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Ubume うぶめ from Bakemono no e (化物之繪, c. 1700), Harry F. Bruning Collection of Japanese Books and Manuscripts, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University.

Ubume (Japanese: 産女) are Japanese yōkai of pregnant women.[1] They can also be written as 憂婦女鳥. Throughout folk stories and literature the identity and appearance of ubume varies. However, she is most commonly depicted as the spirit of a woman who has died during childbirth. Passersby will see her as a normal-looking woman carrying a baby. She will typically try to give the passerby her child then disappear.[2] When the person goes to look at the child in their arms, they discover it is only a bundle of leaves or large rock.[3]

Etymology

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Some Japanese sources coopt the Chinese name 姑獲鳥 (pinyin: gu huo niao, lit. "lady capturing-bird", translated as "wench bird"[4])[a] and read it Japanese style as "ubume"[5] or "ubumedori".[6]

From Chinese sources (cf. § Bencao Gangmu below), Japanese learned men learned that this "wench bird" had the characteristic that "in front of their chest they have two breasts" (or rather "a pair of teats/mammaries"[b]).[4]

Thus the creature's name is also styled 乳母鳥 (ubame, "wetnurse bird"), with the explanation that the bird breastfeeds the child it kidnaps,[c] and because it is like a menoto/uba (乳母; "wetnurse, nursemaid") it is called a ubame (乳母女; "nursemaid-woman").[7]

An alternate kanji representation gives it another meaning of 産鳥 (ubume,[d] "birthing bird").[7]

The term ubume originally was the name for a kind of small sea fish, according to American missionary Hepburn's guesswork.[8]

Attestations

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An image of ubume as depicted by Toriyama Sekien.[5]

Konjaku Monogatarishū

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Stories about ubume have been told in Japan since at least the 12th century,[9] in the Konjaku Monogatarishū, where a samurai (Urabe no Suetake[3][e]) encounters a woman (ubume (産女)) at the riverbank who asks him to hold her child. She demands her child back and when the samurai refused, it turned into a bundle of leaves.[5][10]

Kokon hyakumonogatari hyōban

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They are also mentioned in the Hyakumonogatari Hyōban [ja]:[11] "When a woman loses her life in childbirth, her spiritual attachment[f] itself becomes this ghost. In form, it is soaked in blood from the waist down and wanders about crying, 'Be born! Be born!' (obareu, obareu; をばれう)".[10][2]

Kii Zōdan Shū

[edit]

The Kii Zōdan Shū[12] explains that "when a woman wanting a child (for a long time), gets pregnant by chance, but dies in difficult labor or delivery, her soul becomes so obsessed[g] it transforms into a bird, flies by night, and captures other people's children".[7]

Bencao Gangmu

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Main article: Guhuoniao

The Compendium of Materia Medica (Bencao gangmu) gives entry on the Chinese equivalent gu huo niao (姑獲鳥, "wench bird"),[4] which goes by various other names such as the ru mu niao (乳母鳥 "mother's milk bird").[h][4][14]

It is stated in this work that "they [the wench birds] are transformations of women who died giving birth"[15] which is also stated with slightly different phrasing[i] in the Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang from the Tang dynasty.[16] (Further information: Guhuoniao).

Wakan sansai zue

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Kokakuchō (姑獲鳥, or 夜行遊女, "night-going leisure woman") from the Wakan Sansai Zue by Terajima Ryōan [ja][6]

The Japanese encyclopedia Wakan Sansai Zue also has an entry on it (cf. § Wakan Sansai Zue below)[6][5]

The encyclopedia records that according to the local legend of the people of Kyushu, Japan, the ubume is a bird that resembles the gull in appearance and voice and it tends to show up on a pitch-black night of light rain. The spot where the bird appears, there is usually "phosphor fire" (eerie flame, like a will-o'-the-wisp). It is said to shapeshift into a human woman accompanied by a child, and whoever encounters this should beware of fleeing from fright, lest the creature will cause chill-shivers and high fever, which can even be fatal. However, if a stalwart man accepts the favor and carries the child, he will come to no harm.[6][17]

Other Japanese lore

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In Ibaraki Prefecture, there is a similar legend concerning a yōkai called the ubametori[19] which flies by night, and when it spots children's clothing hung dry, it imagines would think of the child as their own, and mark the clothes with its milk, which is said to be poisonous.[20][21][18]

This "ubametori" of Ibaraki bears close similarity with the kokakuchō i.e. guhuoniao the "wench bird" of China, and the folklore probably derives from Chinese scholarship, introduced by some Japanese person with learning.[22][23][24]

