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A child dressed as a skeleton trick-or-treating in Redford, Michigan, on October 31, 1979

Trick-or-treating is a traditional Halloween custom for children and adults in some countries. During the evening of Halloween, on October 31, people in costumes travel from house to house, asking for treats with the phrase "trick or treat". The "treat" is some form of confectionery, usually candy/sweets, although in some cultures money is given instead. The "trick" refers to a threat, usually idle, to perform mischief on the resident(s) or their property if no treat is given. Some people signal that they are willing to hand out treats by putting up Halloween decorations outside their doors; houses may also leave their porch lights on as a universal indicator that they have candy; some simply leave treats available on their porches for the children to take freely, on the honor system.

The history of trick-or-treating traces back to Scotland and Ireland, where the tradition of guising, going house to house at Halloween and putting on a small performance to be rewarded with food or treats, goes back at least as far as the 16th century, as does the tradition of people wearing costumes at Halloween. There are many accounts from 19th-century Scotland and Ireland of people going house to house in costume at Halloween, reciting verses in exchange for food, and sometimes warning of misfortune if they were not welcomed.[1][2][3] In North America, the earliest known occurrence of guising is from 1898, when children were recorded as having done this in the province of British Columbia, Canada.[4] The interjection "trick or treat!" was then first recorded in the Canadian province of Ontario in 1917.[5] While going house to house in costume has long been popular among the Scots and Irish, it is only in the 2000s that saying "trick or treat" has become common in Scotland and Ireland.[2] Prior to this, children in Ireland would commonly say "help the Halloween party" at the doors of homeowners.[2]

The activity is prevalent in the Anglospheric countries of the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States and Canada. It also has extended into Mexico. In northwestern and central Mexico, the practice is called calaverita (Spanish diminutive for calavera, "skull" in English), and instead of "trick or treat", the children ask, "¿Me da mi calaverita?" ("[Can you] give me my little skull?"), where a calaverita is a small skull made of sugar or chocolate.

History

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Ancient precursors

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Traditions similar to the modern custom of trick-or-treating extend all the way back to classical antiquity, although it is extremely unlikely that any of them are directly related to the modern custom. The ancient Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis records in his book The Deipnosophists that, in ancient times, the Greek island of Rhodes had a custom in which children would go from door-to-door dressed as swallows, singing a song, which demanded the owners of the house to give them food and threatened to cause mischief if the owners of the house refused.[6][7][8] This tradition was claimed to have been started by the Rhodian lawgiver Cleobulus.[9]

Medieval Christian era

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Souling

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"A soul-cake, a soul-cake, have mercy on all Christian souls for a soul-cake." — a popular English souling rhyme[10]

Starting as far back as the 15th century, among Christians, there had been a custom of sharing soul-cakes at Allhallowtide (October 31 through November 2).[11][12] People would visit houses and take soul-cakes, either as representatives of the dead, or in return for praying for their souls.[13] Later, people went "from parish to parish at Halloween, begging soul-cakes by singing under the windows some such verse as this: 'Soul, souls, for a soul-cake; Pray you good mistress, a soul-cake!'"[14] They typically asked for "mercy on all Christian souls for a soul-cake".[15] It was known as 'Souling' and was recorded in parts of Britain, Flanders, southern Germany, and Austria.[16] Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593), when Speed accuses his master of "puling [whimpering or whining] like a beggar at Hallowmas".[17] In western England, mostly in the counties bordering Wales, souling was common.[12] According to one 19th century English writer "parties of children, dressed up in fantastic costume […] went round to the farm houses and cottages, singing a song, and begging for cakes (spoken of as "soal-cakes"), apples, money, or anything that the goodwives would give them".[18] In England, souling remained an important part of Allhallowtide observances until the 19th century, in both Protestant and Catholic areas.[19][20]

The practice of giving and eating soul cakes continues in some countries today, such as Portugal (where it is known as Pão-por-Deus and occurs on All Hallows' Day and All Souls' Day), as well as the Philippines (where it is known as Pangangaluwa and occurs on All Hallows' Eve).[21][22] In other countries, souling is seen as the origin of the practice of trick-or-treating.[23] In the United States, some churches, during Allhallowtide, have invited people to come receive sweets from them and have offered to "pray for the souls of their friends, relatives or even pets" as they do so.[24]

Mumming

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Since the Middle Ages, a tradition of mumming on a certain holiday has existed in parts of Britain and Ireland. It involved going door-to-door in costume, performing short scenes or parts of plays in exchange for food or drink. The custom of trick-or-treating on Halloween may come from the belief that supernatural beings, or the souls of the dead, roamed the earth at this time and needed to be appeased.

Samhain

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It may otherwise have originated in a Celtic festival, Samhain, held on 31 October–1 November, to mark the beginning of winter, in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, and Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. The festival is believed to have pre-Christian roots. In the 9th century, the Catholic Church made 1 November All Saints' Day. Among Celtic-speaking peoples, it was seen as a liminal time, when the spirits or fairies (the Aos Sí), and the souls of the dead, came into our world and were appeased with offerings of food and drink. Similar beliefs and customs were found in other parts of Europe. It is suggested that trick-or-treating evolved from a tradition whereby people impersonated the spirits, or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf. S. V. Peddle suggests they "personify the old spirits of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune".[25] Impersonating these spirits or souls was also believed to protect oneself from them.[26]

Guising

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"Guising" redirects here. For other uses, see Guising (disambiguation).
Halloween shop in Derry, Northern Ireland. Halloween masks are called ‘false faces’ in Ireland and Scotland.

