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Psicose
Psicose
Psicose
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Psicose
Names
IUPAC name
D-ribo-Hex-2-ulose
Systematic IUPAC name
(3R,4R,5R)-1,3,4,5,6-Pentahydroxyhexan-2-one
Other names
D-Allulose; D-Psicose; D-Ribo-2-hexulose; Pseudofructose
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.008.182 Edit this at Wikidata
MeSH psicose
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C6H12O6/c7-1-3(9)5(11)6(12)4(10)2-8/h3,5-9,11-12H,1-2H2/t3-,5-,6+/m1/s1 checkY
    Key: BJHIKXHVCXFQLS-PUFIMZNGSA-N checkY
  • InChI=1/C6H12O6/c7-1-3(9)5(11)6(12)4(10)2-8/h3,5-9,11-12H,1-2H2/t3-,5-,6+/m1/s1
    Key: BJHIKXHVCXFQLS-PUFIMZNGBH
  • O=C([C@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@H](O)CO)CO
Properties
C6H12O6
Molar mass 180.156 g·mol−1
Melting point 58 °C (136 °F; 331 K)[1]
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

D-Psicose (C6H12O6), also known as D-allulose or simply allulose, is an epimer of fructose that is used by some commercial food and beverage manufacturers as a low-calorie sweetener.[2] Allulose occurs naturally in small quantities in a variety of foods. It was first identified in the 1940s, although the enzymes needed to produce it on an industrial scale were not discovered until the 1990s.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has accepted a petition for generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for allulose as a sugar substitute in various specified food categories.[3][4] Because it is absorbed and metabolized differently from other sugars, the FDA has exempted allulose from the listing of total and added sugars on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts labels, but requires its weight listing as a carbohydrate, with 0.4 kcal/g (about 1/10 the calories of ordinary carbohydrates).[5]

Studies have shown the commercial product is not absorbed in the human body the way common sugars are and does not raise insulin levels, but more testing may be needed to evaluate any other potential side effects.[6] In 2020, the U.S. FDA accepted the conclusion by Samyang that the maximum tolerable consumption for a 60 kg adult was 33 to 36 grams per day.[7]

Biochemistry

[edit]

The sweetness of allulose is estimated to be 70% of the sweetness of sucrose.[8][9] It has some cooling sensation and no bitterness.[2] Its taste is said to be sugar-like, in contrast to certain other sweeteners, like the high-intensity sugar substitutes aspartame and saccharin.[2] The caloric value of allulose in humans is about 0.2 to 0.4 kcal/g, relative to about 4 kcal/g for typical carbohydrates.[9][10] In rats, the relative energy value of allulose was found to be 0.007 kcal/g, or approximately 0.3% of that of sucrose.[11] Similar to the sugar alcohol erythritol, allulose is minimally metabolized and is excreted largely unchanged.[9] The glycemic index of allulose is very low or negligible.[2][9]

Allulose is a weak inhibitor of the enzymes α-glucosidase, α-amylase, maltase, and sucrase.[2] Because of this, it can inhibit the metabolism of starch and disaccharides into monosaccharides in the gastrointestinal tract.[2] Additionally, allulose inhibits the absorption of glucose via transporters in the intestines.[2] For these reasons, allulose has potential antihyperglycemic effects, and has been found to reduce postprandial hyperglycemia in humans.[2][10] Through modulation of lipogenic enzymes in the liver, allulose may also have antihyperlipidemic effects.[2][10]

Due to its effect of causing incomplete absorption of carbohydrates from the gastrointestinal tract, and subsequent fermentation of these carbohydrates by intestinal bacteria, allulose can result in unpleasant symptoms such as flatulence, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea.[2] The maximum non-effect dose of allulose in causing diarrhea in humans has been found to be 0.55 g/kg of body weight.[2] This is higher than that of most sugar alcohols (0.17–0.42 g/kg), but is less than that of erythritol (0.66–1.0+ g/kg).[12][13][14]

D-allulose was found to be more reactive than fructose and glucose in glycation reactions when heated in the microwave oven.[15]

Effect on carbohydrate absorption

[edit]

A meta-analysis was conducted of the effect on postprandial glucose and insulin responses of adding a median of 5 grams of allulose (range, 2.5-10 g) to a fixed carbohydrate-containing drink or meal, versus the same meal alone. Overall, compared to the carbohydrate-containing meal alone, the same meal with a small dose of added allulose resulted in a 10% lower incremental area under the curve (iAUC) of postprandial glucose.[16] The upshot is that adding allulose led to modest improvement in insulin regulation versus the same meal alone.[16] The quality of the evidence was rated as moderate.[16]