By other names

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Ubume in Hinoemata, Minamiaizu District and Kaneyama, Ōnuma District, Fukushima Prefecture were called "obo". It is said that when they encounter someone, they make that person hug a baby and then disappear in peace and the one hugging the baby will have their throat bitten by the baby. It is said that when one encounters an obo, one should throw a piece of cloth, such as a string with a billhook attached for men, or an okoso [zukin] (御高祖[頭巾]; type of headdress or hood), tenugui, or a yumaki (a type of waistcloth for women) at it, thus diverting the obo's attention for an opportunity to escape. It is also said that if one does end up hugging the baby, hugging the baby with its face turned the other way will prevent one from being bitten.[25][26] Also, the obo (like "ubu" in "ubume" ) is originally a dialect term referring to newborns.[25] In Yanaizu, Kawanuma District in the same Fukushima Prefecture, there is a legend concerning the obo daki kannnon (おぼ抱き観音; "obo hugging Kannon") who asked a man to hold her child (obo) while she did her hair, and after he complied, he received a stack of mochi made of gold as reward.[18]

In the Nishimatsuura District, Saga Prefecture and in Miyamachi Miyaji, Aso, Kumamoto Prefecture, they are called "ugume" and it is said that they appear at night and they would make people embrace a baby a night, but when dawn comes, they would generally be a rock, a stone tower, or a straw beater.[27][28] (A type of funayūrei ("ship ghost") called "ugume" is known on Goshoura Island [ja] in Kumamoto Prefecture,[29] as well as Ojika Island [ja], one of the Gotō Islands, in Nagasaki Prefecture[29]).

On Iki Island (Nagasaki Prefecture), they are called "unme" or "uume" and they occur when a young person dies or when a woman dies from difficult childbirth, and they would sway back and forth before disappearing, having the appearance of a creepy blue light.[30]

In Iwaki Province, now Fukushima Prefecture and Miyagi Prefecture, it is said that the ryūtō [ja] ("dragon lantern"; an atmospheric ghost light said to be lit by a dragon spirit) would appear at beaches and try to come up to land, but it is said that this is because an ubume is carrying a ryūtō to the shore.[31] In Kitaazumi District, Nagano Prefecture, ubume are called yagomedori, and they are said to stop at clothes drying at night, and it is said that putting on those clothes would result in dying before one's husband.[32]

Social and cultural influence

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The yokai ubume was conceived through various means of social and religious influence. During the late Medieval period of Japan, the attitudes surrounding motherhood started to change. Rather than the infant being considered a replication of the mother and an extension of her body, the fetus started to be seen as separate from the mother. This distancing of mother and fetus caused an emphasis on the paternal ownership of the child, reducing the mother to nothing more than a vessel for male reproduction. For a mother to die in childbirth or late pregnancy soon came to be considered a sin, the blame for the death of the unborn child being placed on the mother who in a sense was responsible for the infant's death.[33]

The idea that a pregnant woman who dies and get buried transforms into an ubume has existed since ancient times; which is why it has been said that when a pregnant woman dies prepartum, one ought to cut the fetus out the abdomen and put it on the mother in a hug as they are buried. In some regions, if the fetus cannot be cut out, a doll would be put beside her.[citation needed]

The ubume's blood-soaked appearance is thought to be because in feudal society, the continuation of the family was considered important, so pregnant women who died were believed to fall into a hell with a pond of blood.[17]

Folkloristics

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In Japanese folklore the ubume is the ghost of a woman who had died in childbirth, or "birthing woman ghost".[34]

Typically, the ubume asks a passerby to hold her child for just a moment and disappears when her victim takes the swaddled baby.[2] The baby then becomes increasingly heavy until it is impossible to hold. It is then revealed not to be a human child at all, but a boulder[3] or a stone image of Jizō.[35]

Many scholars have associated the ubume with the legend of the hitobashira ('human pillar'),[36] where a sacrificial mother and child "are buried under one of the supporting pillars of a new bridge".[34]

The Shōshin'in Temple (正信院)[37] in Shizuoka Prefecture, according to scholars, is where local women come to pray to conceive a child or to have a successful pregnancy.[9][38] According to Stone and Walter (2008), the origins of the temple's legend, set in the mid-16th century, concern:

a modern statue of Ubume, displayed once a year in July. At this festival, candy that has been offered to the image is distributed, and women pray for safe delivery and for abundant milk. The statue, which is clothed in white robes, has only a head, torso, and arms; it has no lower half.[39]

In art

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Tokugawa-era artists[j] produced many images of ubume, usually represented as "naked from the waist up, wearing a red skirt and carrying a small baby,"[9] or rather, wearing a blood-soaked koshimaki loincloth.[41]

