October 31

October 31 is the date observed worldwide as Halloween, the eve of All Saints' Day in the Christian liturgical calendar, featuring traditions of costumes, trick-or-treating, and pumpkin carving that blend medieval European customs with modern secular celebrations.^[1][2] In Protestant contexts, it is also commemorated as Reformation Day, marking the 1517 posting of Martin Luther's Ninety-five Theses on the Wittenberg Castle Church door, which protested Catholic practices like indulgences and ignited the Protestant Reformation, fundamentally reshaping Western Christianity and contributing to broader cultural, political, and scientific advancements.^[3][2] The date has seen other pivotal events, including the 1952 detonation of the first full-scale thermonuclear device by the United States, demonstrating unprecedented destructive power from hydrogen fusion principles.^[4]

Events

Pre-1600

In 475, Orestes, a Roman general and magister militum, proclaimed his young son Romulus Augustulus as Western Roman Emperor following the deposition of Julius Nepos, marking a brief interregnum in the empire's leadership.^[5] Romulus, aged about 14 or 15, ruled nominally under his father's regency from Ravenna, but his installation underscored the growing influence of barbarian foederati in Roman politics.^[6] On October 31, 683, during the Umayyad siege of Mecca led by forces loyal to Caliph Yazid I against Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's rebellion, the Kaaba was severely damaged by fire, likely ignited by catapult projectiles or internal combustion amid the fighting.^[7] The blaze shattered the Black Stone and destroyed parts of the structure, which was later rebuilt, highlighting the intense civil strife of the Second Fitna that fractured early Islamic unity.^[8] Empress Irene of Athens, who had ruled the Byzantine Empire since 797 after blinding and deposing her son Constantine VI, was overthrown on October 31, 802, by a conspiracy of nobles and military officers dissatisfied with her fiscal policies and iconophile favoritism.^[9] Finance minister Nikephoros I seized power, blinding Irene and exiling her to Lesbos, where she died the following year; this coup ended her controversial regency and shifted Byzantine governance toward stricter administrative control.^[10] On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther, a German theologian and Augustinian friar, reportedly nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg, critiquing the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and sparking the Protestant Reformation.^[11] Though the exact posting remains debated among historians, with some evidence suggesting private circulation initially, the event symbolized Luther's challenge to ecclesiastical authority and papal corruption, leading to widespread theological and political upheaval across Europe.^[12]

1601–1900

On October 31, 1756, Italian adventurer Giacomo Casanova escaped from the Piombi prison in Venice's Doge's Palace, the republic's most secure facility under the attic's lead-tiled roof, by cutting through the wooden floor with smuggled tools, crawling across the palace roof with accomplice Father Marino Balbi, and descending into an adjacent chamber before fleeing the city.^[13] On October 31, 1822, Agustín de Iturbide, emperor of Mexico since proclaiming independence from Spain the previous year, dissolved the national congress in response to opposition and plots against his rule, arresting dissenting members and appointing a loyal junta in its place, a move that violated his coronation oath and triggered rebellions leading to his abdication weeks later.^[14] On October 31, 1864, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed Nevada's admission as the 36th state, three days before the presidential election, after Congress approved its constitution despite the territory's sparse population of about 20,000, primarily to secure two additional electoral votes for Lincoln's Republican ticket amid the Civil War.^[15][16][17]

1901–present

On October 31, 1922, Benito Mussolini was appointed Prime Minister of Italy by King Victor Emmanuel III, following the March on Rome organized by his National Fascist Party; this event marked the establishment of the first fascist government in Europe and Mussolini's consolidation of power through a coalition cabinet that included fascists, nationalists, and independents.^[18][19] On October 31, 1941, the Mount Rushmore National Memorial in South Dakota was declared a completed project by the National Park Service, concluding 14 years of construction under sculptor Gutzon Borglum, who had died earlier that month; the monument features 60-foot-high carvings of Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln, intended to symbolize key phases of American history.^[20] On October 31, 1950, Earl Lloyd entered a game for the Washington Capitols against the Rochester Royals, becoming the first African American player to compete in the National Basketball Association; Lloyd played six minutes and scored six points in the Capitols' 78-70 loss, with two other Black players—Chuck Cooper and Nat "Sweetwater" Clifton—debuting shortly after due to scheduling delays.^[21] On October 31, 1984, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, at her residence in New Delhi; the killing, motivated by Sikh resentment over Gandhi's authorization of a military operation against militants at the Golden Temple in June 1984, triggered widespread anti-Sikh riots that resulted in thousands of deaths over the following days.^[22][23]

