Hubbry Logo
Thrust faultThrust faultMain
Open search
Thrust fault
Community hub
Thrust fault
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Thrust fault
Thrust fault
Thrust fault
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Thrust fault in the Qilian Shan, China. The older (left, blue, and red) thrust over the younger (right, brown).
The Glencoul Thrust at Aird da Loch, Assynt in Scotland. The irregular grey mass of rock is formed of Archaean or Paleoproterozoic Lewisian gneisses thrust over well-bedded Cambrian quartzite, along the top of the younger unit.
Small thrust fault in the cliffs at Lilstock Bay, Somerset, England; displacement of about two metres (6.6 ft)

A thrust fault is a break in the Earth's crust, across which older rocks are pushed above younger rocks.

Thrust geometry and nomenclature

[edit]
Diagram of the evolution of a fault-bend fold or 'ramp anticline' above a thrust ramp, the ramp links decollements at the top of the green and yellow layers
Diagram of the evolution of a fault propagation fold
Development of thrust duplex by progressive failure of ramp footwall
Antiformal stack of thrust imbricates proved by drilling, Brooks Range Foothills, Alaska

Reverse faults

[edit]

A thrust fault is a type of reverse fault that has a dip of 45 degrees or less.[1][2]

If the angle of the fault plane is lower (often less than 15 degrees from the horizontal[3]) and the displacement of the overlying block is large (often in the kilometer range) the fault is called an overthrust or overthrust fault.[4] Erosion can remove part of the overlying block, creating a fenster (or window) – when the underlying block is exposed only in a relatively small area. When erosion removes most of the overlying block, leaving island-like remnants resting on the lower block, the remnants are called klippen (singular klippe).

Blind thrust faults

[edit]
Main article: Blind thrust earthquake

If the fault plane terminates before it reaches the Earth's surface, it is called a blind thrust fault. Because of the lack of surface evidence, blind thrust faults are difficult to detect until rupture. The destructive 1994 earthquake in Northridge, Los Angeles, California, was caused by a previously undiscovered blind thrust fault.

Because of their low dip, thrusts are also difficult to appreciate in mapping, where lithological offsets are generally subtle and stratigraphic repetition is difficult to detect, especially in peneplain areas.

Fault-bend folds

[edit]

Thrust faults, particularly those involved in thin-skinned style of deformation, have a so-called ramp-flat geometry. Thrusts mainly propagate along zones of weakness within a sedimentary sequence, such as mudstones or halite layers; these parts of the thrust are called decollements. If the effectiveness of the decollement becomes reduced, the thrust will tend to cut up the section to a higher stratigraphic level until it reaches another effective decollement where it can continue as bedding parallel flat. The part of the thrust linking the two flats is known as a ramp and typically forms at an angle of about 15°–30° to the bedding. Continued displacement on a thrust over a ramp produces a characteristic fold geometry known as a ramp anticline or, more generally, as a fault-bend fold.

Fault-propagation folds

[edit]

Fault-propagation folds form at the tip of a thrust fault where propagation along the decollement has ceased, but displacement on the thrust behind the fault tip continues. The formation of an asymmetric anticline-syncline fold pair accommodates the continuing displacement. As displacement continues, the thrust tip starts to propagate along the axis of the syncline. Such structures are also known as tip-line folds. Eventually, the propagating thrust tip may reach another effective decollement layer, and a composite fold structure will develop with fault-bending and fault-propagation folds' characteristics.

Thrust duplex

[edit]

Duplexes occur where two decollement levels are close to each other within a sedimentary sequence, such as the top and base of a relatively strong sandstone layer bounded by two relatively weak mudstone layers. When a thrust that has propagated along the lower detachment, known as the floor thrust, cuts up to the upper detachment, known as the roof thrust, it forms a ramp within the stronger layer. With continued displacement on the thrust, higher stresses are developed in the footwall of the ramp due to the bend on the fault. This may cause renewed propagation along the floor thrust until it again cuts up to join the roof thrust. Further displacement then takes place via the newly created ramp. This process may repeat many times, forming a series of fault-bounded thrust slices known as imbricates or horses, each with the geometry of a fault-bend fold of small displacement. The final result is typically a lozenge-shaped duplex.

Most duplexes have only small displacements on the bounding faults between the horses, which dip away from the foreland. Occasionally, the displacement on the individual horses is more significant, such that each horse lies more or less vertically above the other; this is known as an antiformal stack or imbricate stack. If the individual displacements are still greater, the horses have a foreland dip.

Duplexing is a very efficient mechanism of accommodating the shortening of the crust by thickening the section rather than by folding and deformation.[5]

Tectonic environment

[edit]
Main article: Thrust tectonics
An example of thin-skinned deformation (thrusting) in Montana. Note that the white Madison Limestone is repeated, with one example in the foreground and another at a higher level to the upper right corner and top of the picture.

Large overthrust faults occur in areas that have undergone great compressional forces.

These conditions exist in the orogenic belts that result from either two continental tectonic collisions or from subduction zone accretion.

The resultant compressional forces produce mountain ranges. The Himalayas, the Alps, and the Appalachians are prominent examples of compressional orogenies with numerous overthrust faults.

Thrust faults occur in the foreland basin, marginal to orogenic belts. Here, compression does not result in appreciable mountain building, which is mostly accommodated by folding and stacking of thrusts. Instead, thrust faults generally cause a thickening of the stratigraphic section. When thrusts are developed in orogens formed in previously rifted margins, inversion of the buried paleo-rifts can induce the nucleation of thrust ramps.[6]

Foreland basin thrusts also usually observe the ramp-flat geometry, with thrusts propagating within units at very low angle "flats" (at 1–5 degrees) and then moving up-section in steeper ramps (at 5–20 degrees) where they offset stratigraphic units. Thrusts have also been detected in cratonic settings, where "far-foreland" deformation has advanced into intracontinental areas.[6]

Thrusts and duplexes are also found in accretionary wedges in the ocean trench margin of subduction zones, where oceanic sediments are scraped off the subducted plate and accumulate. Here, the accretionary wedge must thicken by up to 200%, and this is achieved by stacking thrust fault upon thrust fault in a melange of disrupted rock, often with chaotic folding. Here, ramp flat geometries are not usually observed because the compressional force is at a steep angle to the sedimentary layering.

