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Valeriana
Garden valerian, Valeriana officinalis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Dipsacales
Family: Caprifoliaceae
Subfamily: Valerianoideae
Genus: Valeriana
L., 1753
Synonyms[1]
List
    • Aligera Suksd. (1897)
    • Amblyorhinum Turcz. (1852)
    • Aretiastrum (DC.) Spach (1841)
    • Astrephia Dufr. (1811)
    • Belonanthus Graebn. (1906)
    • Betckea DC. (1832)
    • Centranthus DC. (1805)
    • Dufresnia DC. (1834)
    • Fedia Gaertn. (1790), nom. cons.
    • Fedia Kunth (1819), nom. illeg.
    • Fuisa Raf. (1840)
    • Hemesotria Raf. (1820)
    • Hybidium Fourr. (1868)
    • Locusta Riv. ex Medik. (1789)
    • Masema Dulac (1867)
    • Mitrophora Neck. ex Raf. (1813)
    • Monastes Raf. (1840)
    • Ocymastrum Kuntze (1891)
    • Odontocarpa Raf. (1840)
    • Oligacoce Willd. ex DC. (1830)
    • Phu Ludw. (1757)
    • Phuodendron (Graebn.) Dalla Torre & Harms (1905)
    • Phyllactis Pers. (1805)
    • Plectritis DC. (1830)
    • Polypremum Adans. (1763), nom. illeg.
    • Porteria Hook. (1851)
    • Pseudobetckea (Höck) Lincz. (1958)
    • Rittera Raf. (1840), nom. illeg.
    • Saliunca Raf. (1840)
    • Siphonella Small (1903)
    • Stangea Graebn. (1906)
    • Valerianopsis C.A.Müll. (1885)

Valeriana is a genus of flowering plants in the family Caprifoliaceae,[1] members of which may be commonly known as valerians. It contains many species, including the garden valerian, Valeriana officinalis. Valeriana has centers of diversity in Eurasia and South America (especially in the Andes), and is represented by native species on all continents except Antarctica.

Some species have been introduced to parts of the world outside their native range, including Valeriana rubra in the western United States[2] and Valeriana macrosiphon in Western Australia.[3]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The genus was named by Carl Linnaeus after the Roman emperor Publius Licinius Valerianus who was said to use the plant as medicine.[4]: 16  The emperor's personal name comes from Valeria and the Latin verb valeo which means "to be strong".[5][6]

32 previously recognized genera, including Centranthus, Fedia, and Plectritis, are now considered synonyms of Valeriana.[1] Species in the former genus Centranthus are unusual in having flowers with "handedness", that is, having neither radial nor bilateral symmetry.[7]

Botany

[edit]

Valeriana species are herbaceous perennials with woody roots, producing stems bearing fine hairs and trifoliolate, pinnate leaves with serrated edges.The flowers are borne in cymes Drying leads to plant material developing a strong, musky odour which has been likened to that of the scent glands of male cats.[8]

Fossil record

[edit]

Fossil seeds of Valeriana sp, among them †Valeriana pliocenica, have been recovered from Late Miocene deposits of southern Ukraine, and from Pliocene deposits of south-eastern Belarus and Bashkortostan in central Russia. The fossil seeds are most similar to the extant European Valeriana simplicifolia (a subspecies of Valeriana dioica).[9]

Species

[edit]
Main article: List of Valeriana species

As of July 2024, Plants of the World Online accepts over 435 species and hybrids, including:[1]

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Valeriana

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Valeriana is a of flowering plants in the family , comprising over 400 accepted species of primarily perennial herbs that are distributed worldwide in temperate, subtropical, and tropical mountainous regions, excluding and . The is characterized by sympetalous, bilaterally symmetric flowers with spurred corollas, inferior ovaries, and fruits, often featuring compounds such as valepotriates that contribute to their distinctive scents and medicinal properties. Species of Valeriana exhibit diverse growth forms, ranging from rhizomatous perennials to occasional annuals or subshrubs, with opposite leaves that are typically pinnate or simple, and inflorescences forming compact cymes or panicles of small, white to pinkish flowers. The highest diversity occurs in the of , where around 160 species belong to the subgenus , adapted to high-elevation paramo habitats between 3000 and 5000 meters. In the , species thrive in alpine zones, meadows, and wetlands, often in moist, nitrogen-rich soils. Several Valeriana species have been utilized in for their , , and spasmolytic effects, attributed to volatile oils and valerenic acids in their roots and rhizomes, with V. officinalis being the most prominent in herbal remedies and supplements. The genus's taxonomic history is complex, with ongoing revisions incorporating molecular data that reveal and the inclusion of former segregate genera like Aretiastrum into Valeriana. Ecologically, these plants play roles in support and in fragile habitats, though some species face threats from habitat loss and overharvesting for pharmaceutical use.