Another illustration of ubume comes e from Toriyama Sekien's late-18th-century encyclopedia of ghosts, goblins, and ghouls, Gazu Hyakki Yagyō.[5][39]

[edit]

Natsuhiko Kyogoku's best-selling detective novel, The Summer of the Ubume, uses the ubume legend as its central motif, creating something of an ubume 'craze'[42] at the time of its publication and was made into a major motion picture in 2005.[42]

See also

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  • Harpy
  • Kenas-unarpe - Ainu mountain hag or monstrous bird
  • Konaki-jiji, a childlike yōkai that, like the ubume's bundled 'infant', grows heavier when carried and ultimately takes the form of a boulder.
  • Myling, an example of a similar motif in Scandinavian folklore.
  • Pontianak
  • Sankai, yōkai that emerge from pregnant women
  • Strigoi - etymologically related to strix
  • Strix (mythology) - Roman mythical owl that drizzles milk on an infant's lip, or blood-sucks and devours it.

Explanatory notes

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Bush (2001), p. 188
  2. ^ a b c Stone & Walter (2008), p. 191.
  3. ^ a b c Joly (1908), p. 16.
  4. ^ a b c d e Li Shizhen (2021b). "49-28 Gu huo niao fire rat/mouse" 姑獲鳥. Ben Cao Gang Mu, Volume IX: Fowls, Domestic and Wild Animals, Human Substances. Translated by Paul U. Unschuld. Univ of California Press. pp. 340–341. ISBN 9780520976993.
  5. ^ a b c d e Toriyama, Sekien (2017), "Ubume" 姑獲鳥, Japandemonium Illustrated: The Yokai Encyclopedias of Toriyama Sekien, translated by Hiroko Yoda; Matt Alt, Courier Dover Publications, p. 37, ISBN 9780486818757
  6. ^ a b c d Terajima Ryōan [in Japanese] (n.d.) [1712]. "42-kan. Genkin-rui Musasabi/Momi/Nobusuma/Momoka" 四十四巻 山禽類 姑獲鳥（うぶめどり） [Book 44. Mountain bird category. (ubumedori)]. Wakan Sansai zue 和漢三才図会 (in Japanese). Vol. 29 of 81. fol. 15a–15b. (Ubumedori in edition of Chūkindō, 1885. 44: 243–244), 1906 . p. 503-->
  7. ^ a b c "唐に姑獲（こくわく）といふは、日本の產女なり、姑獲は鳥なり..[quote from Bencao Gangmu].. 是は、人の子を、とつて、我子として、乳を、のませてやしなふ事、人の乳母（めのと）に似たるゆへに、乳母鳥と、いふなり是ハ、婦人、子なふ（無く）して、子をほしがるもの、たま〳 〵くはいにん（懐妊）す、と、いへども、産することを、えず、難産に死するときんバ（時は）、その執心魂魄、変化して、鳥となりて、夜とびまはりて人の小子を、とる.." (in Japanese)[13]
  8. ^ Hepburn (1887), p. 705.
  9. ^ a b c Glassman (2001), p. 160.
  10. ^ a b Mozume (1922), pp. 647–648.
  11. ^ Foster, Michael Dylan (2024) [2015]. The Book of Yokai, Expanded Second Edition: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore. University of California Press. pp. 253–356. ISBN 9780520389564.
  12. ^ Stone & Walter (2008), p. 194.
  13. ^ Asakura, Haruhiko [in Japanese]; Ōkubo, Junko, eds. (1998). Kana zōshi shūsei 假名草子集成 (in Japanese). Tokyodo Shuppan. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/12455939.
  14. ^ Guo Pu. Xuán zhōng jì 玄中記 [Record of the Mysterious Center] (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
  15. ^ Chinese: 云是産婦死後化作[4]
  16. ^ Duan Chengshi. "卷十六" . Lingbiao luyi 酉陽雜俎 [Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang] (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