Thrust Fault Outcrop

History

[edit]

Thrust faults were unrecognised until the work of Arnold Escher von der Linth, Albert Heim and Marcel Alexandre Bertrand in the Alps working on the Glarus Thrust; Charles Lapworth, Ben Peach and John Horne working on parts of the Moine Thrust in the Scottish Highlands; Alfred Elis Törnebohm in the Scandinavian Caledonides and R. G. McConnell in the Canadian Rockies.[7][8] The realisation that older strata could, via faulting, be found above younger strata was arrived at more or less independently by geologists in all these areas during the 1880s. Geikie in 1884 coined the term thrust-plane to describe this special set of faults. He wrote:

By a system of reversed faults, a group of strata is made to cover a great breadth of ground and actually to overlie higher members of the same series. The most extraordinary dislocations, however, are those to which for distinction we have given the name of Thrust-planes. They are strictly reversed faults, but with so low a hade that the rocks on their upthrown side have been, as it were, pushed horizontally forward.[9][10]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Thrust fault

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A thrust fault is a type of low-angle reverse fault in which the hanging wall block moves up and over the footwall block along a fault plane that dips at less than 45°, typically around 30°, resulting in older rocks being placed above younger ones. These faults are dip-slip structures formed under compressional tectonic stresses, where horizontal shortening causes the crust to thicken. Thrust faults commonly develop in convergent plate boundaries, such as zones or continental collisions, where they contribute to the formation of fold-and-thrust belts during . In these settings, the faults often exhibit ramp-flat geometry, with subhorizontal flats (glide planes) connected by steeper ramps that cut through rock layers, leading to the repetition of stratigraphic sequences and the development of fault-bend folds. Many thrust faults are blind, meaning they do not reach the surface, instead terminating subsurface and producing surface deformation through associated anticlines and synclines. Displacement along these faults can be substantial, with rock sheets moving tens to hundreds of kilometers horizontally. Geologically, thrust faults play a crucial role in building by facilitating crustal and thickening, as seen in major orogenic belts like the Appalachians, , and . They are also significant for seismic hazards, as movement along thrust faults can generate destructive earthquakes, particularly in regions like the or . Additionally, thrust fault systems in fold belts often create structural traps that accumulate hydrocarbons, making them vital for in areas such as the .

Fundamentals

Definition

A thrust fault is a type of reverse fault in which the hanging wall block moves upward and over the footwall block along a fault plane that dips at a low , less than 45 degrees from the horizontal, typically 10-30 degrees, resulting from compressional tectonic forces. This movement contrasts with normal faults, where the hanging wall descends relative to the footwall under extensional stress, and strike-slip faults, which involve predominantly lateral, horizontal displacement without significant vertical offset. The compressional origin of thrust faults leads to horizontal shortening of the , often accommodating the convergence of tectonic plates. Key parameters of a thrust fault include the inclination angle, or dip, of the fault plane, which is generally shallow to facilitate the overriding motion; the sense of movement, characterized by older rocks in the hanging wall being displaced over younger rocks in the footwall; and the scale, ranging from small displacements of meters to extensive systems spanning hundreds of kilometers. The fault plane orientation, typically planar or listric (curved), influences the overall geometry but is defined primarily by this low-angle dip.

Key Characteristics

Thrust faults exhibit low-angle dips, typically ranging from 5° to 30°, though by definition up to 45°, distinguishing them from steeper reverse faults and facilitating the horizontal transport of rock masses over significant distances. This shallow geometry arises under compressional stress regimes, where the upper crustal rocks undergo predominantly brittle deformation, manifesting as fracturing and faulting, while deeper levels in the lower crust experience ductile deformation through flow and folding. Displacement along these faults can reach magnitudes of tens of kilometers, reflecting the cumulative shortening in convergent tectonic settings. Key associated features of thrust faults include the thickening of stratigraphic sections due to horizontal shortening and stacking of rock layers, which preserves a record of crustal compression. This process often results in the inversion of strata, with older rocks overriding younger ones, creating inverted sequences observable in outcrops. Surface expressions may develop as fault scarps, steep topographic rises formed by differential uplift along the fault trace, particularly in active settings. Identification of thrust faults relies on integrated geological and geophysical methods, including seismic reflection profiles that image the low-angle fault planes and associated offsets. Field mapping reveals stratigraphic discontinuities and inverted sequences, while measurements of lateral and vertical offsets confirm the thrust nature through correlations of displaced markers. These criteria, when combined, distinguish thrust faults from other structures in compressional terrains.

Geometry and Nomenclature

Basic Geometry

A thrust fault is defined by its fault plane, which serves as the surface of rupture separating the hanging wall block above it from the footwall block below it. The hanging wall moves up and over the footwall during contractional deformation, resulting in older rocks typically being displaced onto younger ones. The fault plane itself may be approximately planar, especially over short distances, but is often listric, exhibiting a that flattens with depth; this geometry facilitates the accommodation of horizontal shortening by allowing the hanging wall to ramp up-section while following weaker layers. Key orientation elements of a thrust fault include its strike, which is the compass direction of the line formed by the of the fault plane with a horizontal surface, and its dip, the acute of inclination of the plane measured from the horizontal. The dip direction points toward the downhill side of the tilted plane and typically aligns with the regional tectonic transport direction, often toward the foreland in compressional settings. Crustal , arising from rheological layering such as alternating weak shales and strong sandstones, significantly influences fault propagation by guiding the fault path along planes of weakness, causing deviations in dip and strike where mechanical contrasts occur between layers. In three-dimensional views, faults within a system are visualized through cross-sections perpendicular to the strike, revealing a convergence of multiple fault planes toward a basal décollement surface, forming wedge-shaped structures that thin toward the foreland. This underscores the progressive stacking of sheets, with fault dips generally low (less than 45°) to minimize shear resistance during displacement.

