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Vertical loop
Vertical loop
Vertical loop
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Vertical loop on the Shockwave coaster at Six Flags Over Texas
An early looping roller coaster, the Flip Flap Railway at Coney Island
Edwin Prescott's Loop-the-Loop
Loop in Disney California Adventure's Incredicoaster (formerly California Screamin')

The generic roller coaster vertical loop, also known as a loop-the-loop or a loop-de-loop, where a section of track causes the riders to complete a 360 degree turn, is the most basic of roller coaster inversions. At the top of the loop, riders are completely inverted.

History

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The vertical loop is not a recent roller coaster innovation. Its origins can be traced back to the 1850s when centrifugal railways were built in France and Great Britain.[1][2] The rides relied on centripetal forces to hold the car in the loop. One early looping coaster was shut down after an accident.[3] Later attempts to build a looping roller coaster were carried out during the late 19th century with the Flip Flap Railway at Sea Lion Park, designed by Roller coaster engineer Lina Beecher.[4] The ride was designed with a completely circular loop (rather than the teardrop shape used by many modern looping roller coasters), and caused neck injuries due to the intense G-forces pulled with the tight radius of the loop.[5][6]

The next attempt at building a looping roller coaster was in 1901 when Edwin Prescott built the Loop the Loop at Coney Island. This ride used the modern teardrop-shaped loop and a steel structure, however more people wanted to watch the attraction, rather than ride. In 1904, Beecher further redesigned the vertical loop to have an even more elliptical design with Olentangy Park's Loop-the-Loop. Vertical loops weren't attempted again until the design of Great American Revolution at Six Flags Magic Mountain, which opened in 1976. Its success depended largely on its clothoid-based (rather than circular) loop. The loop became a phenomenon, and many parks hastened to build roller coasters featuring them.[citation needed]

In 2000, a modern looping wooden roller coaster was built, the Son of Beast at Kings Island. Although the ride itself was made of wood, the loop was supported with steel structure. Due to maintenance issues however, the loop was removed at the end of the 2006 season. The loop was not the cause of the ride's issues, but was removed as a precautionary measure. Due to an unrelated issue in 2009, Son of Beast was closed until 2012, when Kings Island announced that it would be removed.[7][8]

On June 22, 2013, Six Flags Magic Mountain introduced Full Throttle, a steel launch coaster with a 160-foot (49 m) loop, the tallest in the world at the time of its opening.[9] As of 2016, the largest vertical loop is located on Flash, a roller coaster produced by Mack Rides at Lewa Adventure in Shaanxi, China.[10][11] The record is shared by a hypercoaster in Turkey's Land of Legends theme park (named 'Hyper Coaster'), built in 2018, which is identical to Flash at Lewa Adventure.[11][12]

Loops on non-roller coasters

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In 2002, the Swiss company Klarer Freizeitanlagen AG began working on a safe design for a looping water slide.[13] Since then, multiple installations of the slide, named the AquaLoop and constructed by companies including Polin, Klarer, Aquarena and WhiteWater West, have appeared in many parks. This ride does not feature a vertical loop, instead using an inclined loop (a vertical loop tilted at an angle), which puts less force on the rider. AquaLoop slides feature a safety hatch, which can be opened by a rider in case they do not reach the highest point of the loop.

Physics/mechanics

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Most vertical loops are not circular.

Most roller coaster loops are not circular in shape. A commonly used shape is the clothoid loop, which resembles an inverted tear drop and allows for less intense G-forces throughout the element for the rider.[14] The use of this shape was pioneered in 1976 on The New Revolution at Six Flags Magic Mountain, by Werner Stengel of leading coaster engineering firm Ing.-Büro Stengel GmbH.

On the way up, from the bottom to the top of the loop, gravity is in opposition to the direction of the cars and will slow the train. The train is slowest at the top of the loop. Once beyond the top, gravity helps to pull the cars down around the bend. If the loop's curvature is constant, the rider is subjected to the greatest force at the bottom. If the curvature of the track changes suddenly, as from level to a circular loop, the greatest force is imposed almost instantly (see: Jerk). Gradual changes in curvature, as in the clothoid, reduce the force maximum (permitting more speed) and allow the rider time to cope safely with the changing force.[5]

This "gentling" runs somewhat contrary to the coaster's raison d'être. Schwarzkopf-designed roller coasters often feature near-circular loops (in case of Thriller even without any reduction of curvature between two almost perfectly circular loops) resulting in intense rides—a trademark for the designer.[citation needed]

