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The thwarts in this wooden dinghy are the three seats that go from one side of the hull to the other. The U-shaped arrangement of seats at the stern of the boat are the sternsheets

A thwart is a part of an undecked boat that provides seats for the crew and structural rigidity for the hull. A thwart goes from one side of the hull to the other. There may be just one thwart in a small boat, or many in a larger boat, especially if several oarsmen need to be accommodated.

General description

[edit]

A thwart is a part of a boat that usually has two functions: as a seat, and as a structural member that provides some rigidity to the hull. A thwart goes from one side of the hull to the other in an open (undecked) boat, and therefore resists forces pushing in or pulling out the sides of the hull. More obviously it provides a seat for an occupant of a boat. In many sailing boats, a thwart may help support the mast. This can be done either by inserting the mast through a hole in the thwart (with the end resting in a mast step on the keel), or the mast may be clamped to one side of a thwart – this makes it easier to step and unstep the mast whilst afloat.[1]: 1148 [2]: 149 

Under oars

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In a boat propelled by oars, the thwart has to be positioned with the right geometry for the oar to be worked efficiently and comfortably. Firstly, with a rearward facing oarsman,[a] the thwart has to be nearer the front of the boat than the pivot point for the oar (which acts as a fulcrum). The usual distance between the after edge of the thwart and the oar's pivot is 10–12 inches (250–300 mm). The next consideration is height. The oarsman has to be positioned so that during the recovery part of the stroke, the oar is above the surface of the water, allowing for the height of waves which the boat might encounter. Since the oarsman is seated, the inner end of the oar cannot go any lower than the top of their thighs – and some clearance is needed for comfort. This usually translates into the top of the thwart needing to be 10–12 inches (250–300 mm) below the point on the gunwale where the oar is pivoted. With these two parameters fixed, the oarsman then needs the support for their feet to be in the right place. As the power of the stroke is delivered, the force applied by the oarsman is reversed in direction by the fulcrum of the oar pivot. The oarsman's feet have to be high enough to take the horizontal component of that force. Especially in larger boats, a footrest or "stretcher" is provided for this. It is usually adjustable for the height of the oarsman.[2]: 137  Another consideration for the position of a thwart is the fore and aft distribution of weight in a boat. In a utility sailing dinghy that is being rowed there may be two alternative rowing positions. If a crewmember is steering, the rower sits on a forward thwart, thereby distributing the weight around the boat evenly – but if the rower is alone, better balance may be achieved using a thwart that is further aft.[3]: 97 

A Cornish pilot gig, a single banked boat

Thwarts in a boat worked under oars may be described as either "single banked" or "double banked". With a single banked arrangement, there is one oarsman seated on each thwart, each of whom is working only one oar. The oars alternate on each side along the length of the boat. This allows a boat to be reasonably narrow and yet still have ample length of oar inboard of the gunwale (the oarsman can sit off the centre line of the boat to maximise this length). A double banked boat has two oarsmen seated on each thwart, each of whom operates their own oar on their own side of the boat. This is generally found in larger boats. A third arrangement is where two oars, one each side of the boat, are worked by one person. (Technically, in salt water, this is the only use of an oar that is termed "rowing". In inland waters, it is termed "sculling" and "rowing" means working a single oar. This strict and contradictory terminology is not always adhered to.)[2]: 137 

Clinker built dinghy showing some of the basic structural details. The single rowing thwart supports the aft end of the centre-board case. The pairs of knees at each end of the thwart can be seen; also the longitudinal stringer on which the thwart rests. A mast thwart, nearer the bows, is set at a higher level and has a hole through which the mast is placed,

Structural aspects

[edit]

Most commonly, a thwart is a single timber plank. It usually needs to be firmly attached to the hull. In a traditional wooden construction it usually sits upon, and is fastened to, a longitudinal stringer which is sometimes called a shelf. The joint between hull and thwart is often reinforced with pairs of knees.[b] Traditionally, knees are grown to the required shape, so that the grain follows the shape. In modern construction, glued laminated timber knees may be used. In larger boats, the centre of the thwart is supported with a pillar that goes down to the keel. In a sailing dinghy, all or some of the thwarts may be built in with the structure of the centre-board case.[4]: 210–217 

In lightly-built whaleboats, the thwarts deliberately had a slight upwards bend in the middle. This meant that if the hull received a blow on the side, it could momentarilty flex slightly as the thwarts bent slightly more – without this, the force of the blow would punch a thwart through the side of the hull, making a large hole.[5]

Drawing of a canoe showing thwarts. The centre thwart, shaped like a yoke, serves as a carrying pole.