  17. ^ a b Kyogoku, Natsuhiko; Tada, Katsumi [in Japanese], eds. (2000). Yōkai zukan 妖怪図巻 (in Japanese). Kokusho Kankōkai. pp. 151–152. ISBN 978-4-336-04187-6.
  18. ^ a b c Aramata, Hiroshi; Ōya, Yasunori (2021). "Ubume, ubume[reijin], kokakuchō" うぶめ、産女[霊神]、姑獲鳥. Aramata Hiroshi no Nihon zenkoku yōkai mappu アラマタヒロシの日本全国妖怪マップ (in Japanese). [Shuwa System. p. 48. ISBN 9784798065076.
  19. ^ Whiles some sources only give ubametori phonetically in kana as "ウバメトリ", Aramata assigns the kanji "姑獲鳥 (ウバメトリ)"[18]
  20. ^ Minzokugaku Kenkyujo (Folkloristic Research Institute) (1955). Yanagita, Kunio (ed.). Sōgō nihon minzoku goi 綜合日本民俗語彙. Vol. 1. Heibonsha. pp. 136–137.
  21. ^ Akagi, Takehiko, ed. (1991). Ibarki hōgen minzokugo jiten 茨城方言民俗語辞典 (in Japanese). Tokyodo Shuppan. p. 103. ISBN 9784490102963.
  22. ^ Kyogoku, Natsuhiko; Tada, Katsumi [in Japanese], eds. (2008). Yōkaigahon. Kyōka hyakumonogatari 妖怪画本 狂歌百物語 (in Japanese). Kokusho Kankōkai. pp. 275–276. ISBN 978-4-3360-5055-7.
  23. ^ Murakami (2005), pp. 46–47.
  24. ^ Foster (2024b).
  25. ^ a b Murakami, Kenji [in Japanese], ed. (2005). "Ubume". Nihon yōkai daijiten 日本妖怪大事典. Kwai books (in Japanese). Kadokawa Shoten. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-4-04-883926-6.
  26. ^ Chuo University Minzoku Kenkyūkai (February 1990). "Fukushima-ken Ōnuma-gun chōsa hōkokusho" 福島県大沼郡金山町 調査報告書. Jōmin 常民 (in Japanese) (26): 162. (Informants: Yūki Kakuta/Sumida/Tsunoda/[?] et al. 角田勇喜，角田正子，角田ヤス) via File 1070507, Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database @International Research Center for Japanese Studies
  27. ^ Chiba, Mikio [in Japanese], ed. (1991). Yōkai obake zatsugaku jiten 妖怪お化け雑学事典 (in Japanese). Kodansha. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-4-06-205172-9.
  28. ^ "Aso Digital Hakubutsukan minkan denshō" 阿蘇デジタル博物館民間伝承. Aso Virtual Experience Land www.e-aso.com あそバーチャル体験ランド]. Aso Telework Center. Archived from the original on 2006-07-12. Retrieved 2008-12-08.
  29. ^ a b Sakurada, Katsunori (1980). Gyoson minzokushi 漁村民俗誌 (in Japanese). Meicho shuppan. pp. 139, 142, 143.
  30. ^ Murakami (2005), p. 42.
  31. ^ Jinbunsha editorial Dept. (2005). Shokoku kaidan kidan shūsei. Higashi-Nihon hen 諸国怪談奇談集成 江戸諸国百物語 東日本編. Jinbunsha. pp. 20頁. ISBN 978-4-7959-1955-6.
  32. ^ Shimura, Kunihiro (supervising ed.) [in Japanese], ed. (2008). Zusetsu: Chizu to arasuji de yomu Nihon no yōkai densetsu 図説 地図とあらすじで読む 日本の妖怪伝説 (in Japanese). Seishun shuppan sha. p. 77. ISBN 978-4-413-00965-2.
  33. ^ Stone & Walter (2008), p. 176.
  34. ^ a b Stone & Walter (2008), p. 204.
  35. ^ Takahashi, Masahide [in Japanese] (1962). Koten to minzokugaku 古典と民俗學 (in Japanese). Hanawa Shobō. p. 132.
  36. ^ Glassman (2001), p. 171.
  37. ^ Glassman (2001), p. 270.
  38. ^ Stone & Walter (2008), pp. 191–192.
  39. ^ a b Stone & Walter (2008), p. 192.
  40. ^ Joly (1908), p. 24.
  41. ^ Komatsu, Kazuhiko [in Japanese], ed. (2003). Nihon yōkaigaku taizen 日本妖学大全 (in Japanese). Shogakukan. pp. 74–75. ISBN 9784096262085.
  42. ^ a b Foster (2009), p. 230