Nomenclature

In , the nomenclature for thrust faults employs standardized terms to describe the geometry and components of these structures, facilitating precise communication in research and mapping. These terms, widely adopted since the late , originate from foundational works in thrust tectonics and are consistently used across the discipline. The hanging wall refers to the block of rock that lies above the fault plane or thrust surface, which moves upward relative to the underlying block during faulting. Conversely, the footwall is the block of rock situated below the fault plane, remaining relatively stationary or moving downward in the reference frame of the hanging wall. These terms are fundamental to all fault descriptions, including thrusts, and are illustrated in cross-sectional diagrams where the hanging wall is depicted as overriding the footwall along the . Thrust faults often exhibit a stepped geometry, described using the terms ramp and flat. A ramp is a steeply dipping segment of the thrust fault, typically at angles greater than 30 degrees, that connects two relatively horizontal segments and accommodates the vertical component of displacement. In contrast, a flat is a low-angle segment of the fault, often dipping less than 30 degrees, that parallels the or a weak layer such as a décollement, allowing lateral translation of rock masses. These elements are commonly shown in schematic block diagrams to highlight how ramps propagate upward through strata while flats follow bedding planes. The tip line denotes the leading edge or boundary of the thrust fault where displacement diminishes to zero, marking the termination of slip propagation. Beyond this line, the fault does not affect the rock volume. In literature, tip lines are critical for analyzing fault propagation and are visualized in maps and sections as curved lines perpendicular to the direction of tectonic transport. At a larger scale, displaced rock masses are termed thrust sheets, which are coherent blocks of strata transported along one or more , often forming allochthonous units in fold-thrust belts. Overlapping arrays of such faults give rise to an imbricate fan, a fan-like series of closely spaced, subparallel that dip in the same direction and progressively young toward the foreland. These system-level terms are standard in descriptions of thrust belts and are depicted in balanced cross-sections to illustrate stacking and shortening.

Relation to Reverse Faults

Thrust faults represent a subset of reverse faults, distinguished primarily by the dip of their fault plane. While reverse faults exhibit a range of dips, typically greater than 30°, thrust faults are defined by low- dips, generally less than 30° and often approaching 10–15°. Both and reverse faults arise from horizontal compressive stresses that drive contractional deformation, with the hanging wall block moving upward relative to the footwall, thereby shortening the crust. This shared mechanics accommodates regional strain in convergent tectonic settings, but the shallower dip of thrust faults enables more efficient horizontal shortening compared to steeper reverse faults, as the displacement vector aligns more closely with the horizontal plane. In certain compressional environments, reverse faults with moderately low angles can transition into thrust faults through progressive rotation and strain under sustained compression, particularly where layered sedimentary sequences facilitate slip along weaker horizons. This evolution is observed in foreland basins, where initial higher-angle reverses flatten to accommodate ongoing tectonic loading.

Structural Types

Blind Thrust Faults

Blind thrust faults are a type of thrust fault that do not propagate to the Earth's surface, terminating subsurface and producing no direct surface rupture during seismic events. Instead, the overlying rocks deform ductily, often resulting in subtle surface expressions such as gentle folding, uplift, or broad anticlines that mask the underlying fault structure. These faults typically exhibit low-angle dips, commonly less than 30 degrees, and are characterized by reverse motion that shortens the crust without exposing the fault plane at the surface. Detection of blind thrust faults relies on indirect geophysical and geological techniques due to their concealed nature. Seismic reflection profiling is a primary method, providing high-resolution images of subsurface fault geometry and associated folds, as demonstrated in studies of urban basins like where profiles reveal thrust ramps and flats buried beneath sediments. Geodetic measurements, such as GPS networks, monitor interseismic strain accumulation and surface deformation patterns, identifying active blind thrusts through subtle horizontal and vertical displacements on the order of millimeters per year. Paleoseismology complements these approaches by excavating trenches across deformed features to uncover evidence of past ruptures, including offset strata and growth strata in folds, which indicate recurrent large-magnitude events. Blind thrust faults are prevalent in settings, where they accommodate crustal shortening in compressional regimes, often hidden beneath thick sedimentary covers. Displacements along these faults can accumulate to 10-20 km of horizontal shortening over geologic time, with individual events producing meters of slip that deform surface layers without breaking them. This hidden scale poses significant seismic hazards, as seen in the on a blind thrust beneath , which generated intense ground shaking despite the absence of surface offset.

Fault-Bend Folds

Fault-bend folds develop in the hanging wall of faults when strata are displaced over non-planar fault segments, particularly bends transitioning between low-angle flats and steeper ramps. This process causes the overlying rock layers to deform by bending, while the footwall remains largely undeformed, resulting in asymmetric anticlines known as ramp anticlines. The deformation occurs through mechanisms such as flexural slip along planes, with the hanging wall strata forced to accommodate the change in fault dip. Geometric models of fault-bend folds, pioneered by Suppe (1983), describe parallel folding where layer thickness is preserved, often exhibiting box-fold or chevron geometries characterized by abrupt changes in dip at axial surfaces. In the kink-band model, fold limbs maintain constant dips as the structure amplifies through progressive migration of kink bands over the fault bend, producing sharp hinges and planar limbs. These models emphasize the role of , such as ramp angle, in controlling limb orientations, with the backlimb typically paralleling the ramp dip and the forelimb steepening with increased displacement. The amplitude and shape of fault-bend folds scale directly with the amount of fault throw, as greater displacement along the ramp amplifies the fold through continued bending of the hanging wall strata. This relationship allows for quantitative reconstruction of fault movement from observed fold geometry, where fold height is proportional to the vertical component of slip on the ramp. Fault-bend folds are commonly observed in compressional fold-and-thrust belts, where they contribute to the structural by accommodating through hanging wall deformation over irregular thrust paths.