It is rare for a roller coaster to stall in a vertical loop, although this has happened before. The Psyké Underground coaster (then known as Sirocco) at Walibi Belgium once stranded riders upside-down for several hours. The design of the trains and the rider restraint system (in this case, a simple lap bar) prevented any injuries from occurring, and the riders were removed with the use of a cherry picker.[citation needed] A similar incident occurred on Demon at Six Flags Great America.[15]

References

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Vertical loop

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A vertical loop is a type of inversion element in roller coasters consisting of a section of track that forms a 360-degree circuit in the vertical plane, turning riders fully upside down once as the train passes through it. This element, one of the most iconic and thrilling features of modern steel roller coasters, relies on principles of where centripetal acceleration—provided by the track's and —keeps the train on course, with riders experiencing forces up to about 4 g at the bottom and reduced to around 1 g at the top due to the teardrop shape of contemporary designs. The concept of vertical loops dates back to the late 19th century, with the first patented design awarded to Edwin Prescott on August 16, 1898, for the Loop-the-Loop at , which featured an elliptical loop but was short-lived due to excessive g-forces causing rider discomfort and injuries. Early looping coasters from the mid-19th century, such as the 1846 French Centrifugal Railway in France, also employed circular shapes that resulted in high accelerations (up to 6 g), leading to their quick obsolescence by the early . The modern vertical loop emerged in 1976 with the opening of (originally The Great American Revolution) at , engineered by and built by using tubular steel track and a clothoid (teardrop-shaped) loop to minimize g-forces and jerk for a smoother, safer experience. This innovation revived looping elements, enabling their widespread adoption in thrill rides worldwide, with notable examples including the interlocking loops on at (1978) and the record-breaking 160-foot loop on Full Throttle at (2013). In terms of physics, the teardrop profile of vertical loops—wider at and narrower at the top—ensures that the increases where speeds are highest, reducing the normal force requirements and preventing riders from feeling excessive or compression, while also maintaining a minimum speed at the apex to avoid (typically requiring at least 0.5 g downward). Variants include inclined loops (tilted off-vertical), diving loops (steep entry), and non-inverting loops (like those on water coasters), but the standard vertical loop remains a staple for delivering intense sensory through inversion without compromising safety when properly engineered.

Overview

Definition and characteristics

A vertical loop is a roller coaster element consisting of a continuous section of track that forms a complete 360-degree rotation within a vertical plane, causing riders to be fully inverted at the top of the loop. This inversion occurs as the track transitions smoothly from an upward climb to a downward descent, passing through the apex where riders experience a momentary if conditions are optimal. Key characteristics of vertical loops include their typical , which ranges from approximately 10 to 50 , allowing for scalable thrill levels across different coaster designs. They require sufficient entry speed to ensure the vehicle maintains for throughout the element. Common shapes include traditional circular profiles and more advanced clothoid (teardrop) designs, where the radius gradually decreases toward the top to moderate variations and enhance rider comfort. The vertical orientation of these loops fundamentally differs from horizontal turns, which maintain an upright rider position without inversion, or corkscrews, which involve a helical around the track's longitudinal axis rather than a full vertical circle. This setup demands precise from prior track elements to achieve the necessary , as insufficient speed at the top could result in loss of track contact. Vertical loops contribute to rider thrill primarily through the dynamic g-forces encountered during inversion.

Applications in amusement rides

Vertical loops serve as a primary element in roller coasters, where they provide thrill through full inversions that disorient riders and simulate at the apex. These loops require riders to maintain sufficient speed to complete the circuit without falling, relying on to counteract . In modern designs, clothoid shapes—teardrop-like profiles—distribute g-forces more evenly, enhancing rider comfort while amplifying the adrenaline rush from rapid directional changes. Beyond roller coasters, vertical loops appear in water slides, particularly inclined versions adapted for aquatic environments. The , developed by Aquarena in 2008, features a 45-degree looping slide where single riders drop from a trap door into a near-vertical curve, incorporating safety mechanisms like enclosed sections to prevent ejection. This design, first installed at Terme 3000 in , accelerates participants through the inversion using water flow, delivering a comparable thrill to coaster loops but with added splash elements. While less common in dark rides or simulators, such integrations occasionally simulate looping motions for immersive effects without physical inversions. Vertical loops manifest in variations ranging from standalone attractions to integrated components in expansive ride circuits. Portable standalone loopers, such as Pinfari models like Looping Thunder, offer compact 360-degree inversions on a single circuit, suitable for traveling fairs and smaller venues with track lengths around 1,200 feet. In contrast, integrated loops form key segments in multi-element , where they connect with drops, turns, and additional inversions for prolonged experiences. Adaptations differ by audience: extreme coasters feature multiple high-speed loops exceeding 100 feet for intense forces, while milder single-loop designs appear in hybrid family-thrill rides to broaden accessibility without overwhelming younger participants. These elements boost amusement ride appeal by heightening excitement through , encouraging repeat rides for mastery of the disorientation. Parks leverage prominent loops in , promoting record-breaking heights or unique inclinations to draw thrill-seekers and enhance overall attendance.