References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ubume

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Ubume (産女) is a from , embodying the restless spirit of a who died during or , often driven by unresolved maternal instincts or concerns for her . These apparitions are typically encountered at night, particularly on rainy evenings near sites of their demise, such as riverbanks or homes, and they manifest in various forms to evoke both pity and terror. In traditional tales, ubume exhibit haunting behaviors rooted in their tragic circumstances; for instance, they may approach passersby requesting assistance with their infant, only for the bundle to transform into a heavy stone, log, or pile of leaves upon acceptance, symbolizing the weight of unresolved grief. Historical attestations, such as those in the Heian-period anthology Konjaku monogatari shū (compiled around 1120), depict encounters like that of the warrior Taira no Suetake, who aids an ubume at the Watari River but discovers the "baby" to be mere foliage, highlighting themes of deception and maternal sorrow. If the child also perished, the ubume might offer its corpse, which grows increasingly burdensome, potentially crushing the helper as a manifestation of karmic retribution or blood impurity anxieties prevalent in Shintō and Buddhist thought. Etymologically, "ubume" derives from "birth-giving woman," underscoring its connection to the perils of maternity in pre-modern , where high maternal mortality rates fueled such lore. Culturally, ubume reflect broader societal fears of death in childbirth and the associated with it, influencing rituals like separating the from the deceased mother to prevent the spirit's return—a practice documented into the mid-20th century. Over time, their portrayal evolved from purely malevolent figures to more sympathetic kosodate yūrei (child-rearing ghosts), who seek provisions like rice for surviving offspring, as seen in Tokugawa-period art and literature that popularized monstrous maternity motifs. Sites such as Ubume Kannon Temple in continue to honor these spirits, blending with devotional practices to appease maternal unrest. This yōkai's enduring presence in Japanese narratives underscores gendered anxieties around reproduction, impurity, and the .

Origins and Etymology

Etymology

The term "ubume" (産女) derives from the Japanese words "ubu," the nominalized stem of the verb "umu" (to give birth or produce), and "me" ( or ), literally translating to "birth-woman" or "woman in labor." This etymology directly reflects the yōkai's association with women who perish during or , emphasizing themes of maternal peril and unresolved parturition in . An alternative orthography, "kokakuchō" (姑獲鳥), links the term to Chinese influences, as it is the Japanese reading of "guhuoniao" (姑獲鳥), a legendary bird-spirit in Chinese lore representing the ghost of a who died in , often depicted with avian traits and malevolent intent. This borrowing suggests early cultural transmission from Chinese traditions, where similar apparitions like the "chanfu gui" (產婦鬼, ghost of a in labor) appear in accounts of postpartum spirits haunting the living. By the (794–1185 CE), "ubume" had evolved in to specifically denote a embodying the unrest of , as seen in its earliest documented narrative appearance.

Alternative Names

Ubume appears under various alternative names in , each reflecting nuances in its conceptualization as a spirit tied to and maternal loss. A notable synonym is yūbume, rendered in kanji as 憂婦女, where 憂 (yū) signifies sorrow or worry, 婦 (fujo) denotes a married or adult woman, and 女 (onna) means woman; this form emphasizes the emotional anguish of the yōkai's untimely death during labor. Another variant is ubumetori or ubame tori, written as 産女鳥, combining 産 (ubu) for birth or production, 女 (me) for woman, and 鳥 (tori) for bird, which alludes to textual depictions of the spirit assuming avian forms or being associated with bird-like omens in regional lore. In some contexts, ubume is equated with kosodate yūrei (子育て幽霊), translating to "child-rearing ," particularly when the narrative involves the mother's spirit persisting to nurture a surviving , highlighting adaptations in that focus on protective rather than malevolent behaviors. The nomenclature also draws from Chinese influences, with kokakuchō (姑獲鳥) serving as the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese guhuoniao (姑獲鳥), a legendary bird-spirit known for abducting children; this term was reinterpreted in Japanese encyclopedic works like the Wakan Sansai Zue (1712) to incorporate elements of local maternal traditions, blending foreign motifs with indigenous anxieties about parturition.

Descriptions and Behaviors

Physical Forms

In , the ubume is most commonly depicted as the restless spirit of a who perished during or , manifesting as a blood-soaked figure cradling a swaddled in her arms. This apparition often appears humanoid and ethereal, with pale, pallid skin and disheveled, unkempt hair that underscore her tragic and otherworldly nature. The blood covering her body symbolizes the violent circumstances of her death, evoking themes of maternal impurity and unresolved sorrow. Alternative corporeal forms include a pregnant woman whose womb is grotesquely exposed, revealing an underdeveloped fetus, or a decaying corpse animated by supernatural forces while holding the remains of her child. These variations reflect regional burial customs and the context of the death, such as whether the infant survived or was stillborn, emphasizing the ubume's tie to liminal states of life and death. In some accounts, the figure emits a foul, fishy odor, further marking her as a polluting presence associated with aquatic or transitional spaces like rivers. Regional and temporal differences introduce additional diversity in manifestations; Heian-period sources portray the ubume primarily as a woman without pronounced animalistic traits, while Edo-period (Tokugawa) tales and illustrations sometimes blend her with -like elements, such as feathers or avian features, linking her to the ubumetori or "child-snatching " yokai. This avian form allows the spirit to shift between human and feathered guises, heightening her deceptive and transient quality. A recurring symbolic element is the illusory carried by the ubume, which may appear lifelike but transforms into stone, log, leaves, or other heavy, inert matter if accepted from her, revealing the encounter's peril. This motif ties directly to her physical form, as the babe's deceptive normalcy contrasts with her ghastly appearance, amplifying the horror of her unresolved maternal instincts.