Fault-Propagation Folds

Fault-propagation folds develop as a result of strain accumulation ahead of an advancing fault tip, where displacement along the fault diminishes to zero and is instead accommodated by deformation in the overlying strata. This process occurs during the upward or lateral propagation of the , leading to the formation of anticlines that grow incrementally with increasing slip. Unlike other types, the folding here is driven by the fault's tip-line propagation, causing beds to deform in a self-similar manner through mechanisms such as kink-band migration, where slip is consumed entirely by folding at the tip. In some cases, this strain localization can result in the development of splay faults branching from the main , further distributing deformation and potentially leading to more complex geometries. These folds typically exhibit asymmetrical profiles, characterized by a steep or overturned adjacent to the fault and a gentler backlimb, though symmetrical forms can occur depending on layer and fault dip. As displacement increases, progressive limb takes place, with the forelimb steepening and the backlimb tilting, often resulting in box-fold-like shapes in early stages that tighten with continued . The overall arises from the differential strain distribution, where the hanging wall shortens more intensely near the tip, and synclinal hinges remain pinned to the fault plane. Such characteristics are commonly observed in blind thrust settings, where the fault does not breach the surface. Sandbox analogue experiments have been instrumental in modeling the growth of fault- folds, demonstrating how horizontal shortening induces forward of the basal décollement and upward fault tip migration. In these models, initial distributed strain ahead of the tip evolves into localized shear bands that form splay faults, with fold amplitude increasing linearly as the fault propagates, accompanied by symmetrical to asymmetrical uplift profiles. For instance, experiments using layered show that at low shortening ratios (less than 10% of layer thickness), deformation is broad and involves limb rotation, transitioning to discrete thrusting that pins synclines and rotates limbs with further displacement. These results highlight the role of frictional properties and layer thickness in controlling fold symmetry and splay development.

Thrust Duplexes

A thrust duplex is a complex structural assemblage within a thrust belt, consisting of a series of imbricate sheets, known as horses, that are bounded below by a floor thrust and above by a roof thrust. These horses represent fault-bounded blocks of strata that have been sequentially shortened and stacked, forming a multiply deformed zone that accommodates significant tectonic displacement. The internal geometry of a thrust duplex is characterized by the horses, which are typically elongate blocks with their long axes parallel to the strike of the thrusts, separated by minor splay faults that link the floor and roof thrusts. Duplexes exhibit two primary variants based on their dip direction: hinterland-dipping duplexes, where the horses slope toward the hinterland (the direction from which compression originates), and foreland-dipping duplexes, where they slope toward the foreland (the advancing frontal zone). In both cases, the overall structure results in an antiformal stack, with the roof thrust often overriding earlier-formed horses, leading to pronounced thickening of the stratigraphic section. Evolution of thrust duplexes occurs through progressive imbrication, where new thrust ramps nucleate in the footwall of the roof thrust, sequentially incorporating material as to build the structure incrementally. This process facilitates crustal thickening by duplicating layers of the sedimentary cover and , effectively the orogen horizontally while elevating the surface vertically. Displacement is partitioned among the multiple thrusts within the duplex, with earlier horses accommodating more slip than later ones, allowing the system to propagate deformation forward into the foreland. Identification of thrust duplexes in the subsurface or field relies on balanced cross-sections, which reveal repeated stratigraphic sequences indicative of duplicated strata between the floor and roof thrusts. Seismic reflection profiles often show a characteristic "duplex signature" of closely spaced, subparallel reflectors bounded by master thrusts, confirming the imbricate nature of the horses and their role in regional .

Tectonic Settings

Compressional Environments

faults develop in tectonic environments characterized by horizontal compression, where the maximum principal stress (σ₁) is oriented horizontally and exceeds the vertical stress (σ₃), leading to and thickening of the crust. This stress regime contrasts with extensional settings and aligns with an adaptation of , which predicts reverse faulting under such conditions, though faults typically exhibit low dips due to the influence of pre-existing weaknesses that allow reactivation at angles below the ideal 30 degrees predicted for frictional materials. In these compressional settings, the horizontal must overcome the to initiate faulting, often resulting in low-angle planes that accommodate significant displacement parallel to the . Rheological factors play a critical role in facilitating thrust fault formation by providing weak detachment horizons, known as décollements, where frictional resistance is minimized. These layers, often composed of salt, , or other ductile materials, exhibit low and high pore fluid , reducing effective normal stress and enabling slip along the fault plane without requiring high differential stress. Frictional properties of these décollements are governed by failure criteria, with coefficients of friction typically around 0.1–0.3 for evaporitic or overpressured sediments, allowing the upper crustal layers to detach and translate as coherent sheets. Without such weak layers, compressional stresses would instead promote distributed deformation rather than localized faulting. The initiation and propagation of thrust faults are strongly depth-dependent, predominantly occurring in the upper crust where brittle behavior dominates due to low temperatures and pressures. At shallow depths (typically less than 10–15 km), rocks fail along discrete planes under frictional conditions, favoring fault development. Deeper in the crust, where temperatures exceed 250–300°C, the transition to ductile occurs, shifting deformation from brittle thrusting to folding or distributed shear, as frictional sliding gives way to viscous flow. This depth stratification ensures that systems are confined to the seismogenic upper crust, influencing their geometry and activity.