History

Early looping devices

The earliest attempts at vertical looping devices emerged in mid-19th-century as part of the burgeoning amusement industry, primarily in the form of centrifugal railways designed to demonstrate principles of physics and rather than provide comfortable . These rides, which featured full or partial vertical loops, were first developed in Britain, with the inaugural example constructed by the Manchester engineering firm Tarr & Riley in the spring of 1842. Exhibited initially at the Manchester Hall of Science and later at 's Royal Liver Theatre, the device consisted of a small car pulled up an incline and released into a 40-foot vertical loop, reaching speeds estimated at around 100 mph, though it was tested with sandbags and a before riders were allowed. By 1843, a permanent installation opened at Liverpool Zoological Gardens, marking the spread of these spectacles to fairground-like settings. The concept quickly crossed the Channel to France, where similar centrifugal railways appeared in cities such as , , and Lyons during the 1840s and 1850s, often with smaller loops ranging from 6.5 to 13 feet in diameter for single sleds. One notable early French example, imported from England, debuted in in 1846 at Gardens under the name Chemin du , featuring a 13-foot-diameter full vertical loop that thrilled but unsettled riders due to its abrupt circular path. These devices were typically temporary attractions at theaters, gardens, or fairs, charging modest fees like 6 pence for daytime rides, and emphasized scientific curiosity over repeat enjoyment. Partial loops also appeared in British fairgrounds during this period, offering milder inversions but still relying on the novelty of defying gravity. By the late , looping devices had reached , with the opening in 1895 at Sea Lion Park in , New York, as one of the first such rides on the continent. Designed by Lina Beecher with a 25-foot-diameter circular wooden loop, it carried two riders at a time down a hill and through the inversion, but the sharp geometry produced extreme forces—reportedly up to 12 G's—leading to numerous spinal injuries and whiplash complaints that deterred patrons. The ride operated only until 1902, when the park closed, exemplifying the era's engineering limitations. A follow-up, the Loop-the-Loop, debuted in 1901 at 's Surf Avenue, engineered by Edwin Prescott as a steel coaster with an oval-shaped loop to mitigate some forces from its predecessor. Despite improvements, including dual tracks with a bypass option, it still imposed high G-forces that caused rider discomfort and occasional accidents, resulting in its closure by 1910 amid declining popularity. Beyond proto-roller coasters, early fairground looping experiments included non-rail devices at 19th-century European rinks and carnivals, such as rudimentary ice-based tracks where skaters or sleds navigated curved inclines into partial loops for purposes in the , though these were rare and largely undocumented due to their seasonal nature. challenges plagued all these early looping mechanisms, with circular designs generating uneven forces that caused whiplash, derailments, and overall rider distress, severely limiting their adoption until engineering refinements in the .

Evolution in roller coasters

In the mid-20th century, vertical loops remained rare in roller coaster design, primarily appearing in portable steel coasters that emphasized compact, intense experiences. German engineer pioneered these with models like the Double Looping in the , which featured circular loops that delivered high speeds through tight radii, resulting in significant positive G-forces at the bottom—often exceeding 5 Gs for riders. These portable rides, such as the Doppel Looping ships, traveled to fairs and carnivals, offering double inversions but limited by the era's engineering constraints on track durability and rider comfort. A pivotal breakthrough occurred in 1976 with the opening of the Great American Revolution at , the first modern to incorporate a vertical loop using a clothoid (teardrop-shaped) developed by and Schwarzkopf. This innovation gradually tightened the loop's radius from bottom to top, reducing peak G-forces to around 4.5 Gs and enabling safer, more repeatable inversions on permanent installations with tubular steel track. The clothoid shape marked a shift from the harsher circular loops, allowing vertical inversions to become a standard element in coaster layouts without excessive strain on structures or passengers. Subsequent decades saw vertical loops evolve through material innovations and scale, exemplified by the at in 2000, the first wooden roller coaster to feature one, reaching 118 feet in height but removed in 2006 following a structural failure in its support system. By 2013, Full Throttle at introduced a 160-foot (49-meter) loop—the tallest at the time—powered by magnetic launches that facilitated multiple passes through the inversion for heightened thrill. This integration of launch systems with loops became a hallmark of modern designs, enabling coasters to chain several inversions efficiently. As of 2025, the record for tallest vertical loops stands at 171 feet (52.1 meters), tied between Flash at Lewa Adventure (opened 2016) in and Hyper Coaster at Land of Legends Theme Park (opened 2018) in , both utilizing advanced steel and hybrid clothoid geometries for stability at extreme heights. These developments reflect a broader transition from standalone circular elements in portable coasters to integrated, launch-assisted clothoid loops in hyper-scale attractions.