In a canoe, a thwart is simply a strut placed crosswise (left/right) in a ship or boat, serving only as a structural member or to help with carrying. Some inflatable boats have a solid thwart which can be folded and removed so the boat can be deflated and rolled up for transport or storage.[6][7]

Notes

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References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Thwart

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A thwart is a transverse structural beam in an open or undecked that spans from one side of the hull to the other, serving both as a for and as a key element for providing rigidity and strength to the vessel's frame. Typically constructed from wood in traditional designs, thwarts are essential in rowing boats, dinghies, and small craft, where they resist lateral forces that could deform the hull and support the weight of the crew during operation. The term originates from Old Norse þvertr, meaning "across" or "transverse," reflecting its perpendicular orientation to the boat's length, and has been in nautical use since at least the to describe these crosswise supports. In modern boating, thwarts remain prominent in recreational and competitive , such as in sculls and shells, though they may be supplemented or replaced by lightweight composites in high-performance vessels for enhanced durability and reduced weight. Their design often includes supports like knees or risers to distribute loads evenly, preventing flexing under rowing stresses. Today, they symbolize traditional boatbuilding craftsmanship, with the number of thwarts varying with the boat's size and purpose.

Definition and Etymology

Definition

A thwart is a transverse structural member or beam in an that runs athwartships, perpendicular to the from one side of the hull to the other, serving dual purposes as a means of and a seating platform for rowers or passengers. This crosswise orientation distinguishes it from longitudinal elements like gunwales, which extend along the upper edges of the hull parallel to the , or fixed benches that may align fore-and-aft; instead, thwarts enhance the boat's overall rigidity by bracing the sides against flexing. In basic configurations, a single thwart may suffice for small boats, but multi-person rowboats typically feature a forward thwart positioned near the bow, an aft thwart near the , and one or more intermediate thwarts spaced between them to accommodate multiple while maintaining balance. These placements allow for flexible rowing stations, with the forward and aft thwarts often supporting additional passengers or equipment. Thwarts thereby contribute to the boat's structural reinforcement by distributing loads across the hull.

Etymology

The term "thwart" originates from the þvert, meaning "across" or "transverse," with a in þweorh signifying "oblique." Derived from the Proto-Germanic root *thwerh- meaning "twisted" or "oblique," which traces back to the Proto-Indo-European *terkw- "to twist." Through , it developed into "thwert," an and adjective denoting "across" or "transversely," often describing elements positioned crosswise relative to a primary axis. This foundational sense of transversality laid the groundwork for its application to nautical structures spanning a vessel's width. In nautical contexts, "thwart" first appeared in the late as an meaning "across the line of a ship's course," reflecting its directional usage in maritime . By the 16th and 17th centuries, the term extended to specific references in sea-related texts, evolving to denote the crosswise benches accommodating rowers in galleys and smaller , as seen in early compilations of terminology. For instance, the noun form denoting a rower's seat emerged around the , directly from the verb sense of lying athwart the . Related expressions such as "athwart," formed by the prefix "a-" with "thwart" around , reinforced this nautical evolution, meaning "crosswise from side to side" in shipboard contexts, while "athwartships" specified transverse directions aboard vessels. By the , "thwart" had transitioned from a broad descriptor of obliqueness to a precise term for the transverse seating elements in s, as formalized in dictionaries like William Falconer's An Universal Dictionary of the Marine (1769), which described it as "the seat or bench of a boat whereon the rowers sit to manage the oars."