Encounters and Actions

In , encounters with ubume typically occur at night, often along rivers or near sites of their death, where the spirit approaches a passerby holding an and pleads for assistance in carrying the child across a body of water or to safety, sometimes under threat of harm if refused. If the passerby accepts the bundle, it gradually becomes unbearably heavy—transforming into a stone, log, or pile of leaves—potentially crushing or drowning the individual and leading to their demise. The motives of ubume are deeply tied to unfinished maternal responsibilities stemming from their death during pregnancy or childbirth, compelling them to seek surrogate care for a deceased or hidden child to resolve their lingering anxiety and allow passage to the afterlife. In some variants, such as the kosodate yūrei form, the spirit attempts to procure food or necessities for a surviving child, using illusory means like dead leaves as payment, driven by an unfulfilled desire to nurture rather than overt malice or revenge. Resolutions in these tales vary: refusal or clever evasion, as in the case of the warrior Taira no Suetake who carried the bundle but discarded it upon sensing its true nature, results in the ubume's disappearance without further pursuit. Acceptance often culminates in a or for the helper, reinforcing the peril of meddling with the undead. Rarely, benevolent outcomes arise if the encounter facilitates genuine aid, such as locating and adopting a living child, who then grows into a prosperous or exceptionally strong individual, or in cases where the spirit guides toward family reunion.

Historical and Literary Sources

Early Japanese Texts

The earliest precursors to the ubume appear in Heian-era (794–1185) setsuwa literature, where themes of and ghostly unrest underscore Buddhist notions of impermanence (mujō) and karmic retribution. In foundational texts like the (712) and (720), the goddess dies during and vows to claim a thousand lives daily, establishing a motif of vengeful maternal spirits tied to blood pollution and unresolved attachments that later inform ubume lore. These narratives, while not naming the ubume explicitly, reflect societal anxieties over childbirth mortality and the defilement of female bodies, often resolved through Buddhist rituals for salvation. The ubume's debut in written form occurs in the Konjaku Monogatarishū (Tales of Times Now Past), a late Heian setsuwa collection compiled around 1120. In Volume 27, Tale 43, titled "Taira no Suetake, a Retainer of Yorimitsu, Comes across a Woman with a Baby," a ghostly woman appears on a rainy night at the Watari Bridge in , cradling a and imploring passersby to hold it briefly while she crosses the river. When Taira no Suetake, a under , complies, the baby grows inexplicably heavy before transforming into a bundle of tree leaves, revealing the woman as the spirit of one who perished in childbirth—her lingering attachment manifesting as an illusory child to burden the living. This encounter highlights Buddhist themes of transient existence and the pollution () associated with maternal blood, positioning the ubume as a haunting figure seeking momentary relief from her unrest. Early setsuwa like the emphasize the ubume's role in illustrating the perils of improper funerary rites for women lost to , often in rural or liminal settings such as bridges and rivers symbolizing the boundary . These tales, drawn from oral traditions, served didactic purposes in Buddhist contexts, warning of the consequences of neglecting muenbotoke—unlinked spirits without familial ties—and promoting rituals to appease them. References to the ubume in later pre-modern collections, such as the Kokon Hyakumonogatari Hyōban (1686), build on these Heian foundations by linking the spirit to emerging hyakumonogatari traditions of supernatural narration. Here, the ubume is described as arising from a woman's unresolved spiritual bond after dying in labor, appearing in forms that evoke pity or terror to draw in the unwary.