Taxonomy

Classification

Valeriana is a of flowering classified in the family and the order . Previously recognized as the family Valerianaceae, it has been subsumed into the expanded based on molecular phylogenetic studies demonstrating close relationships within . This revision reflects broader taxonomic integrations in the order, emphasizing shared morphological and genetic traits such as structure and DNA sequence similarities. As of recent classifications, the comprises 441 accepted and numerous hybrids, distributed primarily in temperate and tropical montane regions worldwide. The name Valeriana was established by in his seminal work in 1753, initially encompassing a smaller set of based on European flora. Historical taxonomic revisions have significantly expanded the circumscription of Valeriana, incorporating 32 former genera as synonyms, including Centranthus, Fedia, and Plectritis. These mergers were driven by evidence from morphological analyses—such as fruit and pollen characteristics—and molecular data revealing in previously delimited groups, leading to a more monophyletic genus definition in modern phylogenies. Key integrations occurred through 20th- and 21st-century studies that aligned Valeriana with broader patterns in , prioritizing genetic markers like rbcL and ITS sequences for resolving relationships.

Etymology

The genus name Valeriana is derived from the Latin personal name Valerianus, likely referencing the Publius Valerianus (r. 253–260 CE), who was said to have employed the plant for its perceived strengthening and medicinal qualities. This attribution aligns with historical accounts linking the name to the emperor's reputed use of the herb to bolster health during his reign. An alternative interpretation traces the name to the Latin verb valere, meaning "to be strong" or "healthy," emphasizing the plant's traditional role in promoting well-being. Carl Linnaeus formally established the genus Valeriana in his seminal work Species Plantarum published in 1753, providing the binomial nomenclature that standardized its classification. Linnaeus's naming drew on existing medieval Latin usage, integrating the term into modern botanical taxonomy. Common names for plants in the genus vary across cultures but often reflect their medicinal folklore, with "valerian" in English directly adapting the Latin genus name and evoking its reputation as a restorative herb. In other traditions, it appears as "all-heal" in English herbal contexts or Baldrian in German, underscoring shared cultural associations with healing properties in folk medicine.

Description

Morphology

Valeriana species are primarily herbaceous perennials, though some exhibit subshrubby growth, characterized by a robust underground system consisting of short and fascicled fibrous roots that can be woody in older plants. The roots are often clavate, measuring 1.5–2.5 mm in diameter, and arise from a reduced rhizome, providing anchorage and storage; in species like V. officinalis, the rootstock can reach 6–10 cm thick with long, irregularly edged fibrous roots. When dried, these roots emit a distinctive musky attributed to valerenic acids and volatile oils, such as isovaleric , which contribute to the plant's aromatic profile. The stems are erect, typically hollow, and range from 5–150 cm in height across the , with some reaching up to 200 cm; they are often hirsute or hispidulous, especially at the nodes, and arise in clusters from the base. Leaves are opposite in arrangement, forming basal rosettes in many , and can be simple, trifoliolate, or pinnatisect; for instance, in V. , basal and lower cauline leaves are ovate to broadly ovate blades (5–15 × 3–8 cm) with 7–21 lanceolate or linear segments that are glabrous to hispidulous and entire to coarsely serrate-margined, while upper leaves are smaller and sessile. The is a dense, corymbiform cyme or compound umbel-like cluster atop nearly leafless peduncles, bearing small, tubular flowers that are funnelform or obconic (4–6 mm long) with five elliptic lobes; colors vary from white and pink to purplish red across , and the corolla is sympetalous with a basal nectar spur, exhibiting unlike the more radial forms in related genera. Flowers are often unisexual, with on separate in some , and stamens and styles are exserted.