Historical Development

Origins in Early Maritime Use

The earliest documented uses of thwarts trace back to ancient Egyptian vessels around 2000 BCE, where they functioned as simple crossbeams in reed boats to support rowers and provide structural reinforcement. In the 12th Dynasty (circa 1991–1802 BCE), surviving funerary boat models from Thebes and other sites feature painted grid-like patterns on decks, interpreted by some scholars as possible representations of thwarts or removable cross-seats laid across papyrus-bundle hulls for crew stability during navigation. The Greek historian , in his description of Egyptian shipbuilding practices circa 450 BCE, noted that builders "stretch thwarts on top of [the planks]" without ribs, caulking seams internally with papyrus to form lightweight, oar-powered craft suitable for riverine and coastal trade. These early thwarts, often lashed or placed atop the flexible framework, marked a foundational transverse design principle that enhanced rower efficiency in undecked vessels. By the classical period, thwarts appeared prominently in galleys, evolving as essential benches for rower support in early warships and merchant boats. In uniremes and biremes from the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, thwarts spanned the hull to seat oarsmen, with the Greek term zygon specifically denoting a cross-bench that doubled as a structural tie between the sides. Archaeological evidence from ship depictions on and reliefs illustrates rowers positioned on these athwartships seats, allowing coordinated in open-water maneuvers. This design persisted into the era (circa 500 BCE), where padded thwarts enabled rowers to slide forward and backward, optimizing length in the three-tiered systems that defined Mediterranean naval power. Thwarts played a critical role in Roman galleys, inheriting and refining Greek designs for imperial fleets from the 3rd century BCE onward, providing basic seating and hull rigidity amid sparse planking. In triremes and quinqueremes, rowers sat on fixed or adjustable thwarts arranged in banks. Similarly, in Viking longships of the 8th–11th centuries CE, thwarts served as transverse crossbeams offering rudimentary seating for crews of 20–60 warriors, integrated into clinker-built hulls with minimal internal framing to maintain flexibility on open seas. Rowers typically sat on portable sea chests or loose planks placed on these crossbeams. Excavations of ships like the Gokstad vessel (circa 890 CE) reveal no preserved thwarts, likely due to perishable wood, and indicate that rowers used sea chests for seating, with crossbeams providing general bracing during raids and voyages. Archaeological evidence from the ship burial (early 7th century CE) underscores the integration of early wooden thwarts into Anglo-Saxon hulls, akin to proto-Viking constructions. The 27-meter clinker vessel, excavated in , left iron rivets and frame impressions in the sand imprint, with digital reconstructions postulating athwartships thwarts resting on frames to support a crew of up to 40 rowers, based on comparable Scandinavian finds and hydrostatic modeling. Although no direct wooden remains survived due to acidic soil and ritual disassembly, the burial's design—featuring 26 frames and 26–40 oar stations—implies thwarts as key elements for stability and propulsion in these early maritime crafts used for elite transport and ceremonial purposes.

Evolution in Ship and Boat Building

During the and into the , thwarts became integral to European , particularly in clinker-built boats prevalent in northern and Atlantic seaboard regions. These transverse beams, serving as both structural braces and seating, were increasingly reinforced with knees—angled timber supports fastened to the hull sides—to enhance rigidity and distribute loads across the overlapping planks. In mid-16th-century vessels like the Drogheda boat from , thwarts were positioned at level without protruding through the sides, supported by beam knees that provided additional transverse stability for and operations. This reflected broader shifts in clinker , where knees, often cut from naturally curved compass timbers, improved hull integrity against the stresses of coastal , as seen in Scandinavian wrecks such as the Amager Strandpark boat from (ca. 1560–1570). Naval treatises from the period, such as William Sutherland's Ship-building Unveil'd (1717), further codified these practices, emphasizing the precise fitting of thwarts and in small craft to maintain the basic transverse function of preventing hull deformation under or . By the 17th and 18th centuries, as European emphasized durability for expanding and , thwarts with knee reinforcements became standard in clinker designs, allowing for lighter yet stronger frames suited to regional timber resources. The Age of Sail (17th–19th centuries) amplified the role of multiple thwarts in specialized small boats, where they facilitated even crew distribution for rowing efficiency and stability during demanding operations. In whaleboats, typically 28–30 feet long, six thwarts accommodated a of six oarsmen plus an , with the forward thwart for the harpooner and a central main thwart for command, ensuring balanced propulsion in pursuit of whales. Similarly, lifeboats on naval and vessels featured 4–6 thwarts to position survivors or rescuers optimally, enhancing maneuverability in rough seas; this design persisted in British and American whaling fleets, where thwarts also supported gear storage without compromising speed. In the , the rise of steamships marked a shift that diminished reliance on thwarts in larger vessels, as iron framing and powered reduced the need for extensive arrangements in main hulls. However, thwarts endured in auxiliary small craft, notably dories used in Grand Banks schooners, where removable designs with 2–3 thwarts allowed stacking on decks for and provided lightweight support for two-man crews hauling lines. These flat-bottomed boats, developed , retained knee-supported thwarts for structural resilience, adapting clinker-derived techniques to industrial demands despite the era's mechanical innovations.