Orogenic Belts

Thrust faults serve as the primary structures for accommodating crustal shortening in orogenic belts, particularly along collisional margins where continental plates converge, leading to the development of extensive foreland thrust belts that form the external zones of mountain ranges. These belts typically consist of low-angle faults that detach sedimentary layers along weak horizons, such as evaporites or shales, allowing for thin-skinned deformation that duplicates and folds the cover rocks while preserving the underlying . In this context, faults facilitate the overall orogenesis by transferring compressional stress from the to the foreland, resulting in progressive deformation that builds topographic relief and associated sedimentary basins. Continental collisions, a key driver of orogenic activity, involve convergence rates typically ranging from 2 to 10 cm per year, as observed in major systems like the India-Asia interaction, where post-collisional rates slowed to about 5 cm per year around 50 million years ago. This sustained convergence generates substantial crustal shortening, often hundreds of kilometers, primarily absorbed through thrust faulting and folding in the orogenic wedge. Such shortening not only thickens the crust but also exhumes deeper rocks, contributing to the thermal and metamorphic evolution of the belt. The anatomy of orogenic belts featuring thrust faults is divided into distinct zones: the foreland, representing the undeformed cratonic margin with peripheral basins; the , a central tapered region of active thrusting and folding; and the , an internal domain of high-grade and intense deformation. Thrust progression typically migrates outward toward the foreland in a forelandward direction, with older thrusts in the becoming inactive as younger ones activate at the frontal edge, maintaining the of the and accommodating ongoing convergence. This sequential development ensures efficient strain distribution across the belt, linking plate-scale to local structural growth.

Formation Mechanisms

Kinematic Processes

Thrust faults develop through distinct kinematic processes that govern the sequential movement and of fault surfaces in response to compressional . styles primarily include in-sequence ing, where faults advance progressively toward the foreland in a forward-stepping manner, accommodating by activating younger, outward faults after older ones; this pattern is common in foreland fold- belts and helps maintain balanced deformation. In contrast, out-of-sequence ing involves reactivation or initiation of faults that do not follow this forelandward progression, often occurring due to local variations in rock strength or inherited structures, leading to complex overlap or reactivation within established systems. Laterally, faults can grow through along-strike , where displacement extends parallel to the fault trace, influenced by variations in or stratigraphic heterogeneity, resulting in segmented or curved fault systems. Displacement transfer in thrust faults occurs from a master fault to secondary splays or branch faults, distributing strain across a network of structures to accommodate varying rates. This transfer often happens via ramps and , where motion shifts from a basal décollement to upward-propagating splays that branch at acute angles, reducing stress concentrations and enabling efficient deformation . The trishear model describes this distribution in fault-propagation folds, positing heterogeneous simple shear within a triangular zone ahead of the fault tip, where displacement decreases toward the surface and is accommodated by progressive rotation and folding of the hanging wall. This kinematic framework effectively models the curved geometries observed in many thrust-related folds, providing insights into how strain is partitioned without requiring uniform parallel folding. The evolution of thrust faults typically unfolds in stages, beginning with initiation at depth along a weak décollement layer, where initial shortening localizes shear under high confining pressure. Upward propagation follows as the fault breaks through stronger overlying strata via ramps, forming imbricate splays or fault-bend structures that transport rock masses toward the surface. Termination occurs either by the fault dying out into a fold (as in fault-propagation folding) or through duplex formation, where multiple horse blocks are imbricated between floor and roof thrusts, efficiently accommodating large displacements while minimizing overall fault length. These stages reflect a dynamic balance between fault growth and strain localization, shaping the overall architecture of thrust systems.

Mechanical Models

Mechanical models of thrust faults rely on principles of rock and wedge mechanics to quantify the forces driving fault formation and stability. A foundational concept is Byerlee's law, which describes the frictional resistance along fault planes as τ=μσn\tau = \mu \sigma_n, where τ\tau is the , μ\mu is the coefficient of , and σn\sigma_n is the effective normal stress. For most rocks under typical crustal conditions, experimental indicate μ\mu ranges from approximately 0.6 to 0.85, reflecting the inherent strength of dry, intact rock interfaces. This law implies that high normal stresses require correspondingly high shear stresses for sliding, setting a baseline for fault resistance in compressional settings. However, thrust faults often occur at low angles (less than 30°) to stress direction, posing a stability paradox under Byerlee's law, as such orientations would be mechanically unfavorable without additional weakening mechanisms. This paradox is resolved by the presence of weak basal layers, such as overpressured sediments, evaporites, or clay-rich décollements, which reduce effective μb\mu_b to values as low as 0.1 or less, enabling slip along gently dipping planes while maintaining overall integrity. These low-friction detachments contrast sharply with the higher μ\mu in the overlying rock mass, allowing systems to propagate efficiently in compressional regimes. Critical taper theory provides a quantitative framework for the self-sustaining geometry of thrust wedges, balancing gravitational forces, internal , and basal detachment strength. The critical wedge θc\theta_c, defined as the sum of the surface α\alpha and basal dip β\beta, depends on the basal coefficient μb\mu_b and the internal wedge coefficient μw\mu_w. This equation demonstrates how thrust wedges achieve equilibrium when their taper reaches a critical value, beyond which deformation localizes at the , promoting forward propagation. For typical values (μb≈0.1\mu_b \approx 0.1 and μw≈0.6\mu_w \approx 0.6), θc\theta_c is small (around 1-5°), explaining the subdued of many orogenic wedges. Numerical simulations, particularly finite element models (FEM), further elucidate stress distributions and concentrations within thrust systems. These models simulate viscoelastic or elastic-plastic rock behavior under imposed shortening, revealing pronounced stress concentrations at ramp anticlines where fault bends occur. For instance, FEM analyses show shear stresses exceeding 50-100 MPa at ramp toes due to geometric discontinuities, facilitating fault and linkage. Such simulations highlight how heterogeneities in mechanical stratigraphy amplify local stresses, influencing fault evolution without requiring uniform material properties across the model domain.