Reproduction

Valeriana species exhibit varied reproductive strategies, with predominant through flowering and production, supplemented by asexual in certain taxa. Flowering typically occurs from spring to summer in temperate species, such as Valeriana officinalis, which blooms from to in its native European range, producing small, fragrant flowers in terminal cymes. Flowers are generally bisexual (hermaphroditic), featuring five petals fused into a tube with protruding stamens and styles, though some species display unisexual forms; for instance, Valeriana wallichii is gynodioecious, bearing both pistillate (female) and hermaphroditic flowers on separate plants or the same individual. Pollination in Valeriana is primarily entomophilous, facilitated by insects such as bees (Apis spp.) and butterflies attracted to the flowers' sweet scent and nectar rewards. Adaptations include purple nectar guides on the corolla that direct pollinators to the reproductive structures, as observed in V. officinalis. Many species exhibit protandry, where anthers shed pollen one to two days before the stigma becomes receptive, promoting outcrossing despite self-fertility. In V. wallichii, hermaphroditic flowers attract more visitors than female ones, but the latter show higher fruit set due to extended stigma receptivity. Following pollination, Valeriana produces fruits consisting of small, ovate achenes, each typically topped with a feathery pappus of 10–13 segments or wings that aid in anemochorous () dispersal. generally remain viable for 7–8 months and exhibit , initiating within 6–7 days under suitable conditions, with rates around 66–78% depending on maternal flower type in species like V. wallichii. often benefits from or requires cold stratification, such as 30 days of moist chilling at 4–5°C, to break , particularly in temperate species like V. officinalis. Asexual reproduction occurs in several Valeriana species through rhizomatous growth, enabling the formation of clonal colonies via short and stolons. In V. officinalis, this vegetative propagation contributes to dense stands and invasiveness in non-native habitats, complementing seed-based spread.

Evolutionary history

Fossil record

The record of Valeriana is sparse but indicates the was established in by the middle . grains assigned to Valeriana sp. have been documented from middle deposits in the Salihpaşalar mine within the Yatağan Basin of southwestern , dated to approximately 13.2–11.2 million years ago (Ma) through a of of volcanic tuffs and biostratigraphic correlation with mammalian s from the MN6–MN7/8 zones. These tricolpate, prolate grains, measuring 35–47 μm in polar axis and 30–38 μm in equatorial diameter, feature a eutectate exine with microechinate and nanoechinate elements on weak verrucae, closely resembling the morphology of extant V. officinalis. Fruits and seeds provide further evidence from later deposits, with the genus known from late Miocene and Pliocene sites across Europe and western Asia. Notable among these are fossil seeds of †Valeriana pliocenica from late Miocene sediments in southern Ukraine and Pliocene deposits in southeastern Belarus and Bashkortostan (central Russia), dated via stratigraphic correlation to associated volcanic ash layers and paleomagnetic analysis of the enclosing formations. These ribbed, compressed seeds, typically 2–3 mm long, show close morphological affinity to those of the extant Eurasian V. simplicifolia (a subspecies of V. dioica), particularly in rib count and surface ornamentation. Such discoveries highlight Valeriana's early diversification and persistence in temperate and riparian habitats of , supporting an origin and initial radiation in the region during the , prior to later dispersals.

Phylogeny

Valeriana belongs to the subfamily Valerianoideae within the family (sensu lato), specifically in the Valerianeae, which is monophyletic and sister to the basal Patrinieae (including Patrinia and Nardostachys). Molecular phylogenetic analyses using nuclear ribosomal ITS and chloroplast matK sequences have confirmed the monophyly of Valerianaceae, excluding Triplostegia, and positioned Valerianeae as a core encompassing Valeriana, Centranthus, Fedia, , and Plectritis. Within this , Valeriana is paraphyletic, with genera like Centranthus and Plectritis nesting inside it, indicating complex evolutionary relationships resolved through combined plastid (psbA-trnH, trnK-matK, trnL-F) and nuclear ITS data. Diversification of Valeriana has been extensively studied using molecular markers such as ITS and matK, revealing origins in , particularly the , followed by multiple dispersals to and the . In the , where approximately 250 occur—representing a major center of diversity—phylogenetic analyses of nuclear rRNA and markers show rapid associated with the uplift of Andean paramo s at elevations of 3000–5000 m. Himalayan lineages, exemplified by like V. jatamansi, exhibit high influenced by altitudinal gradients and habitat heterogeneity, as evidenced by AFLP and RAPD studies. This pattern underscores two primary hotspots: the for ancestral diversification and the for explosive . Key evolutionary events in Valeriana include hybridization and , particularly in Eurasian lineages like the V. officinalis complex. Genetic admixture analyses using AFLP markers and have identified diploid (2x), tetraploid (4x), and octoploid (8x) cytotypes, with hybridization driving variation and contributing to taxonomic complexity. Polyploidization events, often linked to interspecific hybridization, have facilitated and , as seen in the multiple chromosomal processes (, aneuploidy, and DNA content changes) that account for up to 1.28-fold intra-ploidy variation. Divergence timelines, estimated via fossil-calibrated molecular clocks, place the origin of Valeriana in the , with Andean colonization around 13.7 million years ago (mya) coinciding with environmental shifts from forested to open habitats. records of winged fruits from Patrinia served as points, supporting a rapid radiation in during the to early (9–3 mya), prior to the closure of the . This chronology aligns with rates of 0.80–1.34 species per million years in paramo-endemic clades.