Chemistry

[edit]
Haworth projection of D-psicose
Haworth projection of D-psicose

Allulose, also known by its systematic name D-ribo-2-hexulose as well as by the name D-psicose, is a monosaccharide and a ketohexose.[2][11] It is a C3 epimer of fructose.[2] Fructose can be converted to allulose by the enzymes D-tagatose 3-epimerase (EC 5.1.3.31) and/or D-psicose 3-epimerase (EC 5.1.3.30), which has allowed for mass production of allulose.[2] The compound is found naturally in trace amounts in wheat, figs, raisins, maple syrup, and molasses.[2][11][17] Allulose has similar physical properties to those of regular sugar, such as bulk, mouthfeel, browning capability, and freezing point depression.[17] This makes it favorable for use as a sugar replacement in food products, including ice cream.[17]

In a paper produced for the European Food Safety Authority, the enzyme d-psicose 3-epimerase, manufactured by Matsutani Chemical Industry Co., Ltd, was investigated for safety and allergenicity.[18] No DNA of E. coli (used for production of the enzyme) was found in the enzyme preparation, and no match was found in the enzyme amino acid sequence with those of known allergens.[18]

History

[edit]

Allulose was first discovered in the 1940s.[17] The first mass-production method for allulose was established when Ken Izumori at Kagawa University in Japan discovered the key enzyme, D-tagatose 3-epimerase, to convert fructose to allulose in 1994.[19][20] This method of production has a high yield, but has a very high production cost.

Regulatory history

[edit]

In June 2012, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) accepted the assertion of CJ CheilJedang, Inc. of South Korea that allulose is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) as a sugar substitute in various specified food categories.[3] In June 2014, a similar GRAS letter was issued to Matsutani Chemical Industry Company, Ltd. of Japan.[4] Non-GMO allulose manufactured by Samyang Corp. of South Korea was approved as GRAS in March 2020.[7]

The U.S. FDA in October 2019 announced the exemption of allulose from total and added sugars on nutritional labels, but manufacturers must continue to include allulose in the total carbohydrates declaration, with a value of 0.4kcal/g, "0.4 calories per gram of allulose".[5]

Allulose is not currently approved in Canada, the EU or UK.[21][22]

In the European Union, although allulose is a naturally occurring saccharide, under their regulations, monosaccharides and other saccharides are not considered food additives, and thus cannot be approved as such, but must be approved as ingredients.[23] CJ-Tereos Sweeteners of France filed for such an approval in April 2018.[23] The Allulose Novel Food Consortium (ANFC) was formed in 2021 by four Japanese, Korean, U.S. and European food ingredient companies to speed its approval as an ingredient in Europe, including exemption from sugar labelling.[24]

Manufacturing

[edit]

Allulose is produced by an enzymatic reaction that converts fructose into allulose.[2] As of 2018, most commercially available allulose uses corn (maize) as the source of fructose.[25] Another source of fructose is from sugar beet.[26]

Commercial application

[edit]

Commercial manufacturers and food laboratories are looking into properties of allulose that may differentiate it from sucrose and fructose sweeteners, including an ability to induce the high foaming property of egg white protein and the production of antioxidant substances produced through the Maillard reaction.[27]

Commercial uses of allulose include low-calorie sweeteners in beverages, yogurt, ice cream, baked goods, and other typically high-calorie items. London-based Tate & Lyle released its proprietary variant of allulose, known as Dolcia Prima allulose,[28] and U.S.-based Anderson Global Group released its own proprietary variant into the North American market in 2015.[29][30] The first major food company to adopt allulose as a sweetener was Quest Nutrition in some of their protein bar products.[17]

On April 16, 2019, US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a draft guidance, allowing food manufacturers to exclude allulose from total and added sugar counts on Nutrition and Supplement Facts labels.[31] Like sugar alcohols and dietary fiber, allulose will still count towards total carbohydrates on nutrition labels.[31] This, combined with the GRAS designation, has increased interest in including allulose in food products instead of sucrose.