Structural Design

Components and Construction

A thwart consists of a primary transverse beam, typically constructed from straight-grained or such as , , or , with a thickness of 3/4 to 1 inch and a width of 8 to 10 inches to provide sufficient strength while minimizing . This main beam is supported at each end by rising knees, which are L-shaped or triangular braces made from laminated, steam-bent, or grown crook timber that connect the thwart to the gunwales and topsides, ensuring load distribution across the hull. Additional components include cleats or risers—narrow vertical supports, often 5/8 inch thick by 1-1/2 inches wide—positioned along the inner hull to elevate and secure the thwart. Construction begins with cutting the main beam to length, usually 20 to 30 inches wide in small boats to span the beam without excessive overhang, and its ends to fit over or risers for a flush integration. Rising knees are shaped using gauges to match the hull's angle, often laminated or steam-bent for natural curvature. Attachment methods include riveting, bolting with silicon fasteners, or nailing through the knees and beam into the gunwales and , with screws sometimes used from underneath the thwart for concealed . The thwart integrates with the hull by resting on risers nailed or glued to the frames at a height of approximately 6 to 12 inches below the , creating a transverse brace that ties the () and planking together. This assembly forms a rigid box structure, where the thwarts, combined with the sides and bottom, distribute shear forces and prevent hull distortion under load. In traditional builds, the knees lock into the or sheer strake, further enhancing the overall framework rigidity.

Materials and Variations

Traditional thwarts are primarily constructed from hardwoods valued for their durability, resistance to flexing under load, and ability to withstand marine environments. Oak provides exceptional hardness and rot resistance, making it a common choice for structural integrity in saltwater applications. Ash offers comparable strength and shock resistance to oak while being easier to work with sharp tools and more flexible for shaping. Mahogany is favored for its density, low shrinkage, and natural resistance to decay, ensuring long-term performance without excessive maintenance. To maximize strength, the wood grain is oriented lengthwise along the thwart, aligning the fibers parallel to the span to resist bending and compression forces effectively. In modern designs, thwarts may incorporate lightweight alternatives such as composites, often combined with resins, for high-performance canoes and small craft; anodized aluminum in recreational canoes; and laminates reinforced with for affordable builds. Variations in thwart design adapt to specific boat types and functional needs. In canoes, asymmetrical configurations—such as offset positioning with the aft thwart farther from amidships than the fore thwart—help maintain balance, particularly in solo paddling or asymmetrical hulls. shells often feature rounded edges on composite thwarts to minimize hydrodynamic drag and integrate seamlessly with the hull's sleek profile. In contrast, workboats employ flat-edged thwarts for straightforward construction and maximum utility in load-bearing scenarios. Removable or adjustable thwarts are common in recreational designs to allow flexibility for different seating arrangements and storage. Waterproofing treatments are essential for longevity; traditional wooden thwarts receive multiple coats of marine varnish for UV protection and water repellency, while modern composites may use sealants to prevent moisture ingress.

Functional Roles

Seating and Ergonomics in Rowing

In rowing, the thwart serves as the primary seating platform for oarsmen, positioned transversely across the boat to facilitate efficient propulsion. Typically set approximately 6 to 12 inches above the sole, this elevation allows rowers to maintain a balanced posture with knees slightly bent at the catch, optimizing leverage and reducing strain on the lower back during strokes. In multi-oarsman setups, thwarts are spaced 4 to 6 feet apart along the hull's length, enabling synchronized sweep or sculling motions without interference, which enhances overall stroke efficiency and boat speed. Ergonomic considerations in thwart design prioritize rower comfort and , incorporating features such as padded or contoured surfaces to distribute weight evenly and minimize points on the ischial tuberosities, thereby reducing during extended sessions. In fixed-seat , where the thwart remains stationary, adjustments focus on foot brace positioning to support leg drive, allowing partial flexion without excessive forward lean. This contrasts with modern sliding-seat configurations, where the glides on tracks, permitting fuller and greater power output, though the underlying thwart frame still provides foundational support. Historically, thwarts evolved from simple hard wooden benches, often greased for minimal in early fixed-seat designs, which limited stroke length and contributed to rapid fatigue among rowers in the . The introduction of wheeled sliding seats in the marked a pivotal shift, extending effective reach and incorporating rudimentary ergonomic improvements. In contemporary competitive , such as Olympic shells, seats have advanced to molded carbon-fiber constructions with contoured foam and rubber tops that conform to the rower's , featuring perforations for weight reduction while maintaining ventilation and shock absorption to sustain high-intensity efforts over race distances.