Global Examples

Classic Thrust Faults

Classic thrust faults represent some of the most extensively studied examples of compressional tectonics, providing key insights into ancient orogenic processes through well-exposed and exhumed structures. The Moine Thrust in and the basement-involved thrusts of the in the of the exemplify these features, illustrating large-scale displacement and crustal shortening in continental settings. The Moine Thrust, part of the Caledonian Orogeny in northwest Scotland, formed during the Silurian Scandian phase around 430 million years ago, resulting from the collision between Laurentia and Baltica. This major low-angle thrust transported thick allochthonous sheets of the Neoproterozoic Moine Supergroup, consisting of metasedimentary rocks, westward over the autochthonous Lewisian basement gneisses and Cambro-Ordovician foreland sequence. The structure extends over 200 km from Loch Eriboll to the Isle of Skye, with the main thrust plane exhibiting mylonitic fabrics indicative of ductile deformation at mid-crustal depths. Displacement estimates on the Moine Thrust reach tens of kilometers, highlighting its role as a fundamental boundary in the orogen. In contrast, the Laramide Orogeny produced basement-involved thrust faults across the Rocky Mountains during the Late Cretaceous to Eocene, spanning approximately 80 to 40 million years ago, driven by flat-slab subduction of the Farallon plate beneath North America. These structures, such as the Wind River and Bighorn thrusts in Wyoming, uplifted Precambrian crystalline basement blocks directly over Phanerozoic sedimentary cover, forming thick-skinned tectonics distinct from thinner-skinned Cordilleran belts to the west. Total horizontal shortening associated with these thrusts is estimated at 50-100 km in the central Rockies, accommodating significant intra-continental deformation far from the plate margin. Structural analyses of classic thrust faults like the Moine and Laramide systems rely on balanced cross-sections to quantify deformation and restore pre-thrust geometries, revealing systematic duplication of stratigraphic sections. In these restorations, imbricate thrust arrays and occasional duplex structures demonstrate 100-200% duplication of certain layers, corresponding to shortening percentages that underscore the efficiency of thrust mechanics in accommodating orogenic strain. Such analyses confirm the conservation of bed lengths and confirm the kinematic evolution from initial ramping to out-of-sequence thrusting.

Active Systems

Active thrust fault systems represent ongoing tectonic deformation in compressional settings, where contemporary monitoring reveals the dynamic interplay of slip mechanisms. These systems are to understanding modern plate boundary processes, particularly in orogenic belts driven by continental collisions. The Himalayan (MFT) exemplifies an active thrust system at the leading edge of the India-Asia collision zone. This north-dipping fault accommodates a significant portion of the regional convergence, with long-term slip rates estimated at 10-22 mm/yr based on uplift and geodetic data. The overall India-Asia convergence rate is approximately 40 mm/yr, with the MFT absorbing 15-20 mm/yr of shortening through episodic thrusting and associated folding. In the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt of , active shortening occurs across a series of imbricate thrusts detached along the underlying Hormuz salt layer, which acts as a low-friction décollement facilitating broad deformation. GPS measurements indicate present-day shortening rates of 5-10 mm/yr, increasing eastward, reflecting the ongoing Arabia-Eurasia convergence. This salt-based detachment promotes distributed folding and thrusting over a wide zone, contrasting with more localized slip in non-salted systems. Contemporary monitoring of these systems employs (InSAR) and (GPS) techniques to distinguish between aseismic creep and stick-slip behavior. In the Himalayan MFT, InSAR data reveal localized aseismic creep along unlocked segments up to 38 km long, while locked portions exhibit interseismic strain accumulation indicative of stick-slip cycles. Similarly, in the Zagros, combined GPS and InSAR observations detect afterslip and viscoelastic responses following events, highlighting hybrid deformation modes where salt decoupling influences the balance between creeping and seismic slip.

Seismicity and Implications

Earthquake Associations

Thrust faults are significant sources of earthquakes in compressional tectonic regimes, where slip along these low-angle reverse structures releases accumulated strain through seismic rupture. Blind thrust faults, which do not propagate to the surface, are particularly prone to generating destructive events due to their concealed nature and the resulting indirect surface effects. During rupture, blind thrusts often produce "pop-up" structures, where uplift occurs between the primary thrust and an opposing backthrust, leading to folding and localized deformation rather than discrete surface breaks. The shallow dip of thrust faults, commonly 10–30°, promotes elongated rupture propagation along strike, enabling fault lengths up to 100 km or more in larger events, which amplifies the spatial extent of shaking and potential damage. This geometry contrasts with steeper faults and contributes to the characteristic directivity of ground motions in thrust earthquakes. Moment magnitudes for thrust fault earthquakes typically range from M_w 6 to 8, with common values in the M_w 6.5–7.5 interval for continental settings, driven by fault dimensions and slip amounts of several meters. Recurrence intervals for these events generally span 100–1000 years, modulated by regional slip rates of 1–5 mm/yr and fault segmentation. Stress drops during ruptures average 1–10 MPa, with lower values (~3–6 MPa) typical for reverse mechanisms, influencing the spectrum of seismic waves and peak accelerations. The (M_w 6.7) exemplifies blind thrust seismicity, rupturing a ~20 km segment of an unmapped fault beneath the , , and causing ~$20 billion in damage through intense shaking and folding-induced ground failure. This event underscored the seismic potential of hidden thrusts, with its rupture mechanics mirroring broader patterns in similar systems.

Hazard Potential

Thrust faults pose significant hazards through various ground effects that can exacerbate damage during seismic events. Surface folding occurs as the overriding block compresses and uplifts overlying sediments, creating anticlinal ridges and scarps that displace infrastructure and alter landscapes. In areas with weak, water-saturated layers, such as alluvial deposits common near thrust systems, can transform soil into a fluid-like state, leading to ground , lateral spreading, and structural failures. Additionally, sedimentary basins adjacent to thrust faults experience amplification, where low-velocity sediments trap and prolong shaking, intensifying ground motions by factors of 2-4 compared to sites. Urban areas overlying blind thrust faults, which do not reach the surface, face heightened vulnerability due to the lack of visible fault traces, complicating hazard identification. The exemplifies this risk, where blind thrusts like the system underlie densely populated regions, including , potentially generating magnitude 6.5-7.1 earthquakes that could affect over 12 million residents and cause tens of billions in damage. Paleoseismic trenching has been instrumental in assessing these risks, revealing slip events through displaced strata and growth strata in folds, enabling the mapping of recurrence intervals (e.g., 400-2600 years) and informing risk zoning for . Mitigation strategies for thrust fault hazards emphasize integrating fault-specific data into practices. Building codes in high-shortening zones, such as those in , incorporate elevated seismic categories to require enhanced structural resistance, including base isolation and ductile materials to withstand folding and amplified shaking. Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) further refines these efforts by modeling fault slip rates (e.g., 0.6-1.3 mm/yr for ) alongside recurrence data to estimate ground motion exceedance probabilities, guiding site-specific and resilience.