In Scotland and Ireland, "guising" – children going from door to door in disguise – is secular, and a gift in the form of food, coins or "apples or nuts for the Halloween party" (and in more recent times, chocolate) is given out to the children.[2][27][28] The tradition is called "guising" because of the disguises or costumes worn by the children.[3][29] In the West Mid Scots dialect, guising is known as "galoshans".[30] In Scotland, youths went house to house in white with masked, painted or blackened faces, reciting rhymes and often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed.[31][32]

Guising has been recorded in Scotland since the 16th century, often at New Year. The Kirk Session records of Elgin name men and women who danced at New Year 1623. Six men, described as guisers or "gwysseris" performed a sword dance wearing masks and visors covering their faces in the churchyard and in the courtyard of a house. They were each fined 40 shillings.[33]

A record of guising at Halloween in Scotland in 1895 describes masqueraders in disguise carrying lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visiting homes to be rewarded with cakes, fruit, and money.[34] In Ireland, children in costumes would commonly say "Help the Halloween Party" at the doors of homeowners.[2][35]

Halloween masks are referred to as "false faces" in Ireland and Scotland.[36][37] A writer using Scots language recorded guisers in Ayr, Scotland in 1890:

I had mind it was Halloween . . . the wee callans (boys) were at it already, rinning aboot wi’ their fause-faces (false faces) on and their bits o’ turnip lanthrons (lanterns) in their haun (hand).[37]

Guising also involved going to wealthy homes, and in the 1920s, boys went guising at Halloween up to the affluent Thorntonhall, South Lanarkshire.[38] An account of guising in the 1950s in Ardrossan, North Ayrshire, records a child receiving 12 shillings and sixpence, having knocked on doors throughout the neighbourhood and performed.[39] Growing up in Derry, Northern Ireland in the 1960s, The Guardian journalist Michael Bradley recalls children asking, “Any nuts or apples?”.[40] In Scotland and Ireland, the children are only supposed to receive treats if they perform a party trick for the households they go to. This normally takes the form of singing a song or reciting a joke or a funny poem which the child has memorised before setting out.[27][39] While going from door to door in disguise has remained popular among Scots and Irish at Halloween, the North American saying "trick-or-treat" has become common in the 2000s.[2][35]

Spread to North America

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Girl in a Halloween costume in 1928 in Ontario, Canada, the same province where the Scottish Halloween custom of "guising" is first recorded in North America

Author Nicholas Rogers cites an early example of guising in North America in 1911, where a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario, Canada, reported children going "guising" around the neighborhood.[41] The article itself details the practice as such:

Between six and seven o'clock, the children began to appear in the streets, disguised with all kinds of masks and costumes. The usual programme of visiting the corner groecery stores, hotels and private residences was carried out, the youngesters efforts as elecutionists and vocalists being rewarded with money, apples, nuts, etc.[42]

American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first book length history of the holiday in the United States; The Book of Hallowe'en (1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en in America"; "The taste in Hallowe'en festivities now is to study old traditions, and hold a Scotch party, using Burn's poem Hallowe'en as a guide; or to go a-souling as the English used. In short, no custom that was once honored at Hallowe'en is out of fashion now."[43] Kelley lived in Lynn, Massachusetts, a town with 4,500 Irish immigrants, 1,900 English immigrants, and 700 Scottish immigrants in 1920.[44] In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; "Americans have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days overseas. All Hallowe'en customs in the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other countries".[45]

While the first reference to "guising" in North America occurs in 1911, another reference to ritual begging on Halloween appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920.[46]

The interjection "Trick or treat!"

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The interjection "Trick or treat!" — a request for sweets or candy, originally and sometimes still with the implication that anyone who is asked and who does not provide sweets or other treats will be subjected to a prank or practical joke — seems to have arisen in central Canada, before spreading into the northern and western United States in the 1930s and across the rest of the United States through the 1940s and early 1950s.[47] Initially it was often found in variant forms, such as "tricks or treats," which was used in the earliest known case, a 1917 report in The Sault Daily Star in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario:[48]

Almost everywhere you went last night, particularly in the early part of the evening, you would meet gangs of youngsters out to celebrate. Some of them would have adopted various forms of "camouflage" such as masks, or would appear in long trousers and big hats or with long skirts. But others again didn't. . . . "Tricks or treats" you could hear the gangs call out, and if the householder passed out the "coin" for the "treats" his establishment would be immune from attack until another gang came along that knew not of or had no part in the agreement.[5]

Newspaper clipping of kids trick-or-treating in Beaumont in 1950

As shown by word sleuth Barry Popik,[49] who also found the first use from 1917,[48] variant forms continued, with "trick or a treat" found in Chatsworth, Ontario in 1921,[50] "treat up or tricks" and "treat or tricks" found in Edmonton, Alberta in 1922,[51] and "treat or trick" in Penhold, Alberta in 1924.[52] The now canonical form of "trick or treat" was first seen in 1917 in Chatsworth, only one day after the Sault Ste. Marie use,[53] but "tricks or treats" was still in use in the 1966 television special, It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown.[49]

The thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the start of the 20th century and the 1920s commonly show children but do not depict trick-or-treating.[54] The editor of a collection of over 3,000 vintage Halloween postcards writes, "There are cards which mention the custom [of trick-or-treating] or show children in costumes at the doors, but as far as we can tell they were printed later than the 1920s and more than likely even the 1930s. Tricksters of various sorts are shown on the early postcards, but not the means of appeasing them".[55]

Trick-or-treating does not seem to have become a widespread practice until the 1930s, with the first appearance in the United States of the term in 1928,[56] and the first known use in a national publication occurring in 1939.[57]

Behavior similar to trick-or-treating was more commonly associated with Thanksgiving from 1870 (shortly after that holiday's formalization) until the 1930s. In New York City, a Thanksgiving ritual known as Ragamuffin Day involved children dressing up as beggars and asking for treats, which later evolved into dressing up in more diverse costumes.[58][59] Increasing hostility toward the practice in the 1930s eventually led to the begging aspects being dropped, and by the 1950s, the tradition as a whole had ceased.