Later Compilations and Lore

In the Edo-period illustrated encyclopedia Wakan Sansai Zue (1712), compiled by Terajima Ryōan, the ubume is depicted as a kokakuchō (姑獲鳥), a bird-like resembling a with a face capable of human speech, which flies over mountains at night crying like a child to lure and capture victims. This representation draws from Chinese sources, including the Bencao Gangmu (1596) by , where the guhuoniao—a similar bird spirit associated with women who died in —is described as a that mimics infant cries to ensnare people. The entry integrates non-Japanese mythological elements, portraying the ubume as a hybrid bird-woman rather than solely a , reflecting exchanges in early modern Japanese scholarship. Regional compilations from the mid-Edo period, such as the Kii Zōdan Shū (ca. 1650s), preserve local variations of ubume lore in the Wakayama area of the , emphasizing themes of maternal longing and salvation through Buddhist intervention. In one tale from volume 4, the pregnant wife of monk Kukua Shōnin dies in labor; her spirit purchases rice cakes daily with three coins until her husband exhumes the grave, finding the living infant and preventing her full transformation into an ubume by performing proper rites, allowing the child to be adopted. These stories tie ubume encounters to Ise region crossroads and gravesites, incorporating community rituals like sutra chanting to pacify the spirit and avert hauntings. By the 19th and 20th centuries, oral traditions in the adapted ubume narratives to address ongoing fears of mortality, often featuring protective measures rooted in folk practices. Accounts describe ubume appearing on rainy evenings near bridges or mountains, handing off a baby that grows unbearably heavy—revealed as a stone or Jizō statue—to test passersby, rewarding the strong with fortune while punishing the weak. In Wakayama variants, rituals such as separating the from a deceased mother's body during persisted into the mid-20th century to prevent ubume emergence, alongside temple invocations to child-granting deities for safe delivery. These adaptations highlight the ubume's role in communal coping with maternal loss, evolving from earlier textual foundations into localized cautionary tales.

Cultural and Social Significance

Reflections in Society

In pre-modern , particularly during the (1603–1868), maternal mortality rates were high due to limited medical interventions, infections, and complications from . This pervasive risk transformed into a profound source of societal anxiety, with the ubume emerging as a spectral embodiment of unresolved maternal grief, representing women who perished in labor and whose lingering spirits sought to entrust their ethereal infants to the living. The figure's haunting pleas for aid underscored the emotional toll of these deaths, mirroring the collective trauma of families left to mourn without closure; for example, the Heian-era anthology A Tale of Flowering Fortunes depicts approximately 23.4% of aristocratic women dying during or , indicative of broader pre-modern perils. The ubume also reflected entrenched gender dynamics, serving as a cultural critique of patriarchal neglect toward women's suffering during and . In a society structured by Confucian ideals that prioritized male lineage and familial duty, women's bodies were often viewed through the lens of utility for reproduction, with little emphasis on alleviating the physical and emotional burdens of labor. Texts from the period, such as those in the Konjaku monogatari shū (c. 1120), juxtapose male heroic order against the chaotic, demonized female form of the ubume, highlighting how patriarchal systems marginalized maternal pain and reinforced women's isolation in the face of mortality risks. This neglect manifested in everyday practices, where women's experiences were subordinated to societal expectations of endurance and silence. Associated rituals and taboos further illuminated these anxieties, tying the ubume to concepts of , or ritual pollution stemming from and death during . Women in labor were often secluded in ubuya (birthing huts) to contain this impurity, with Tokugawa-era decrees mandating up to 35 days of isolation for mothers to prevent of the household or community. Protective amulets, such as anzan , became widespread in the , distributed at shrines on auspicious days like inu no hi (days of the ) to invoke safe delivery and ward off like the ubume; these talismans, often featuring motifs symbolizing easy births, were tied around the abdomen during the fifth month of pregnancy as part of the obiiwai . Such practices not only addressed immediate fears but also perpetuated taboos around pollution, reinforcing the ubume's role as a cautionary symbol in folk traditions.

Folkloristic Interpretations

In early 20th-century studies, Yanagita Kunio positioned figures within the broader archetype of "marginal women" in spirit lore, often tied to shamanistic beliefs where women on societal fringes—such as those in liminal states of or —embodied spiritual unrest and possession. His compilations, including the Nihon mukashibanashi meii, cataloged narratives as exemplars of this motif, reflecting how untimely maternal deaths disrupted social and spiritual orders, with roots in ancient shamanic practices that elevated women's roles in mediating the spirit world. Modern folkloristic interpretations frame the ubume as a symbolic manifestation of psychological turmoil in the and deeper societal fears surrounding motherhood, exacerbated by historical maternal mortality rates that left communities grappling with unresolved grief and pollution taboos. These readings, drawing from ethnographic studies, highlight how ubume lore served as a cultural mechanism to process the instability of motherhood, including rituals like fetal separation during to avert the spirit's return and ensure communal harmony. Comparatively, the ubume aligns with global motifs of vengeful female ghosts but carries a distinct Japanese inflection on the limbo of . It parallels European "white ladies," ethereal spirits haunting sites of tragic female deaths, often tied to unresolved personal losses, while echoing Chinese gui such as the guhuoniao—a bird-demon born from women dying in labor, embodying chaotic retribution. Unlike these, the ubume's emphasis on maternal attachment and the bloodied threshold of birth underscores a uniquely localized anxiety over reproductive transitions, where the spirit's pleas for aid reveal cultural preoccupations with fertility's precarious balance.