Design and Engineering

Geometric configurations

Vertical loops in roller are designed with specific geometric configurations to balance thrill, , and spatial efficiency. The two primary shapes are circular loops, which feature a constant radius throughout, and clothoid loops, which employ a varying radius that transitions smoothly from a larger curve at the bottom to a tighter one at the top. Circular loops, with radii typically between 8 and 15 meters, enable compact installations ideal for older or space-limited amusement parks, as seen in early models. Clothoid loops, resembling an inverted teardrop, address limitations of circular designs by incorporating an where the decreases progressively, easing the transition into and out of the inversion. These shapes draw from principles, using transition curves to minimize abrupt changes in direction. Overall, clothoid loops have typical heights of 20 to 40 meters and effective diameters of 15 to 30 meters, though the non-constant means the bottom section can span up to 20 meters wide while the top tightens to around 10 meters. The choice of is influenced by entry speed, which must provide adequate centripetal —typically 20 to 30 m/s at the base, depending on loop dimensions and desired g-forces—to prevent rider separation at the apex without excessive forces. Layout variations further adapt these geometries to ride dynamics and theming. Single loops serve as standalone inversions for dramatic effect, while multiple consecutive loops—often two to five in modern coasters—chain elements to sustain and amplify excitement, with inter-loop spacing of 10 to 20 meters to allow deceleration recovery. Inclined loops, tilted at 10 to 30 degrees from vertical, integrate into sloped terrains or narratives, and asymmetric designs introduce off-axis twists for enhanced visual without compromising structural integrity. These configurations prioritize rider comfort by matching to profiles. The design rationale for clothoid over circular loops centers on force optimization, as the gradual change reduces required entry speed by about 25% and mitigates peak lateral accelerations during entry and exit. This results in 20-30% lower lateral forces compared to circular equivalents, preventing discomfort or from sudden jerks, while maintaining consistent vertical g-forces around 4-5g. Such shapes briefly reference resultant forces like reduced onset of negative g's at the top, though detailed are analyzed separately.

Structural and material requirements

Vertical loops in roller coasters must endure extreme dynamic loads, including vertical forces reaching up to 5-6g at the bottom due to the combination of gravitational pull and centripetal acceleration required to maintain the circular path. These forces, along with lateral shear from turns and wind loads up to design code limits (e.g., as analyzed in finite element models per EN 13814 standards), necessitate robust support structures such as lattice towers or tubular steel frameworks to distribute stresses effectively. The primary material for vertical loop construction is high-strength steel tubing, often hollow to reduce weight while providing the necessary tensile strength for inversions and high-speed maneuvers. tracks are preferred over for loops due to their superior durability under repeated cyclic loading, though rare hybrid designs incorporating wooden elements have been attempted; for instance, the at featured a wooden loop that was removed in 2006 following a structural incident, with the coaster closing in 2009 due to wood fatigue issues and fully demolished in 2012. Construction techniques emphasize precision to create seamless track sections, with components often prefabricated in factories using custom-cut plates for alignment and longevity. Foundations typically consist of piles or footings driven deep into the ground—ranging from 9 to 23 meters in cases like the X-Flight coaster—to against uplift and lateral forces. To combat from millions of cycles, regular are mandated, often annually or every 1-3 years depending on jurisdictional standards like those from inspection authorities, involving non-destructive testing for cracks and corrosion. Incorporating a vertical loop can increase overall costs by 20-50%, driven by the added volume, specialized fabrication, and enhanced foundation requirements for mega-coasters exceeding 100 meters in .

Physics and Mechanics

Fundamental forces

In a vertical loop, the primary forces acting on the rider-car system are and the normal force from the track, which together provide the necessary to maintain the curved path.Fc=mv2rF_c = \frac{m v^2}{r}, where mm is the mass, vv is the tangential speed, and rr is the loop radius. This centripetal force requirement ensures the system follows the circular trajectory without deviating radially. Gravity plays a crucial role by both aiding and opposing the motion depending on the position in the loop. At the top, contributes to the centripetal force, while at the bottom, it opposes it. For the loop to be completed without the car losing contact, the speed at the top must satisfy vtop≥grv_{\text{top}} \geq \sqrt{g r}
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