Historical Context

Early Recognition

The initial recognition of thrust faults emerged from field observations of inverted stratigraphic sequences in the 19th century, particularly in regions like the and the , where older rocks appeared to overlie younger ones in violation of the principle of superposition. In the 1810s, Scottish geologist John MacCulloch documented such inversions during his surveys of the , noting that ancient gneissic rocks lay above younger sedimentary strata near Loch Eriboll and elsewhere, a phenomenon he described in his 1819 publication A Description of the Western Islands of Scotland. These observations puzzled early geologists, as they challenged prevailing ideas about rock formation and sequence. Similarly, in the , preliminary identifications of structural anomalies occurred around the same period, with Hans Conrad Escher von der Linth reporting inverted strata in the region as early as 1809, though detailed mapping in the 1840s by Arnold Escher and others highlighted major low-angle faults displacing older over younger rocks. Debates surrounding these inversions centered on whether they resulted from overthrust movements or could be explained by anticlinal folding and vertical , with many favoring the latter to align with emerging contraction theories of mountain building. Proponents of the anticlinal model, such as in , argued that the eastern Highland rocks represented a vast overturned , interpreting the inversions as extreme folds rather than horizontal displacements. In the , similar contentions arose, exemplified by Arnold Escher's proposal of a "double fold" (Doppelklippe) in the Glarus in 1846, positing recumbent anticlines instead of thrusts. These views persisted amid resistance to large-scale horizontal movement, seen as mechanically implausible. Resolution began in the 1850s through stratigraphic evidence gathered during systematic European geological surveys, including Bernhard Studer's work in , which demonstrated lateral displacements exceeding tens of kilometers—far beyond what folding alone could achieve—supported by correlations confirming the age inversions. A pivotal milestone came in 1884, when Benjamin N. Peach and John Horne, through detailed mapping for the Geological Survey of Great Britain, resolved the Scottish inversions as products of extensive overthrusting along what became known as the Moine Thrust, a classic example spanning over 200 km. Their findings, presented during discussions at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting in and published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, formalized the concept of "thrust planes" for these low-angle faults, shifting consensus toward horizontal and influencing Alpine interpretations. This work, corroborated by Archibald Geikie's endorsement in that year, marked the widespread acceptance of thrust faults as key mechanisms in orogenic belts.

Modern Developments

In the 1970s, the Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP) initiated deep seismic reflection surveys that revolutionized the imaging of thrust faults, revealing their deep structural geometry and often blind nature where surface expressions were absent. For instance, COCORP profiles across the Wind River Mountains in traced the Wind River thrust to depths exceeding 24 km, demonstrating how these faults accommodate continental shortening without breaching the surface in many cases. This approach highlighted the role of décollement surfaces in facilitating thrust propagation, providing the first subsurface evidence for large-scale blind thrusts in cratonic interiors. By the 1980s and 1990s, these techniques confirmed blind thrusts as active hazards, such as beneath the , where seismic profiles and relocated delineated the Elysian Park thrust system. Advancing into the , three-dimensional (3D) seismic tomography enhanced resolution of thrust fault architectures, enabling the construction of community velocity models like CVM-S4.26 for , which integrated and reflection data to map fault surfaces in arbitrary orientations. These models illuminated complex interactions, such as splay faults and ramp-flat geometries in fold-and-thrust belts, improving predictions of rupture propagation. Since the , the integration of thrust faults into theory has linked them to convergent margins, with seminal work identifying thrust mechanisms along zones via Wadati-Benioff zones and focal mechanisms. This framework positioned thrusts as primary sites of collision and , accommodating relative plate motions of 2-10 cm/year in active orogens. Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements from the 1990s onward quantified interseismic slip rates on thrust faults, revealing strain accumulation rates typically 1-10 mm/year across locked segments. For example, in , GPS data from 1993-2001 constrained slip deficits on the San Cayetano and Sierra Madre thrusts at 6-9 mm/year, informing seismic potential. In the and , numerical modeling advanced understanding of dynamic weakening mechanisms during thrust ruptures, incorporating thermal pressurization and velocity-weakening to simulate how faults transition from stable creep to rapid slip pulses. These models explain coseismic weakening by factors of 2-5 in friction coefficient, as seen in simulations of thrust events. Recent studies have also explored -tectonic feedbacks in active thrust belts, where enhanced erosion from increased precipitation modulates fault propagation and exhumation rates. In the Himalayan thrust system, for instance, glacial and fluvial incision since the has accelerated wedge taper adjustments, linking intensification to tectonic efficiency. Such interactions highlight how climate variability influences long-term thrust belt evolution over 10^4-10^6 year scales. More recent events, such as the 2025 Dapu (Mw 6.2) in southwestern as of April 2025, have provided insights into the of thrust faulting in fold-and-thrust belts, demonstrating simultaneous rupture of mid-crustal thrusts and highlighting fault connectivity for assessment.