Structural Support and Stability

Thwarts are essential for maintaining the of a boat's hull by counteracting distorting forces. They resist lateral pressures from waves, occupant weight, or dynamic loads that could otherwise cause the sides to spread outward, thereby preserving the vessel's designed beam width and preventing progressive deformation over time. This role is particularly vital in undecked boats, where repeated flexing from and environmental stresses could otherwise lead to hull widening and compromised performance. In terms of load distribution, thwarts function as transverse beams that evenly transfer the weight of rowers and equipment across the hull, directing forces to the sides and bottom planking. This distribution enhances the boat's overall rigidity, acting in concert with other elements like knees to form a cohesive framework that supports operational stresses without localized overloading. By stabilizing the hull form under load, thwarts contribute to improved handling and reduced of instability during maneuvers. Common failure modes for thwarts include cracking due to high-impact loads, such as collisions or excessive point stresses from rower movements. To mitigate these risks and prevent issues like in laminated constructions, reinforcements such as through-bolting with knees are employed, securing the thwart directly to the hull for enhanced shear resistance and long-term durability. Proper attachment methods, including these bolted reinforcements, ensure the thwart remains effective without compromising the surrounding structure.

Modern Applications

In Recreational and Traditional Boats

In recreational dinghies and rowboats, thwarts typically serve as transverse seats accommodating one or two rowers during casual outings, such as family explorations on calm waters. Single or paired thwarts are common in designs like the 14-foot Jimmy Skiff II, where removable slip thwarts allow adjustable positioning to optimize efficiency and comfort. These setups often incorporate foot braces, such as lines tied to the thwart or wide side benches providing natural bracing, enabling relaxed, non-competitive without the need for fixed high-performance . In traditional crafts like wherries and coracles, thwarts fulfill dual roles as seating for rowers and platforms for light cargo, enhancing the versatility of these lightweight vessels for or . For instance, in the Christmas wherry, mahogany thwarts support two to three passengers while contributing to the boat's load-carrying capacity during recreational use. Similarly, coracles feature simple thwarts integrated into the basketwork frame, with holes for portaging straps, allowing them to stabilize nets or small loads without impeding the paddler's movements. The 15-foot wherry, a historical revived for , includes forward and aft thwarts for single or tandem , underscoring their enduring functionality in heritage boats. The 20th- and 21st-century revival of these traditional designs has been prominent at wooden boat festivals, where builders showcase thwarts in restored or newly constructed vessels to celebrate craftsmanship and leisure applications. Events like the Port Townsend Wooden Boat Festival feature examples such as the 16-foot-2-inch YOLINDA melonseed , with its thwarts adapted from late-19th-century duck-hunting prototypes for modern family , and the 10-foot CORA pram, employing thwarts in lapstrake construction inspired by Norwegian traditions. Maintenance of thwarts in recreational contexts emphasizes periodic inspections to prevent rot, particularly in wooden dinghies and small sail-row hybrids exposed to moisture during mixed-use outings. Owners should tap thwarts with a to detect soft spots indicating , then apply fillers like those in two-part systems for localized repairs, ensuring structural integrity without full replacement. In hybrids such as the Caledonia yawl, where thwarts support both and loads, routine checks for water ingress around fastenings are crucial, often involving renewal to shield against fungal growth in damp bilges.

In Contemporary and Specialized Designs

In contemporary racing designs, such as competitive C-1 canoes used in long-distance events, thwarts are integrated using lightweight carbon fiber construction to minimize overall boat weight while ensuring rigidity. Savage River Canoes, for instance, offers carbon fiber thwarts, tubes, and angles as upgrades for their USCA Competition Cruiser C-1 models, which have a total hull weight of 20-26 pounds, allowing for high in races without compromising . These designs often feature fixed yet precisely positioned thwarts to optimize , with some models incorporating adjustable elements in related components like footbraces for customized fit. In specialized applications, thwarts function as modular supports in rescue boats and kayaks, enabling rapid reconfiguration for safety and operational needs. For whitewater rescue rafts, manufacturers like NRS provide thwarts using the Batten Attachment Thwart (BAT) system, which allows easy installation, removal, or repositioning on Pennel Orca models to support team positioning during swiftwater operations. Similarly, in inflatable kayaks and hybrid rescue craft, buckle-style thwarts from SOTAR secure via straps to D-rings, providing flexible structural reinforcement that adapts to varying loads and passenger arrangements in emergency scenarios. In solo canoes, asymmetrical thwart placements enhance trim balance by shifting the paddler's position aft of center, typically around 5 inches, to align the center of gravity with the hull's center of buoyancy for efficient solo paddling. Sustainability efforts have also driven the use of recycled materials in thwarts and related structures; for example, projects like the Eco_Optimist utilize recycled composites and fibers to create lightweight, eco-friendly supports in specialized boats, reducing environmental impact while maintaining durability. These developments build on broader material advancements in composites for superior and longevity.

References

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  48. https://www.buefa-composites.com/highlights/detailed-page/building-sustainable-boats-the-eco-optimist-approach
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