Increased popularity

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Almost all pre-1940 uses of the term "trick-or-treat" are from the United States and Canada. Trick-or-treating spread throughout the United States, stalled only by World War II sugar rationing that began in April, 1942 and lasted until June, 1947.[60][61]

Magazine advertisement in 1962

Early national attention to trick-or-treating was given in October, 1947 issues of the children's magazines Jack and Jill and Children's Activities,[62] and by Halloween episodes of the network radio programs The Baby Snooks Show in 1946 and The Jack Benny Show and The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet in 1948.[63] Trick-or-treating was depicted in the Peanuts comic strip in 1951.[64] The custom had become firmly established in popular culture by 1952, when Walt Disney portrayed it in the cartoon Trick or Treat, and Ozzie and Harriet were besieged by trick-or-treaters on an episode of their television show.[65] In 1953 UNICEF first conducted a national campaign for children to raise funds for the charity while trick-or-treating.[66]

Although some popular histories of Halloween have characterized trick-or-treating as an adult invention to re-channel Halloween activities away from Mischief Night vandalism, there are very few records supporting this. Des Moines, Iowa is the only area known to have a record of trick-or-treating being used to deter crime.[67] Elsewhere, adults, as reported in newspapers from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, typically saw it as a form of extortion, with reactions ranging from bemused indulgence to anger.[68] Likewise, as portrayed on radio shows, children would have to explain what trick-or-treating was to puzzled adults, and not the other way around. Sometimes even the children protested: for Halloween 1948, members of the Madison Square Boys Club in New York City carried a parade banner that read "American Boys Don't Beg."[69] The National Confectioners Association reported in 2005 that 80 percent of adults in the United States planned to give out confectionery to trick-or-treaters,[70] and that 93 percent of children, teenagers, and young adults planned to go trick-or-treating or participating in other Halloween activities.[71]

Phrase introduction to the United Kingdom and Ireland

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Despite the concept of trick-or-treating originating in Britain and Ireland in the form of souling and guising, the use of the term "trick or treat" at the doors of homeowners was not common until the 1980s, with its popularisation in part through the release of the film E.T.[72] Guising requires those going door-to-door to perform a song or poem without any jocular threat,[39] and according to one BBC journalist, in the 1980s, "trick or treat" was still often viewed as an exotic and not particularly welcome import, with the BBC referring to it as "the Japanese knotweed of festivals" and "making demands with menaces".[73] In Ireland before the phrase "trick or treat" became common in the 2000s, children would say "Help the Halloween Party".[2] Very often, the phrase "trick or treat" is simply said and the revellers are given sweets, with the choice of a trick or a treat having been discarded.

Etiquette

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Two children trick-or-treating on Halloween in Arkansas, United States in 2007

Trick-or-treating typically begins at dusk on October 31. Some municipalities choose other dates.[74][75][76][77][78][79] Homeowners wishing to participate sometimes decorate their homes with artificial spider webs, plastic skeletons and jack-o-lanterns. Conversely, those who do not wish to participate may turn off outside lights for the evening or lock relevant gates and fences to keep people from coming onto their property.

In most areas where trick-or-treating is practiced, it is considered an activity for children. Some jurisdictions in the United States forbid the activity for anyone over the age of 12.[80] Dressing up is common at all ages; adults will often dress up to accompany their children, and young adults may dress up to go out and ask for gifts for a charity.

Local variants

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United States and Canada

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Children of both the St. Louis, Missouri, and Des Moines, Iowa, areas are expected to perform a joke, usually a simple Halloween-themed pun or riddle, before receiving any candy; this "trick" earns the "treat".[81] In addition, trick-or-treating in the Des Moines area is arranged on a different night preceding Hallowing, known as Beggar's night, with the expectation it will reduce mischief and keep children safer from adult parties and drunk driving that may occur on Halloween proper.

In some parts of Canada, children sometimes say "Halloween apples" instead of "trick or treat". This probably originated when the toffee apple was a popular type of candy. Apple-giving in much of Canada, however, has been taboo since the 1960s when stories (of almost certainly questionable authenticity) appeared of razors hidden inside Halloween apples; parents began to check over their children's fruit for safety before allowing them to eat it. In Quebec, children also go door to door on Halloween. However, in French-speaking neighbourhoods, instead of "Trick or treat", they will simply say "Halloween", though it traditionally used to be "La charité, s'il-vous-plaît" ("Charity, please").[82]

Trunk-or-treat

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Main article: Trunk-or-treating
Trunk-or-treating event held at St. John Lutheran Church & Early Learning Center in Darien, Illinois

Some organizations around the United States and Canada sponsor a "trunk-or-treat" on Halloween night (or, on occasion, a day immediately preceding Halloween, or a few days from it, on a weekend, depending on what is convenient). Trunk-or-treating is done from parked car to parked car in a local parking lot, often at a school or church. The activity makes use of the open trunks of the cars, which display candy, and often games and decorations. Some parents regard trunk-or-treating as a safer alternative to trick-or-treating,[83] while other parents see it as an easier alternative to walking the neighborhood with their children.

This annual event began in the mid-1990s as a "fall festival" for an alternative to trick-or-treating, but became "trunk-or-treat" two decades later. This change was primarily due to "discomfort with some of Halloween's themes."[84] Some churches and church leaders have attempted to connect with the cultural phenomenon of Halloween, viewing it as an opportunity for cultural engagement with the Gospel.[85] But some have called for more city or community group-sponsored trunk-or-treats, so they can be more inclusive.[86] By 2006 these had become increasingly popular.[87]

Portugal and Iberian Peninsula

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In Portugal, children go from house to house on All Saints Day and All Souls Day, carrying pumpkin carved lanterns called coca,[88] asking everyone they see for Pão-por-Deus singing rhymes where they remind people why they are begging, saying "...It is for me and for you, and to give to the deceased who are dead and buried"[89] or "It is to share with your deceased"[90] In the Azores the bread given to the children takes the shape of the top of a skull.[91] The tradition of pão-por-Deus was already recorded in the 15th century.[92] In Galicia, particularly in the island of A Illa de Arousa, a similar tradition exists where children ask for alms (usually bread, sweets, fruits, chestnuts, money or small toys) with the phrase "unha esmoliña polos defuntiños que van alá" ("a little charity for the little deceased who are there").[93]

Scandinavia

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In Sweden, children dress up as witches and monsters when they go trick-or-treating on Maundy Thursday (the Thursday before Easter) while Danish and Faroese children dress up in various attires and go trick-or-treating on Fastelavn (or the next day, Shrove Monday). In Norway, the practice is quite common among children, who come dressed up to people's doors asking for, mainly, candy. The Easter witch tradition is done on Palm Sunday in Finland (virvonta).

Europe

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In parts of Flanders, some parts of the Netherlands, and most areas of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, children go to houses with home-made beet lanterns or with paper lanterns (which can hold a candle or electronic light), singing songs about St. Martin on St. Martin's Day (the 11th of November), in return for treats.[94] Over the last decade, Halloween trick-or-treating has experienced a notable surge in popularity, particularly among children and teenagers in Germany. Austria and the Netherlands have also witnessed a similar trend. The equivalent of 'trick-or-treat' in the German language is 'Süßes oder Saures,' which translates to asking for sweets or threatening something less pleasant, with the direct translation being "sweet or sour".