References

  1. https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-fault-and-what-are-different-types
  2. https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/12-113-structural-geology-fall-2005/b2c89b7268b73720ee3c9fbffbbb0be8_part4_thrst_tect.pdf
  3. https://earth.sdsu.edu/visualgeology/naturaldisasters/Chapters/Chapter5Faults.pdf
  4. https://csmgeo.csm.jmu.edu/geollab/vageol/vahist/struprimer.html
  5. https://dnr.wa.gov/washington-geological-survey/geologic-hazards-and-environment/earthquakes-and-faults
  6. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/405375
  7. https://kb.osu.edu/bitstream/handle/1811/78847/1/SES-SeniorThesis_SwansonMarkDavid_1982.pdf
  8. https://people.wou.edu/~taylors/es406_structure/TM_chap4_Faults.pdf
  9. https://pressbooks.lib.vt.edu/introearthscience/chapter/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/
  10. https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/earthint.htm
  11. https://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~millerm/Tfaults.html
  12. https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/
  13. https://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/deform/deform.html
  14. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsl/books/book/1916/chapter/107420285/Initiation-of-basement-thrust-detachments-by-fault
  15. https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/0111/pdf/of01-111.pdf
  16. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0930/ML093070145.pdf
  17. https://www.files.ethz.ch/structuralgeology/jpb/files/english/3faults.pdf
  18. https://www.files.ethz.ch/structuralgeology/jpb/files/english/4thrustsyst.pdf
  19. https://www.usgs.gov/media/videos/thrust-fault
  20. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/geological-fault
  21. https://courses.eas.ualberta.ca/eas421/lecturepages/thrust.html
  22. https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/animation/fault_reverse_
  23. https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1994/0568/report.pdf
  24. https://scedc.caltech.edu/earthquake/glossary.html
  25. https://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/info-gen/glossa-en.php
  26. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017JB014268
  27. http://grapenthin.org/download/Murray_etal_2018_ShakeAlert_Geodesy.pdf
  28. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article/11/5/1629/132307/Paleoseismologic-evidence-for-large-magnitude-Mw-7
  29. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001282522200277X
  30. http://store-assets.aapg.org/documents/previews/1065M94/CHAPTER01.pdf
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237044033_Geometry_and_kinematics_of_fault-propagation_folding
  32. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article/127/11-12/1752/126133/Insights-into-the-mechanics-of-fault-propagation
  33. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/aapg/aapgbull/article-abstract/74/6/921/38574/Fault-Propagation-Folds-Geometry-Kinematic
  34. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2015JB012397
  35. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2005JB004149
  36. http://library.rockfracture.com/Andersonian.html
  37. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2010JB007870
  38. https://www.geo.fu-berlin.de/geol/fachrichtungen/geologie/mitarbeiter/mhandy/Publication_PDF/DahlemFaults_06.pdf
  39. https://personal.ems.psu.edu/~jte2/references/link053.pdf
  40. https://geosci.uchicago.edu/~kite/doc/Dahlen_Annual_Reviews.pdf
  41. https://digitalcommons.memphis.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2234&context=etd
  42. https://www.geotechnique-journal.org/articles/geotech/full_html/2023/04/geotech240019s/geotech240019s.html
  43. https://connors.academic.wlu.edu/files/publications/Suppe-connors-wedge-mechanics-venus.pdf
  44. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/aapg/aapgbull/article/64/5/684/555464/Foreland-Fold-and-Thrust-Belts-Review
  45. https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/full/10.1144/jgs2022-125
  46. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2010JB008051
  47. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2012TC003155
  48. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/TC007i003p00539
  49. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016TC004187
  50. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2117.2003.00203.x
  51. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/aapg/aapgbull/article-abstract/66/9/1196/37548/Thrust-Systems1
  52. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/19/6/617/205343/Trishear-fault-propagation-folding
  53. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292341813_Initiation_of_a_thrust_fault_revealed_by_analog_experiments
  54. https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/full/10.1144/SP349.1
  55. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2008JB005986
  56. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0040195193901162
  57. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/geological-magazine/article/structure-of-the-assynt-window-moine-thrust-zone-and-relationship-of-thrusts-to-alkaline-igneous-complexes-caledonian-orogeny-nw-scotland/A8A43C59ADE117665D73167CDA939C32
  58. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/uwyo/rmg/article/57/2/65/618912/Laramide-crustal-detachment-in-the-Rockies
  59. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sjg/article-lookup?doi=10.1144/sjg42010077
  60. https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/5264/
  61. https://iugs-geoheritage.org/geoheritage_sites/the-moine-thrust-zone/
  62. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article/17/4/1126/598715/Structural-petrological-and-tectonic-constraints
  63. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0040195180901912
  64. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/98TC02698
  65. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Suppe/publication/281193105_Balanced_geological_cross-sections_an_essential_technique_in_geologic_research_and_exploration/links/578f768208ae81b44671c9f0.pdf
  66. https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/e69-069
  67. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article-pdf/19/6/1565/6042098/ges02649.1.pdf
  68. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2004TC001766
  69. https://cires1.colorado.edu/~bilham/HimalayanEarthquakes/Himalayan_thrust.pdf
  70. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248816396_Uplift_and_convergence_along_the_Himalayan_Frontal_Thrust_of_India
  71. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42990-024-00118-6
  72. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/12/20/3362
  73. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236885687_Ground_movements_in_the_Zagros_fold-thrust_belt_of_SW_Iran_measured_by_GPS_and_InSAR_compared_to_Physical_models
  74. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021JB022045
  75. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674984725000461
  76. https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1994/0278/report.pdf
  77. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/95JB03453
  78. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1523730/full
  79. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019GL082474
  80. http://activetectonics.asu.edu/bidart/bibliography/bssa/bssa_92_8/shaw_plesch_dolan_pratt_fiore_2002.pdf
  81. https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70023887
  82. https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70045071
  83. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2020.579398/full
  84. https://nwhgeopark.com/wp-content/uploads/Highland-Controversy-Panels.pdf
  85. https://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Trumpy2001.pdf
  86. https://www.geological-digressions.com/the-moine-thrust-an-idea-that-unravelled-mountains/
  87. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sjg/article/51/1/5/258938/The-Neoproterozoic-to-Mid-Devonian-evolution-of
  88. https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/SP335.2
  89. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195117300951
  90. https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/160/2/634/661321
  91. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aaz3166
  92. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44195-025-00101-0
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.