Births

Pre-1600

In 475, Orestes, a Roman general and magister militum, proclaimed his young son Romulus Augustulus as Western Roman Emperor following the deposition of Julius Nepos, marking a brief interregnum in the empire's leadership.^[5] Romulus, aged about 14 or 15, ruled nominally under his father's regency from Ravenna, but his installation underscored the growing influence of barbarian foederati in Roman politics.^[6] On October 31, 683, during the Umayyad siege of Mecca led by forces loyal to Caliph Yazid I against Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's rebellion, the Kaaba was severely damaged by fire, likely ignited by catapult projectiles or internal combustion amid the fighting.^[7] The blaze shattered the Black Stone and destroyed parts of the structure, which was later rebuilt, highlighting the intense civil strife of the Second Fitna that fractured early Islamic unity.^[8] Empress Irene of Athens, who had ruled the Byzantine Empire since 797 after blinding and deposing her son Constantine VI, was overthrown on October 31, 802, by a conspiracy of nobles and military officers dissatisfied with her fiscal policies and iconophile favoritism.^[9] Finance minister Nikephoros I seized power, blinding Irene and exiling her to Lesbos, where she died the following year; this coup ended her controversial regency and shifted Byzantine governance toward stricter administrative control.^[10] On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther, a German theologian and Augustinian friar, reportedly nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg, critiquing the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and sparking the Protestant Reformation.^[11] Though the exact posting remains debated among historians, with some evidence suggesting private circulation initially, the event symbolized Luther's challenge to ecclesiastical authority and papal corruption, leading to widespread theological and political upheaval across Europe.^[12]

1601–1900

On October 31, 1756, Italian adventurer Giacomo Casanova escaped from the Piombi prison in Venice's Doge's Palace, the republic's most secure facility under the attic's lead-tiled roof, by cutting through the wooden floor with smuggled tools, crawling across the palace roof with accomplice Father Marino Balbi, and descending into an adjacent chamber before fleeing the city.^[13] On October 31, 1822, Agustín de Iturbide, emperor of Mexico since proclaiming independence from Spain the previous year, dissolved the national congress in response to opposition and plots against his rule, arresting dissenting members and appointing a loyal junta in its place, a move that violated his coronation oath and triggered rebellions leading to his abdication weeks later.^[14] On October 31, 1864, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed Nevada's admission as the 36th state, three days before the presidential election, after Congress approved its constitution despite the territory's sparse population of about 20,000, primarily to secure two additional electoral votes for Lincoln's Republican ticket amid the Civil War.^[15][16][17]

1901–present

On October 31, 1922, Benito Mussolini was appointed Prime Minister of Italy by King Victor Emmanuel III, following the March on Rome organized by his National Fascist Party; this event marked the establishment of the first fascist government in Europe and Mussolini's consolidation of power through a coalition cabinet that included fascists, nationalists, and independents.^[18][19] On October 31, 1941, the Mount Rushmore National Memorial in South Dakota was declared a completed project by the National Park Service, concluding 14 years of construction under sculptor Gutzon Borglum, who had died earlier that month; the monument features 60-foot-high carvings of Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln, intended to symbolize key phases of American history.^[20] On October 31, 1950, Earl Lloyd entered a game for the Washington Capitols against the Rochester Royals, becoming the first African American player to compete in the National Basketball Association; Lloyd played six minutes and scored six points in the Capitols' 78-70 loss, with two other Black players—Chuck Cooper and Nat "Sweetwater" Clifton—debuting shortly after due to scheduling delays.^[21] On October 31, 1984, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, at her residence in New Delhi; the killing, motivated by Sikh resentment over Gandhi's authorization of a military operation against militants at the Golden Temple in June 1984, triggered widespread anti-Sikh riots that resulted in thousands of deaths over the following days.^[22][23]

Deaths

Pre-1600

In 475, Orestes, a Roman general and magister militum, proclaimed his young son Romulus Augustulus as Western Roman Emperor following the deposition of Julius Nepos, marking a brief interregnum in the empire's leadership.^[5] Romulus, aged about 14 or 15, ruled nominally under his father's regency from Ravenna, but his installation underscored the growing influence of barbarian foederati in Roman politics.^[6] On October 31, 683, during the Umayyad siege of Mecca led by forces loyal to Caliph Yazid I against Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's rebellion, the Kaaba was severely damaged by fire, likely ignited by catapult projectiles or internal combustion amid the fighting.^[7] The blaze shattered the Black Stone and destroyed parts of the structure, which was later rebuilt, highlighting the intense civil strife of the Second Fitna that fractured early Islamic unity.^[8] Empress Irene of Athens, who had ruled the Byzantine Empire since 797 after blinding and deposing her son Constantine VI, was overthrown on October 31, 802, by a conspiracy of nobles and military officers dissatisfied with her fiscal policies and iconophile favoritism.^[9] Finance minister Nikephoros I seized power, blinding Irene and exiling her to Lesbos, where she died the following year; this coup ended her controversial regency and shifted Byzantine governance toward stricter administrative control.^[10] On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther, a German theologian and Augustinian friar, reportedly nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg, critiquing the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and sparking the Protestant Reformation.^[11] Though the exact posting remains debated among historians, with some evidence suggesting private circulation initially, the event symbolized Luther's challenge to ecclesiastical authority and papal corruption, leading to widespread theological and political upheaval across Europe.^[12]