In Northern Germany and Southern Denmark, children dress up in costumes and go trick-or-treating on New Year's Eve in a tradition called "Rummelpott [de]".[95] Rummelpott has experienced a massive decrease in popularity over recent decades, although some towns and communities are trying to revive it.[96]

Trick-or-treat for charity

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UNICEF started a program in 1950 called Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF in which trick-or-treaters ask people to give money for the organization, usually instead of collecting candy. Participating trick-or-treaters say when they knock at doors "Trick-or-treat for UNICEF!"[97] This program started as an alternative to candy. The organization has long produced disposable collection boxes that state on the back what the money can be used for in developing countries.

In Canada, students from the local high schools, colleges, and universities dress up to collect food donations for the local Food Banks as a form of trick-or-treating. This is sometimes called "Trick-or-Eat".[98]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Trick-or-treating

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Trick-or-treating is a customary Halloween activity primarily practiced in the United States and , where children and sometimes adults dress in costumes and visit homes in their neighborhoods, calling out "trick or treat" to solicit , snacks, or other small treats from . In this tradition, participants typically go door-to-door in the evening of , with homeowners offering treats to avoid playful pranks, though the "trick" element has largely become symbolic and is seldom enforced today. The practice combines elements of , community interaction, and festivity, often accompanied by jack-o'-lanterns illuminating doorsteps to welcome visitors and ward off spirits. The origins of trick-or-treating trace back to medieval European customs, such as "souling" in and , where poor children and adults went door-to-door on (November 2) offering prayers for the dead in exchange for soul cakes or food. Another precursor is the Celtic festival of , during which offerings of food were left to appease wandering spirits, evolving into costumed to receive . In , the modern form emerged in the early , with the earliest documented reference appearing in 1927 in Blackie, , , and initial U.S. mentions in the 1930s, such as in in 1934 and in 1937. By the late , it had become a widespread ritual in white, European-descent communities, blending unsupervised childish pranks with demands for , influenced by Great Depression-era imagery of gangsters and "shakedowns." Trick-or-treating gained significant popularity in the 1950s, coinciding with post-World War II suburban growth and the rise of individually wrapped candies marketed for the occasion, transforming it from a localized prank into a national family tradition. As of 2024, it involves an estimated 73 million potential participants under age 18 in the U.S., often under adult supervision for safety, and has inspired variations like charity collections for organizations such as , which began its Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF program in 1950 to channel the activity toward global aid. While primarily a secular event, it reflects broader Halloween themes of harvest celebration, disguise, and communal bonding, with costumes ranging from superheroes and celebrities to traditional spooky figures. Safety guidelines, including reflective clothing and supervised routes, have become integral to the practice amid concerns over traffic and .

Historical Origins

Pre-Christian Influences

The Celtic festival of , dating back over 2,000 years, marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter, observed around to as the Celtic New Year. Ancient believed that during this time, the boundary between the living world and the realm of the dead thinned, allowing spirits, fairies, demons, and ancestors to cross over and roam the earth. To appease these supernatural entities and prevent mischief or harm, communities left offerings of food and drink outside their homes, a practice intended to honor the dead and ensure goodwill from wandering spirits. This custom of providing sustenance to otherworldly beings laid early groundwork for solicitation traditions. Roman influences also contributed to pre-Christian precursors of Halloween practices through the festival of Pomona, held in early to honor the goddess of fruit trees and orchards. Celebrants made offerings of fruits, particularly apples, symbolizing abundance and fertility, which may have merged with Celtic rituals during Roman occupation of Britain and from A.D. 43 onward. Additionally, Romans incorporated elements of during festivals, wearing masks or costumes to protect against malevolent forces, an idea that paralleled Celtic protections and influenced later costume-wearing for warding off evil. Across ancient European pagan traditions, end-of-year harvest festivals like emphasized communal feasting to celebrate the year's bounty and prepare for the darker months ahead. Villages gathered around bonfires for rituals involving animal sacrifices and crop offerings to deities, ensuring prosperity and protection in the coming winter. To ward off evil spirits believed to be active during these liminal periods, participants donned masks, animal skins, or monstrous disguises, blending into the chaos to avoid recognition and harm—a practice known as guising that echoed broader Indo-European customs of impersonation for spiritual defense. Archaeological and textual evidence from underscores these protective rituals during . Early Irish manuscripts, such as those from the 9th and 10th centuries, describe the festival's magical significance, including the roaming of ghosts and the need for offerings to appease them, as seen in references to ancestors being invited home with food left at thresholds. The 10th-century tale Nera and the Dead Man depicts a ritual where a participant ties branches around a corpse to perform protective rites amid stormy nights when spirits were thought to enter the living world, highlighting disguises and offerings as safeguards. These pagan foundations later blended with Christian observances, evolving into medieval European customs.

Medieval European Traditions

During the , Allhallowtide emerged as a significant Christian observance in , encompassing the three days from October 31 (All Hallows' Eve) to November 2 (), dedicated to honoring saints, martyrs, and the faithful departed. Established by the 8th century under , who shifted the Feast of All Saints to November 1 to align with existing folk practices, Allhallowtide blended emerging Christian rituals with lingering pre-Christian customs, though the Church sought to suppress overtly pagan elements like unchristianized spirit appeasements. This period formalized begging rituals as acts of piety, where participants offered prayers or performances in exchange for alms, laying the groundwork for door-to-door traditions. In and , souling became a prominent custom during , particularly on , where the poor and children went door-to-door offering prayers for the souls of the deceased in in return for soul cakes—small, spiced biscuits symbolizing redemption. Rooted in the medieval belief that such intercessions could hasten a soul's release from purgatorial suffering, souling was practiced by groups reciting verses or songs, with rewards including ale, fruit, or additional food to sustain the living poor. This Christianized form of almsgiving contrasted with earlier pagan protections but retained communal door-visiting elements, evolving as a formalized charity by the late medieval period. Mumming traditions, widespread across medieval including , , and , involved groups of disguised performers—often in masks or simple costumes—visiting homes to enact short plays, songs, or dances in exchange for food, drink, or money. These performances, tied to festivities, served both entertainment and ritual purposes, with disguises drawing from Christian adaptations of folk practices to ward off evil while honoring the saints' days. Unlike purely religious souling, mumming emphasized theatrical elements, such as rudimentary dramas depicting resurrection themes, reinforcing communal bonds during the solemn season. Historical records of these practices appear in 15th- and early 16th-century English texts, such as church accounts and local chronicles documenting souling routes and accompanying songs in regions like and . For instance, a 1511 entry in Brampton's records describes soulers with verses promising prayers for the dead, while broader medieval ecclesiastical writings, like those from the , reference prohibitions against excessive disguising during to maintain doctrinal purity. These sources illustrate how souling and mumming were regulated yet tolerated as extensions of Christian charity and festivity.