Representations in Art and Media

Traditional Depictions

In traditional , the ubume is frequently portrayed in woodblock prints of the , capturing its eerie nocturnal encounters with elongated, spectral figures cradling infants to evoke themes of maternal tragedy and the . A notable example is Tsukioka Yoshitoshi's 1865 print Shūmeinosuke Urabe Suetake Meeting a Ghost with a Child from the series One Hundred Tales of and (Wakan hyakumonogatari), where the ubume appears as an emaciated, bloodied woman in a moonlit scene, extending her baby toward a , symbolizing the ghost's desperate plea and the peril of her curse. These depictions, rooted in Edo-period , emphasize the ubume's dual nature as both pitiable mother and vengeful spirit, often rendered with dramatic contrasts of shadow and pale flesh to heighten the horror. In theater, the ubume features prominently in ghost plays by late-Edo playwright Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1775–1851), where it embodies female resentment and appears in nearly all of his major supernatural dramas, such as adaptations of tales involving deaths and restless spirits. Performances highlight the ubume's dramatic transformation, with the infant prop—initially a swaddled bundle—revealing its illusory or cursed nature through onstage sleight-of-hand, such as turning into a stone or vanishing, to underscore the yokai's tragic deception and the performer's fluid shifts between human and ghostly forms via mie poses and costume changes. This theatrical motif, drawn from ubume lore where the baby burdens or petrifies upon contact, amplifies the emotional intensity of maternal loss in dimly lit stages adorned with eerie sound effects and choral narration. Temple iconography of the ubume is rare but symbolic, often appearing in protective carvings at sites associated with childbirth and child welfare, such as maternity shrines where Jizō Bodhisattva statues ward off malevolent spirits. A key example is a boxwood netsuke carved by Naitō Kōseki (active 1900–1930) in , depicting the ubume as a haggard figure clutching a small Jizō statue to her chest, representing her unresolved worry for her child and the bodhisattva's role in granting her peace. These miniature sculptures, worn as toggles or placed in household altars, invoke Jizō's patronage over perinatal souls, positioning the ubume not as a mere but as a figure seeking redemption through Buddhist at shrines like those dedicated to Koyasu Jizō (child-granting Jizō). Such reinforces connections to folk religious practices for safeguarding mothers and infants.

Modern Adaptations

In modern literature, the ubume has been reimagined as a central motif in Natsuhiko Kyogoku's 1994 The Summer of the Ubume (Ubume no Natsu), the first installment in his popular Kyōgokudō mystery series. The story follows occult detective Kyōgokudō Chūzenji as he investigates bizarre events surrounding a pregnant for over two years, intertwining ubume with themes of locked-room mysteries, family curses, and psychological unease, portraying the spirit less as a mere haunt and more as a symbol of unresolved maternal grief and societal taboos around childbirth. This work, translated into English by Ho-Ling Wong and published by in 2009, exemplifies a shift toward blending traditional yokai lore with contemporary , emphasizing emotional tragedy over outright terror. The novel's influence extends to film and anime adaptations that amplify the ubume's tragic dimensions while incorporating modern horror elements. In the 2005 live-action film Summer of Ubume, directed by Akio Jissōji, the narrative retains the investigative core but heightens supernatural tension through atmospheric visuals and subtle psychological dread, depicting the ubume as a vengeful yet pitiable entity tied to a hospital's dark secrets involving missing newborns. Similarly, in anime, the ubume appears in multiple iterations of Shigeru Mizuki's long-running GeGeGe no Kitarō series, such as the 2018 episode "The Baby-Stealing Ubume" from the sixth anime adaptation, where it is portrayed as a bird-like yokai abducting children to a mountain lair, but ultimately redeemed through Kitarō's intervention, blending folklore with heroic fantasy to soften its malevolent traits for younger audiences. In video games and , ubume portrayals often integrate gameplay mechanics with yokai summoning or combat, fusing horror origins with accessible fantasy. In Nioh 2 (2020), developed by , the ubume serves as a recurring enemy yokai, manifesting as a bird-woman who wails to stun players and clings to spirit stones, its design drawing from while emphasizing agile, scream-based attacks in a historical action-RPG context that highlights themes of loss and yokai-human conflict. Likewise, in the mobile game Yo-kai Watch: Wibble Wobble (part of the broader franchise since 2013), the character Cocoro Ubaune—a shady tribe yokai inspired by ubume—functions as a summonable ally that "steals hearts" in puzzle battles, transforming the ghost's child-related sorrow into whimsical, child-friendly mechanics that popularize yokai lore among global players. These adaptations reflect a broader trend in 21st-century media toward humanizing the ubume, using it to explore maternal instincts and regret in interactive, narrative-driven formats.

References

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