1601–1900

On October 31, 1756, Italian adventurer Giacomo Casanova escaped from the Piombi prison in Venice's Doge's Palace, the republic's most secure facility under the attic's lead-tiled roof, by cutting through the wooden floor with smuggled tools, crawling across the palace roof with accomplice Father Marino Balbi, and descending into an adjacent chamber before fleeing the city.^[13] On October 31, 1822, Agustín de Iturbide, emperor of Mexico since proclaiming independence from Spain the previous year, dissolved the national congress in response to opposition and plots against his rule, arresting dissenting members and appointing a loyal junta in its place, a move that violated his coronation oath and triggered rebellions leading to his abdication weeks later.^[14] On October 31, 1864, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed Nevada's admission as the 36th state, three days before the presidential election, after Congress approved its constitution despite the territory's sparse population of about 20,000, primarily to secure two additional electoral votes for Lincoln's Republican ticket amid the Civil War.^[15][16][17]

1901–present

On October 31, 1922, Benito Mussolini was appointed Prime Minister of Italy by King Victor Emmanuel III, following the March on Rome organized by his National Fascist Party; this event marked the establishment of the first fascist government in Europe and Mussolini's consolidation of power through a coalition cabinet that included fascists, nationalists, and independents.^[18][19] On October 31, 1941, the Mount Rushmore National Memorial in South Dakota was declared a completed project by the National Park Service, concluding 14 years of construction under sculptor Gutzon Borglum, who had died earlier that month; the monument features 60-foot-high carvings of Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln, intended to symbolize key phases of American history.^[20] On October 31, 1950, Earl Lloyd entered a game for the Washington Capitols against the Rochester Royals, becoming the first African American player to compete in the National Basketball Association; Lloyd played six minutes and scored six points in the Capitols' 78-70 loss, with two other Black players—Chuck Cooper and Nat "Sweetwater" Clifton—debuting shortly after due to scheduling delays.^[21] On October 31, 1984, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, at her residence in New Delhi; the killing, motivated by Sikh resentment over Gandhi's authorization of a military operation against militants at the Golden Temple in June 1984, triggered widespread anti-Sikh riots that resulted in thousands of deaths over the following days.^[22][23]

Holidays and Observances

Reformation Day

Reformation Day is an annual Christian observance held on October 31, primarily by Protestant denominations, commemorating the start of the Protestant Reformation through Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses. Traditionally, on October 31, 1517, the German monk and theologian Martin Luther affixed the Theses to the door of the Castle Church (Schlosskirche) in Wittenberg, Saxony, as a public invitation for academic debate on the theology of indulgences.^[24][25] The document, consisting of 95 propositions, principally condemned the Roman Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences—certificates purportedly reducing time in purgatory—as a corrupt means of fundraising rather than genuine repentance, arguing that salvation comes through faith alone, not monetary contributions.^[26] The event ignited widespread theological and ecclesiastical challenges to papal authority, emphasizing principles such as sola scriptura (Scripture alone as the ultimate authority), sola fide (faith alone for justification), and the priesthood of all believers, which fractured Western Christianity and led to the establishment of Lutheranism and subsequent Reformed traditions. Luther's act, fueled by his study of Scripture and dissatisfaction with ecclesiastical abuses, spread rapidly via the printing press, with copies circulating across Europe within weeks and translations into German appearing by year's end. This catalyzed reforms that influenced not only religion but also politics, education, and culture, diminishing the Catholic Church's monopoly and fostering nation-state autonomy from Rome.^[27][28] Today, Reformation Day features worship services, sermons, and educational events in Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, and other Protestant churches, often highlighting Luther's legacy and the recovery of gospel-centered theology amid historical corruptions. It is a public holiday in five German states with historical Protestant majorities—Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia—where schools and businesses close. Nationally, it holds official status in Slovenia and Chile, with the latter sometimes shifting it to the nearest Friday for a long weekend; elsewhere, such as Switzerland and Austria, it receives ecclesiastical recognition without statutory holiday provisions.^[29][30]