19th-Century European Customs

In the , guising emerged as a prominent custom in and , where children and young people donned disguises as ghosts, fairies, witches, or demons to visit neighbors and perform songs, poems, jokes, dances, or simple tricks in exchange for treats such as nuts, apples, fruit, or coins. This practice evolved from earlier mumming traditions and the medieval custom of souling, transforming religious begging into a more secular and playful activity tied to Halloween festivities. , young children specifically went door-to-door in guises to solicit treats like nuts and apples, while in , groups of children emphasized performances to earn their rewards, reflecting a blend of and supplication. The industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century , particularly in Britain, influenced the adaptation of these door-to-door customs, shifting them from rural villages to densely populated cities where close-knit neighborhoods facilitated group visits. As factories drew populations to urban centers between the 1840s and 1890s, guising became more accessible in industrial towns, allowing children to navigate street networks for treats amid growing community interactions. Scottish ballads and from this era, such as collections of folk songs depicting Halloween gatherings and encounters, captured these evolving urban expressions, portraying guisers as figures wandering city lanes in search of . Hints of early commercialization appeared in the late 1800s with the publication of printed costume guides across , offering patterns and instructions for elaborate disguises suitable for Halloween parties or guising. Books like the 1887 Guide to Fancy Dress provided designs for witches, historical figures, and fantastical beings, making costumes more accessible and standardized for middle-class families. Women's magazines also printed DIY instructions for such outfits, blending traditional guising with Victorian fancy-dress trends and laying groundwork for mass-produced Halloween attire.

20th-Century Evolution

Spread to North America

The arrival of Irish and Scottish immigrants in the mid-19th century marked the initial introduction of Halloween customs to , as these groups brought practices rooted in European guising traditions during waves of migration driven by events like the Irish Potato Famine. Settling primarily in urban centers, these immigrants integrated their All Hallows' Eve rituals—such as dressing in costumes and performing for treats—with local harvest festivals prevalent in both the and , evolving into communal gatherings that emphasized seasonal abundance and . Early adoption was particularly pronounced in immigrant-heavy regions of the Northeast , where Irish communities in cities like New York and organized public Halloween events by the late 1800s, reflecting a fusion of customs with American social practices. In , similar patterns emerged among Scottish and Irish settlers, leading to localized celebrations that incorporated elements of both heritages. By the early , these adaptations were evident in documented instances of children going for candies, as reported in a November 1911 article in The Daily Standard newspaper from . During the 1920s, amid the social upheavals of the Prohibition era, reports of Halloween-related mischief and vandalism escalated in North American communities, prompting civic leaders to organize structured events as alternatives to unsupervised pranks. For instance, , hosted the first citywide Halloween celebration in 1920, featuring parades and parties to redirect youthful energy and reduce property damage like tipped-out outhouses and soaped windows. This trend toward formalized community activities, including the encouragement of treat distribution to appease costumed groups, helped mitigate vandalism while embedding the holiday more deeply into local customs across the continent.

Development of the "Trick or Treat" Phrase

The phrase "trick or treat" emerged in the early as a concise expression encapsulating the playful at the heart of Halloween customs in . The earliest printed variant, "tricks or treats", appeared in The Sault Daily Star (Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario) on November 1, 1917, describing children demanding treats to avoid pranks. A later instance of the exact phrase "trick or treat" occurred in the Blackie Herald, a in , , on November 4, 1927, where it described youthful pranksters demanding it at doors during Halloween festivities. Variations appeared in Canadian in the early ; for instance, a November 1923 article in the Saskatchewan Leader-Post referred to "Treats not tricks," highlighting the phrase's roots in reciprocal bargaining to avert pranks. In the United States, the phrase gained traction in the late and through regional reports on Halloween activities. The first documented American instance appeared in the Bay City Times of on November 1, 1928, noting children who would “trick or treat” by demanding goodies or threatening minor sabotage, such as soaping windows. This mirrored earlier informal begging chants in North American communities, where youths might call out for “apples or candy” or similar alternatives to avoid tricks, drawing from 19th-century guising traditions that emphasized costumed solicitation for treats in exchange for entertainment or restraint from disruption. Regional variations in phrasing persisted in early before national standardization. By the late 1930s, media coverage played a key role in standardizing "trick or treat" as the dominant phrase, particularly through community initiatives aimed at channeling youthful energy into organized activities. This effort, echoed in other U.S. cities, transformed the phrase from a regional colloquialism into a widespread cultural shorthand, emphasizing reward over genuine threat while preserving the tradition's balance of fun and mild intimidation.

