/goodfood/whats-on-weekend-one-of-melbournes-good-food-month-2014-20141031-11f0pe.html
  26. https://vuedemonde.com.au/vue-de-monde
  27. https://search.worldcat.org/title/The-3-emperors-dinner-:-recreating-a-culinary-past/oclc/472494283
  28. https://tourdargent.com/en/magazine/3-emperors-fois-gras/
  29. https://tourdargent.jp/en/about-us/history/
  30. https://epicerie.tourdargent.com/en/savory/1351-goose-foie-gras-from-the-three-emperors-250g.html
  31. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/18/the-farmer-who-makes-ethical-foie-gras
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