Distribution and ecology

Geographic distribution

The genus is native to all continents except , encompassing regions across the temperate zones, , and the , with notable absences in and where no native occur. Its centers of diversity are primarily in the of and the temperate areas of , including high-altitude regions like the . The genus comprises over 400 accepted worldwide, with roughly 150 concentrated in the —over 100 in alone, particularly along the Andean cordillera—and about 100 in . In the Americas, species richness peaks in the Andean countries, where hosts the highest number, followed by , , , and ; many of these exhibit patterns of , with over half of South American restricted to specific Andean locales such as the paramo ecosystems. Eurasian distribution is more evenly spread across , the , and , with notable diversity in the , , and temperate steppes; for instance, Valeriana officinalis is widespread in Europe's temperate grasslands and forests, extending into western Asia. A few occur natively in , primarily in mountainous areas. Several Valeriana species have been introduced outside their native ranges, most prominently V. officinalis, which has naturalized in —particularly in the and —and parts of , where it occupies damp meadows and disturbed sites. In some introduced regions, such as wetlands and forests in and , V. officinalis exhibits invasive potential, forming dense stands that displace native vegetation through rhizomatous spread and prolific seeding.

Habitat and interactions

Valeriana species primarily occupy moist meadows, woodlands, and stream banks within temperate to alpine zones, often in open habitats with full sun exposure or partial shade. These plants favor moist soils that are typically neutral in pH, with some species preferring substrates; mineral soils deeper than 15 cm support their deep systems. Such environments provide the necessary moisture and drainage, ranging from wet prairies and to mesic and wooded hillsides. Biotic interactions in Valeriana habitats center on mutualistic relationships with pollinators, including bees (honeybees, bumblebees, solitary bees), flies, and butterflies, which facilitate cross-pollination essential for reproduction in the often dioecious species. Herbivory occurs from mammals such as deer and various insects, including aphids and other arthropods, with female plants typically supporting higher densities of herbivores due to differences in plant quality and nectar production. Symbiotic associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) enhance nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus, and improve overall plant vigor in nutrient-limited soils. Valeriana exhibits adaptive responses to environmental stressors, leveraging its for by accessing deeper soil moisture reserves. However, prolonged flooding can lead to loss through the proliferation of in areas. Some species are vulnerable to effects, including shifts and altered population dynamics in high-elevation regions.