Post-War Popularization

Following the end of World War II sugar rationing in June 1947, trick-or-treating experienced a significant surge in popularity across the United States during the late 1940s and 1950s, as families once again had access to abundant sweets for distribution. This boom coincided with a rapid increase in candy production and marketing targeted at Halloween, with manufacturers like Curtiss and Brach launching dedicated campaigns to capitalize on the growing tradition of door-to-door collecting, transforming it from a sporadic activity into a national staple. The post-war economic prosperity further fueled this expansion, enabling widespread adoption of pre-wrapped candies as the preferred treat over homemade alternatives. Suburbanization played a pivotal role in standardizing the practice, as the construction of new neighborhoods with safe, walkable streets provided ideal settings for children to go in groups, often under parental . The WWII , which saw birth rates peak in the late , amplified this trend by increasing the number of young families eager to participate in community-oriented Halloween events, embedding trick-or-treating as a wholesome, family-centric amid the era's emphasis on domestic stability. By the early , candy companies had fully embraced the custom, promoting it through advertisements that urged parents to stock up on treats to ensure peaceful evenings, thereby driving seasonal sales and solidifying the activity's commercial viability. Media portrayals significantly contributed to this popularization, with depictions in television, films, and comics normalizing and glamorizing the ritual for a broad audience. In 1951, Charles Schulz's Peanuts comic strip featured Charlie Brown and friends engaging in trick-or-treating, marking one of the first mainstream cultural references that helped disseminate the practice nationwide. The following year, Disney released the animated short Trick or Treat, starring Donald Duck and his nephews, which vividly illustrated the door-to-door routine and reinforced it as an exciting, essential part of children's Halloween celebrations. These productions, alongside features in children's magazines like Jack and Jill, portrayed trick-or-treating as a fun, safe adventure, cementing its status as a core element of the holiday by the mid-1950s. The tradition's influence extended beyond the U.S. in the late , with American-style trick-or-treating gaining popularity in the and during the 1970s and , influenced by exposure to U.S. films, television shows, and . This revival blended with local customs like guising, but the phrase "trick or treat" and the emphasis on candy collection gained traction via popular media imports, such as Hollywood movies and exported Halloween merchandise, gradually supplanting earlier, less commercialized forms of the practice. By the , the activity had become a familiar sight in urban and suburban areas of both countries, reflecting broader transatlantic cultural exchange.

Core Practices and Customs

Etiquette Guidelines

Trick-or-treating etiquette emphasizes mutual respect between participants and homeowners to foster safe, enjoyable interactions during the holiday. Standard procedures include approaching homes by walking on sidewalks or driveways, knocking or ringing the doorbell politely, and announcing "trick or treat" upon the door opening. Children should then select one treat from the offered bowl or handful, express thanks, and depart without lingering or requesting more. These steps help maintain orderly lines at busy homes and prevent overcrowding. Participation is generally considered age-appropriate for children up to around 12 to 14 years old, though norms vary by community. However, some municipalities impose legal age restrictions, such as limiting participation to children under 12 or 14 years old, enforceable by fines in places like , and Rayne, . Younger children under 12 typically require adult to navigate neighborhoods safely and adhere to . Older preteens may go in groups with a , but parents should review routes and set return times in advance. This structure ensures younger participants learn polite behaviors while older ones exercise independence responsibly. Homeowners signal their involvement by keeping porch lights on, indicating treats are available and welcoming visitors. They should portion treats fairly, offering one piece per child to ensure equitable distribution throughout the evening. Turning off lights or displaying "no soliciting" signs clearly communicates non-participation, and trick-or-treaters are expected to respect these cues without approaching. Cultural norms dictate that trick-or-treating occurs from , typically around 6 p.m., until 8 or 9 p.m. to align with routines and . Participants should avoid starting too early or continuing past this window, respecting local guidelines that may vary slightly by region.

Costumes and Preparation

Contemporary preparation emphasizes creativity and accessibility, with DIY crafts remaining popular for their affordability and customization, often using recycled materials to form themes drawn from movies, superheroes, or seasonal motifs. Themed family matching costumes have surged in popularity, enabling groups to coordinate as ensembles like or Star Wars characters, fostering shared experiences and photographic appeal during neighborhood outings. Inclusivity drives modern adaptations, including sensory-friendly options for children with disabilities, such as soft, seam-free fabrics in onesies or wheelchair-accessible designs that avoid restrictive elements like masks or itchy textures. For those with allergies, preparation involves selecting materials free of , , or synthetic dyes to prevent reactions, prioritizing natural fibers like cotton over potentially irritating props. Safety considerations are integrated into costume assembly, with parents adding reflective tape or glow-in-the-dark accents to enhance visibility during evening trick-or-treating, reducing risks from low without compromising the outfit's aesthetic. These elements, such as LED lights on hems or bags, ensure costumes serve both symbolic and practical roles, maintaining the tradition's joyful role-play while adapting to urban environments.

The Treat-Collecting Process

Trick-or-treating typically begins with children forming small groups, often consisting of siblings, friends, or neighborhood peers, to navigate the activity together. These groups, historically ranging from ages 7 to 12 and initially unsupervised, now frequently include adult accompaniment for younger participants. Route planning is a key preparatory step, where families or children map out neighborhoods using tools like community apps or local guides to target homes likely to distribute treats, maximizing efficiency and coverage while avoiding less active areas. The outing commences at dusk, shortly after sunset—typically between 5:30 p.m. and 6:00 p.m. in many regions—to capitalize on early evening light and the building Halloween ambiance. Participants equip themselves with durable collection vessels such as plastic pumpkins, reusable bags, or traditional pillowcases to accommodate substantial hauls without frequent emptying. The core interaction unfolds as the group, clad in costumes for thematic immersion, approaches illuminated porches signaling participation. They knock on the door or ring the bell, and once opened, the children chorus the phrase "Trick or treat!"—a rooted in early 20th-century implying a choice between offering sweets or facing mild . The homeowner responds by dispensing treats directly into the outstretched bags or containers, after which the group expresses thanks and proceeds to the next house, maintaining a steady pace through the neighborhood. This sequence repeats across dozens of homes, fostering a rhythmic, communal flow that can span one to three hours depending on the route's scope. Treats handed out are predominantly confectionery items, including chocolate bars like , gummy candies, and seasonal favorites such as , with an estimated 35 million pounds of the latter produced annually in the United States. However, variations extend to non-edible options to promote inclusivity, particularly for children with food allergies or dietary restrictions; common alternatives encompass stickers, glow sticks, temporary tattoos, erasers, or small toys like mini slinkies. These non-food treats, often distributed from homes displaying a Teal Pumpkin Project symbol, ensure broader participation without compromising the tradition's spirit. Upon concluding the rounds and returning home, children engage in post-collection rituals centered on their gathered bounty. They typically dump the contents onto a surface to sort by type, tally quantities, and negotiate trades with siblings or friends for preferred items, a practice echoing early 20th-century habits of comparison and bartering. Parents conduct a thorough of the haul, checking for tampering, expiration dates, or unwrapped goods to prioritize safety, often discarding any questionable pieces before allowing consumption. This phase transforms the evening's efforts into a shared moment, blending excitement with oversight.