Halloween

Halloween is a holiday observed on October 31, primarily in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and other Western countries, characterized by children in costumes going door-to-door trick-or-treating for candy, carving pumpkins into jack-o'-lanterns, and decorating homes with themes of ghosts, witches, and other supernatural figures. The name "Halloween" is a contraction of "All Hallows' Eve," referring to the evening before All Saints' Day, a Christian feast established on November 1 to honor all saints and martyrs. This date for All Saints' Day was formalized in the 8th century by Pope Gregory III, who dedicated a chapel in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome to the saints, shifting an earlier spring observance to November 1, potentially to align with and Christianize existing seasonal festivals.^[31] The holiday's customs have roots in the ancient Celtic festival of Samhain, celebrated around October 31 approximately 2,000 years ago in Ireland, Britain, and northern France, marking the end of the harvest season and the Celtic new year on November 1, when the veil between the worlds of the living and the dead was believed to thin, allowing spirits to roam.^[32] Participants lit bonfires from sacrificed livestock bones, wore animal skins or masks as disguises to ward off or impersonate roaming ghosts, and prepared feasts shared with the deceased, with archaeological evidence such as the Samhain sunrise alignment at the 4,500–5,000-year-old Mound of the Hostages at Tara supporting the festival's antiquity.^[32] While these practices are traditionally linked to modern Halloween, some historians note that primary sources describing Samhain date to post-Christian Ireland, over 500 years after Celtic conversion, raising questions about direct continuity versus a broader seasonal association with autumn transitions.^[31] The Christian All Souls' Day on November 2, instituted around 1000 by the Abbey of Cluny in France to pray for souls in purgatory, further incorporated elements like bonfires and costumed begging for soul cakes, blending with earlier vigils.^[31] Halloween arrived in the United States via Irish and Scottish immigrants in the mid-19th century, accelerated by the Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s, which drove over a million emigrants to America, where the holiday merged with existing harvest celebrations in Maryland and the southern colonies before spreading nationwide. Jack-o'-lanterns, originally carved from turnips in Ireland to represent the legend of Stingy Jack—a soul doomed to wander with a coal-lit lantern—adapted to abundant pumpkins by the early 20th century, with U.S. newspaper references appearing by 1910.^[33] Trick-or-treating evolved from medieval European practices like guising (disguised begging for food or coins during Samhain or Yule) and souling (offering prayers for the dead in exchange for soul cakes on All Souls' Day), gaining traction in American cities from the 1920s to curb pranks and vandalism, and surging in popularity during the 1950s baby boom era when it became a structured, candy-focused activity for children.^[33] By the 1970s, commercial candy distribution dominated, transforming Halloween into a major retail event while retaining community and seasonal elements.^[33]

Other Holidays and Observances

October 31 is marked as Rashtriya Ekta Diwas (National Unity Day) in India, an annual observance established in 2015 to honor Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel's birth on that date in 1875; Patel, as India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister, played a key role in integrating over 560 princely states into the Indian Union post-independence, preventing potential balkanization through diplomatic negotiations and, where necessary, military action.^[1] The day features events like "Run for Unity" marathons nationwide and pledges for national integration, emphasizing unity in diversity amid India's federal structure.^[34] In the United States, October 31 coincides with Nevada Day when it falls on the last Friday of the month, as in 2025; this state holiday commemorates Nevada's admission to the Union on October 31, 1864, during the Civil War, and includes parades, reenactments, and community events primarily in Carson City, the state capital at the time of statehood.^[35] Nevada Day underscores the territory's rapid push for statehood to bolster Union support in Congress, with silver mining interests providing economic leverage.^[36] World Savings Day, initiated in 1924 by the World Society for the Development of Savings at its Milan congress and later endorsed by the United Nations, promotes thrift, financial literacy, and saving habits globally on October 31; countries participate through bank-led campaigns, educational workshops, and media outreach to encourage personal and national economic resilience, particularly in developing economies facing inflation or debt challenges.^[37] The observance highlights empirical links between household savings rates and long-term growth, as evidenced by cross-country data showing higher savings correlating with reduced vulnerability to financial crises.^[1] Other minor observances include World Cities Day, designated by UN-Habitat in 2014 to address urbanization challenges like sustainable development and resilience; events focus on policy discussions and innovations for megacity management, drawing on data from over 50% of the global population now urban. Cultural traditions akin to but distinct from Halloween, such as Cornwall's Allantide with bonfires and apple games tied to pre-Christian harvest rites, persist in localized forms, though participation has declined due to secularization.^[34]