Human uses

Medicinal applications

Valeriana officinalis, commonly known as valerian, has been utilized in since and , where it was prescribed by figures such as and primarily as a for and nervous disorders. In medieval , it was employed to treat headaches, anxiety, and gastrointestinal issues, and its use persisted into the , including during in to alleviate air-raid stress. Today, standardized extracts from the plant's roots and rhizomes form the basis of modern herbal supplements, often containing at least 0.8% to ensure consistency in active compounds. The primary medicinal applications of valerian root extracts center on treating sleep disorders and anxiety, with typical dosages ranging from 300 to 900 mg taken 30 minutes to two hours before bedtime. Key active compounds, including and its derivatives, exert and effects by modulating gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors in the brain, enhancing inhibitory neurotransmission similar to benzodiazepines but with potentially fewer dependency risks. Pharmacokinetic data in humans are limited for the whole valerian extract, with no comprehensive pharmacokinetic profile available for the extract itself. However, studies on valerenic acid, a key marker compound, indicate rapid absorption with a time to maximum plasma concentration (Tmax) of 1-2 hours, peak plasma concentrations of 0.9-2.3 ng/mL following administration of 600 mg extract, and an elimination half-life of approximately 1.1 ± 0.6 hours. No significant accumulation occurs with multiple doses, and kinetics appear linear for valerenic acid. These compounds may increase GABA availability, leading to reduced neuronal excitability and promotion of relaxation. Valerian preparations include standardized extracts and herbal teas. Standardized extracts are concentrated forms that deliver higher amounts of active compounds such as valerenic acids, typically dosed at 300-900 mg, leading to generally stronger effects for sedation and anxiety relief. In contrast, valerian tea, prepared from 2-3 grams of dried root, provides lower concentrations of active ingredients and is considered milder, with potentially less consistent or weaker sedative effects. However, there is limited direct comparative research between the two forms, and overall evidence for valerian's effectiveness in treating anxiety or promoting sedation remains limited and mixed across studies, with no definitive superiority proven for either form in head-to-head comparisons. Clinical evidence on valerian for sleep and anxiety is mixed and inconclusive. A 2006 systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 randomized controlled trials involving 1,093 participants reported a relative risk of 1.8 (95% CI, 1.2-2.9) for improved sleep quality compared to placebo based on six studies, though significant publication bias and methodological limitations were noted. Some studies indicate valerian can reduce sleep latency by approximately 7-15 minutes and improve subjective sleep perceptions without significant hangover effects. However, more recent reviews, including a 2024 umbrella review and the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health assessment (last reviewed May 2025), conclude that evidence is insufficient or shows no benefit beyond placebo for insomnia or sleep quality, with the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (2017) recommending against its use for chronic insomnia. For anxiety, preclinical and small human trials demonstrate potential via GABAergic modulation, but robust clinical data remain limited. Valerian is generally well-tolerated at recommended doses (300-900 mg) with few adverse effects and a low incidence of side effects, such as headache or gastrointestinal upset, occurring at rates similar to in most trials; however, rare cases of have been reported. Overdose is rare, and symptoms are generally mild, including fatigue, abdominal cramps, chest tightness, lightheadedness, hand tremor, dilated pupils (mydriasis), unusual tiredness, stomach cramping, and shaking of the hands or feet. In rare severe cases, typically involving very high doses (often exceeding 1000 mg) and combination with other substances, effects can include altered mental status, agitation, tremors, tachycardia, hypertension, diaphoresis, and encephalopathy; however, these typically resolve with supportive care and are not life-threatening. Valerian is considered safe at recommended doses with few adverse effects. Potential interactions exist with depressants like alcohol, benzodiazepines, or barbiturates, as valerian's GABA-enhancing effects may potentiate . There is limited to no specific data on the safety of valerian in baths or soaks during breastfeeding, lactation, or nursing. Authoritative sources like LactMed from the NIH and the Mayo Clinic advise avoiding oral valerian due to insufficient evidence on transfer to breast milk and potential infant effects (e.g., sedation). No sources specifically address topical or bath use, but skin absorption of valerian compounds is generally considered minimal, though caution is recommended due to lack of studies. Consult a healthcare provider before use. In , dry extracts of valerian root are approved by the as a traditional medicinal product for relief of mild nervous tension and sleep disturbances, based on longstanding use dating back centuries, while in the United States, it is regulated as a without FDA approval for specific claims. In veterinary medicine, Valeriana officinalis is commonly used for dogs, where it exerts a traditionally calming and sleep-inducing effect on the nervous system. High-dose preparations, often combined with herbs such as hops, lemon balm, or passionflower, are employed for stress relief. While this application is widespread, clinical studies show variable efficacy, and veterinary consultation is recommended prior to use. The roots of Valeriana officinalis are also known to attract a proportion of domestic cats, eliciting a behavioral response similar to that produced by catnip, including sniffing, licking, head and cheek rubbing, rolling, and other actions sometimes followed by relaxation. This effect is attributed to volatile compounds such as actinidine, with approximately 47% of cats showing a positive response in controlled observations. The root is occasionally incorporated into pet products for olfactory enrichment purposes.