Regional Variations

North American Practices

Trick-or-treating in North America, particularly in the United States and Canada, emphasizes community-oriented, candy-focused events in suburban and urban neighborhoods, often spanning several hours in the evening. In the U.S., the practice typically occurs on October 31 from around 6 p.m. to 9 p.m., allowing children to collect treats door-to-door under parental supervision while daylight fades. Similar timings apply in Canada, where families participate in evening outings, integrating the activity with local school events and festive decorations. Post-pandemic, there has been a renewed focus on outdoor-only gatherings to prioritize health and safety, with many communities encouraging well-ventilated, masked participation where needed, though traditional door-to-door has largely resumed by 2025. A prominent adaptation is trunk-or-treating, an organized alternative held in parking lots where participants decorate vehicle trunks with themes and distribute from stationary spots, reducing street traffic risks. This format gained popularity in the early , initially through church groups seeking safer options amid rising concerns over vandalism and ; for instance, a Baptist congregation in hosted one of the earliest recorded events around 1994. By the 2000s, it expanded to schools, community centers, and malls across the U.S. and , appealing to families preferring controlled environments. Regional variations add distinct flavors to the tradition. In the Midwest, particularly around , "Beggars' Night" was a longstanding custom held on October 30 since 1938, designed to curb Halloween mischief by shifting activities a day early and requiring children to perform jokes or riddles for treats. However, in 2025, the Des Moines City Council voted to align with , ending the 87-year tradition in favor of standard Halloween timing. In the Southern U.S., community block parties enhance trick-or-treating with neighborhood gatherings featuring music, games, and shared treats, often closing streets for safety. Events like Y'alloween in exemplify this, combining vendor markets, costume contests, and trick-or-treating in pedestrian-friendly zones such as Columbia's Park Street. Similar block parties occur in cities like Nashville and , where residents host family-oriented festivities before or alongside collecting. Trick-or-treating integrates seamlessly with school parades, where students march in costumes during daytime assemblies or after-school events, fostering excitement ahead of evening outings; this is common in both U.S. states like New York and Canadian provinces such as . Neighborhood decorations further amplify the atmosphere, with homes and streets adorned in lights, pumpkins, and inflatables to guide and greet treaters, a highlighted in competitive displays across Canadian suburbs.

European Adaptations

In the and , trick-or-treating experienced a notable revival beginning in the 1980s, influenced by American media such as films like E.T. that popularized the practice among British youth. This resurgence echoed the ancient Celtic tradition of guising, where children in and dressed in costumes as disguises against spirits and performed songs, poems, or tricks in exchange for food or treats on All Hallows' Eve, a custom documented as early as the . Modern iterations often incorporate playful chants like "trick or treat, smell my feet," adapting the guising ritual to contemporary Halloween celebrations while retaining its performative element. In Scandinavian countries, particularly , trick-or-treating-like activities blend with the pre-Lenten festival held in , where children don costumes and engage in costumed begging known as "Fastelavn Rasle." During this event, groups of children go singing traditional songs such as "Fastelavn er forbi, nu kommer det varme vejr" ( is over, now warm weather is coming), receiving sweets, fruit, or fastelavnsboller—sweet buns filled with —in return for their performances, a practice that parallels Halloween's treat-collecting but occurs months earlier and ties into customs rather than All Saints' traditions. On the , especially in , imported Halloween practices since the late 20th century have merged with longstanding observances on , creating a hybrid form of door-to-door treat-seeking. Children participate in "Pão por Deus" (Bread for God), a tradition rooted in medieval Christian customs where they visit homes reciting prayers or rhymes in exchange for small treats like broas—spiced sweet breads made with , , and nuts—or sweets, which now often incorporates Halloween elements such as costumes and phrases like "Doçura ou Travessura" (Treat or Trick). This blending maintains the spiritual focus of honoring the saints while adopting American-style festivities in urban areas. Across continental Europe, adaptations vary by country, with featuring "Süßes oder Saures" (Sweets or Sour), a direct translation of "trick or treat" that children use while dressed in costumes to solicit from neighbors, a custom that gained traction in the 1990s through U.S. cultural exports and is now common in suburban and urban settings. In , trick-or-treating remains limited primarily to larger cities like and , where children in apartments or neighborhoods say "Des bonbons ou on fait des bêtises" ( or we make ) and collect treats, though the practice is less widespread than in Anglophone countries and often competes with the more solemn Toussaint () commemorations.

Global and Non-Western Variations

Trick-or-treating has diffused to and primarily through exposure to American media, including films, television shows, and online content, leading to its adoption as a seasonal outdoor activity suited to the region's mild spring weather in late . In these countries, children typically dress in costumes and visit neighboring homes in suburban areas for , often during early evening hours to accommodate the warmer climate that allows for extended outdoor participation without the chill of northern autumn nights. Communities in cities like and organize designated trick-or-treat routes to enhance safety and participation, reflecting a blend of imported customs with local neighborhood dynamics. In , particularly , trick-or-treating integrates with indigenous and colonial traditions during Día de los Muertos, creating a hybrid practice where children in costumes collect and small treats door-to-door over several days in late and early . This adaptation, known locally as "pedir calaverita," involves kids dressed as calaveras (skeletons) or ghosts soliciting offerings like sweets, fruits, or toys, echoing pre-Hispanic rituals of honoring the dead while incorporating Halloween's playful elements. The extended duration—often spanning a week—distinguishes it from single-night North American events, fostering community altars and processions that emphasize familial remembrance alongside confectionery collection. Asian adaptations of trick-or-treating emerged in the , driven by global media and tourism, with urban exemplifying organized street-based versions in districts like and since around 2010. Here, children participate in guided trick-or-treat events hosted by shopping areas or theme parks, collecting treats from participating vendors or homes in a controlled, festive environment that aligns with Japan's emphasis on group activities and culture rather than unsolicited door-knocking. These events prioritize safety in densely populated cities, often featuring themed parades and limited distribution to avoid overwhelming residential privacy norms. In the and parts of , trick-or-treating remains niche, largely confined to urban expat enclaves and international schools where Western-influenced communities host organized events to maintain cultural ties. In cities like , gated residential areas such as The Springs facilitate family-oriented trick-or-treating on , with children visiting homes within secure compounds for amid broader Halloween parties that respect local sensitivities around public festivities. Similarly, in African urban centers like or , international schools like the American School of Angola or International School arrange trunk-or-treat setups or classroom activities, allowing and locally enrolled students to engage in costumed treat collection in supervised settings that blend global holiday elements with regional community norms.

Modern Developments

Charity and Community Events

Trick-or-treating has evolved into organized charitable efforts that channel the holiday's spirit toward fundraising and community support. One of the most prominent examples is the Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF campaign, launched in 1950 by a Philadelphia Sunday school class that collected coins in place of candy to aid children affected by war and poverty. Sponsored by UNICEF USA, the initiative has raised nearly $200 million over 75 years to support global child welfare programs, including a 2002 dedication to polio eradication that contributed to a 99% reduction in cases worldwide. Local charity drives adapt the door-to-door tradition for specific community needs, such as collections where participants gather non-perishable items instead of sweets. Organizations like Move For Hunger promote "Trick-or-Can" events, encouraging donations of canned goods like and pasta to combat hunger, with thousands of such drives held annually across the . Similarly, visits bring Halloween cheer to pediatric patients unable to participate in traditional trick-or-treating; programs like Spirit of Children, funded by retailers, deliver costumes and treats to hospitals, enabling "reverse trick-or-treating" where staff visit young patients in wards. Community block parties, often in the form of trunk-or-treat events in parking lots or neighborhoods, foster inclusivity through themed treat stations tailored to diverse needs. These gatherings feature decorated vehicle trunks as stations offering allergy-friendly options via the Teal Pumpkin Project, sensory-friendly zones for neurodivergent children, and accessible setups like low-height candy distribution for users. Such events promote social bonding while ensuring broader participation, with examples including community-hosted parties that double as fundraisers for local causes. In 2025, post-COVID adaptations have popularized hybrid charity events, blending in-person trick-or-treating with virtual components for wider reach. UNICEF's campaign now includes online fundraisers alongside traditional boxes, allowing remote donations and virtual participation to support global aid. Organizations like Hallowheels combine trunk-or-treat gatherings with digital platforms for contests and pledges, enabling inclusive involvement regardless of location.

Safety and Health Considerations

Trick-or-treating poses significant traffic and visibility risks, particularly for children, due to increased activity in low-light conditions after . A 2018 study in JAMA Pediatrics, based on NHTSA data, found the of a pedestrian fatality was 43% higher on Halloween compared to other evenings ( 1.43), with children aged 5–14 facing even greater risk during peak evening hours. To mitigate these hazards, safety organizations recommend using glow sticks, flashlights, and reflective tape on costumes and bags to enhance visibility for drivers, along with sticking to sidewalks and crossing streets at designated areas. Health considerations during trick-or-treating include managing food allergies and addressing unfounded fears of tampering. For children with allergies, experts advise enforcing a "no eating while out" rule to allow time for inspecting labels and discarding unsafe items at home, while carrying epinephrine auto-injectors for emergencies. The myth of widespread tampering, such as razors or poison in treats, has been debunked, with no documented cases of random Halloween poisonings reported by authorities over decades; the U.S. (FDA) instead urges inspecting commercially wrapped for signs like tears or discoloration, but emphasizes that such incidents are rare. During the era, health guidelines promoted double-masking—cloth over costume masks—and hand sanitizing to reduce respiratory transmission risks while door-to-door, practices that some families continue for general hygiene. Stranger danger protocols emphasize supervised group trick-or-treating to prevent abductions or encounters with unknown individuals, with parents instructed to establish check-in points and avoid entering homes. "Safe houses," marked by porch lights or signs, signal participating residences where children can seek help if separated, while GPS tracking apps like enable real-time location monitoring for older kids venturing out. In 2025, several U.S. cities have implemented allergy-aware treat policies through initiatives like the Teal Pumpkin Project, where households display teal decorations to indicate non-food treats or allergen-free options, promoting inclusivity for sensitive participants. Additionally, curfews in areas like recommend trick-or-treating from 6:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m. to align with daylight fading and reduce prolonged exposure to nighttime risks.

Commercialization and Cultural Influence

Trick-or-treating has significantly contributed to the growth of the candy industry, with U.S. Halloween candy sales projected to reach $3.9 billion in 2025, representing a substantial portion of the overall $13.1 billion in seasonal spending. This surge is driven by high demand for and products, which accounted for $7.4 billion in sales in 2024, a 2.2% increase from the previous year. Major brands like Hershey's, producer of popular items such as , dominate the market, holding a leading position in chocolate confectionery and benefiting from the holiday's emphasis on bulk purchasing for trick-or-treaters. Marketing strategies surrounding trick-or-treating have evolved since the , shifting toward immersive, multimedia campaigns that integrate themed merchandise, television tie-ins, and influencer promotions to amplify consumer engagement. Brands have leveraged partnerships with popular media franchises, such as and Marvel, to create licensed costumes, decorations, and candy packaging that tie directly into trick-or-treating experiences. In the digital era, influencers have played a key role, promoting Halloween hauls and DIY treat ideas to younger demographics, extending the holiday's commercial reach beyond into trends like "Summerween." These efforts have transformed trick-or-treating from a neighborhood into a branded spectacle, with retailers offering early promotions to capture extended seasonal spending. The practice of trick-or-treating has been exported globally through American media, reshaping perceptions of Halloween as a rather than a purely traditional observance. Hollywood films and television shows have popularized the image of children in costumes collecting candy door-to-door, influencing celebrations in countries like , the , and , where it blends with local but emphasizes . This , often termed "American ," has led to widespread adoption of trick-or-treating elements, with global markets now generating billions in Halloween-related revenue annually. Criticisms of trick-or-treating's commercialization highlight environmental concerns, particularly the numerous non-recyclable plastic candy wrappers generated each Halloween, which contribute to landfill waste and marine pollution as they persist for decades. These impacts exacerbate broader plastic pollution issues, with wrappers often ending up in waterways and harming wildlife. Additionally, debates contrast the holiday's roots in community traditions with its modern consumerism, arguing that aggressive marketing promotes overconsumption and erodes authentic cultural practices, turning a simple door-to-door activity into an economic driver valued at over $12 billion in some years.

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