Cultivation

Valeriana officinalis is primarily propagated from seeds or by divisions. Seeds can be sown directly outdoors in mid to or started indoors in early spring under cover, with occurring in 7 to 28 days at temperatures of 65–70°F (18–21°C) when sown 3/8 inch deep in average, well-drained soil. No cold stratification is required for the seeds, which germinate readily in warm conditions, though they self-sow freely once established. Alternatively, divisions from established clumps can be taken in spring or autumn and replanted immediately to maintain stock, providing a faster establishment method for medicinal or ornamental purposes. The plant thrives in full sun to partial shade and prefers moisture-retentive, well-drained with a neutral to slightly alkaline , though it tolerates average soils. Optimal planting occurs in spring, 2–4 weeks before the last , with seedlings or divisions spaced 12–18 inches (30–45 cm) apart in rows 18–24 inches (45–60 cm) apart to allow for its clumping growth habit, which can reach 3–5 feet (1–1.5 m) tall and 18 inches (45 cm) wide. Regular watering is essential during the first year to establish roots, but once mature, it is relatively drought-tolerant and requires minimal care, including occasional division every few years to prevent . Harvesting focuses on the roots, which are dug up in the second year or later, typically in late autumn after foliage dieback or in early spring before new growth, to maximize medicinal compound content. Roots are washed, fibrous portions removed, and dried in a warm, airy location for storage in airtight containers, yielding approximately 800–3,100 pounds per acre (900–3,500 kg/ha) of dry roots depending on and conditions. Cultivars such as 'Artener Zuchtung' are selected for higher yields and medicinal potency, while common strains from seed companies suit garden settings. Challenges include managing fungal diseases like Phoma spp., which can cause in poorly drained soils, though no serious insect pests typically affect cultivation; preventive measures involve good drainage and .

Species diversity

Overview

The genus Valeriana comprises approximately 440 accepted of flowering in the family , exhibiting remarkable diversity across temperate, subtropical, and tropical regions worldwide. This high species richness is particularly pronounced in montane ecosystems, where geographic isolation in alpine and Andean habitats has facilitated rapid , resulting in numerous endemic taxa adapted to high-elevation environments. Speciation within Valeriana is largely driven by polyploidy and interspecific hybridization, which contribute to genomic variation and the formation of new lineages, especially in complexes like V. officinalis. Polyploid events, including autotetraploidy and allopolyploidy, have led to increased ploidy levels (from diploid to octoploid) and morphological divergence, enhancing adaptability in fragmented habitats. Hybridization further amplifies this diversity by generating intermediate forms and novel genetic combinations, though it complicates taxonomic delineation. Conservation challenges for Valeriana are significant, with several species classified as threatened under criteria due to habitat loss from and . For instance, V. praecipitis is assessed as Endangered, facing risks from in southern Andean slopes. Overcollection for medicinal purposes has severely depleted wild populations of species like V. jatamansi (syn. V. wallichii), reducing densities and genetic viability in accessible regions. Efforts to mitigate these threats include establishing protected areas in key hotspots, such as national parks in the and , and support . Despite advances, research gaps persist, notably in the phylogenies of tropical Valeriana species, where incomplete sampling and limited molecular hinder comprehensive evolutionary reconstructions for South American and Asian taxa. Addressing these deficiencies is essential for informed conservation strategies amid ongoing climate pressures.

Notable species

Valeriana officinalis, commonly known as common valerian, is native to and temperate regions of . It serves as the primary species for medicinal applications, particularly valued for its sedative properties in traditional remedies. This species has been widely introduced across , , and other temperate zones, often escaping cultivation and naturalizing in damp meadows and along riverbanks. Valeriana jatamansi, also referred to as Indian valerian, is endemic to the Himalayan region, thriving in subtropical and temperate zones at altitudes of 1,000 to 3,000 meters. In Ayurvedic , it is employed as a nervine tonic to alleviate stress and neurological disorders. Due to extensive overharvesting for pharmaceutical and traditional uses, V. jatamansi is classified as endangered in parts of its native range. Valeriana wallrothii is a European specialist adapted to environments, such as fens and moist grasslands, where it indicates specific hydrological conditions. It functions as an ecological indicator for quality in central and , reflecting nutrient levels and water regimes in these sensitive ecosystems. Valeriana arizonica, known as Arizona valerian, is a North American endemic restricted to the , including , New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, and Texas. It exhibits adaptations to montane and subalpine conditions, such as tolerance to seasonal fluctuations in coniferous forests and along streams at elevations from 1,400 to 2,400 meters, distinguishing it by its compact growth in high-altitude habitats.

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  38. https://www.invasive.org/species/subject.cfm?sub=6580
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  44. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19809971/
  45. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-valeriana-officinalis-l-radix-and-valeriana-officinalis-l-aetheroleum_en.pdf
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  59. https://agresearch.montana.edu/warc/research_current/research_past/herbsandoils/valerian.html
  60. https://www.preslia.cz/P171Bressler.pdf
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