As of April 2025, allulose is not approved as a food additive in Canada and the EU.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Psicose

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from Grokipedia
D-Psicose, also known as D-allulose or simply allulose, is a rare that functions as a C3-epimer of D-fructose and serves as a low-calorie in and beverages. It exhibits about 70% of the of while providing only approximately 0.4 kcal/g, which is roughly 10% of the caloric content of table sugar, making it suitable for reduced-energy products. Naturally present in trace quantities in sources such as , figs, raisins, , and , D-psicose is commercially produced through enzymatic epimerization of D-fructose using enzymes like D-allulose 3-epimerase. In terms of chemical properties, D-psicose (C₆H₁₂O₆) is a ketohexose with a molecular structure similar to but differing at the third carbon atom, which contributes to its reduced digestibility and minimal impact on blood glucose levels. It has been recognized as generally safe (GRAS) by the for use as a ingredient since 2012, with additional approvals in , , , and as of 2025, and applications in baked goods, beverages, and to mimic the texture and browning of without excessive calories. Unlike common sugars, a significant portion of ingested D-psicose is excreted unchanged in , limiting its metabolic absorption and supporting its role in formulations. Research highlights D-psicose's potential physiological benefits, including anti-obesity effects through fat regulation, improvement in insulin sensitivity, and anti-hyperglycemic properties that help mitigate postprandial blood sugar spikes. Additionally, it demonstrates , , and neuroprotective activities in preclinical studies, positioning it as a multifunctional beyond mere sweetening. Ongoing investigations continue to explore its long-term safety and efficacy in human diets, particularly for populations managing or .

Chemical Properties

Structure and Nomenclature

Psicose, with the C₆H₁₂O₆, has a molecular weight of 180.16 g/mol. It is classified as a ketohexose, a containing a group and six carbon atoms. D-Psicose, the naturally occurring , serves as the C-3 of D-fructose, differing in at the third carbon atom while sharing the same molecular formula. This structural relationship positions D-psicose within the group of rare sugars, which are present in nature at low concentrations and often derived from common sugars like D-fructose or D-glucose through enzymatic epimerization. The systematic IUPAC name for D-psicose is (3R,4R,5R)-1,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexan-2-one, reflecting its open-chain form with specified chiral centers at C-3, C-4, and C-5. Common synonyms include D-allulose, D-psicose, and the historical designation D-ribo-2-hexulose, highlighting its configurational similarity to the ribo series in carbohydrate nomenclature.

Physical and Chemical Characteristics

Psicose, also known as D-allulose, presents as an odorless white crystalline powder. It has a of approximately 109 °C and exhibits high in , reaching about 291 g per 100 g of at 25 °C, while showing low solubility in . The compound displays low hygroscopicity, making it relatively stable in humid environments compared to other sugars. In terms of sensory properties, psicose provides approximately 70% of the sweetness intensity of , accompanied by a clean, sugar-like and no lingering aftertaste. This profile contributes to its appeal as a in applications without imparting off-flavors. Psicose demonstrates thermal and stability similar to that of , maintaining integrity under moderate heating and acidic conditions typical in . However, its stability decreases at higher temperatures and lower values, particularly during reactions involving . It is prone to Maillard reactions, leading to browning and flavor development when heated with proteins. As a , psicose exhibits chemical reactivity characteristic of ketohexoses, including the ability to form glycosides and participate in upon heating. Additionally, it can epimerize back to under certain conditions, such as alkaline environments. As the C-3 of , this reversibility highlights its close chemical relationship to common dietary sugars.

Biological Aspects

Natural Occurrence and Metabolism

D-Psicose, also known as D-allulose, occurs naturally in trace amounts in various foods and plants, typically constituting less than 0.5% of total sugars. It is present in small quantities in , dried figs, raisins, , , and , often resulting from epimerization processes during plant metabolism or such as heating. In , D-psicose is biosynthesized through the enzymatic epimerization of D-fructose at the C-3 position, catalyzed by D-psicose 3-epimerase (D-PE). This enzyme is found in certain microorganisms, including species of and , where it facilitates the interconversion as part of rare sugar pathways. In humans, D-psicose exhibits poor metabolic utilization following ingestion. Approximately 70% of ingested D-psicose is absorbed in the but is minimally phosphorylated by ketohexokinase and shows low conversion to or , with around 70% excreted unchanged in the urine, contributing to its near-zero net caloric value. In microbial pathways, D-psicose serves as an intermediate in the of rare sugars within certain gut bacteria, such as innocuum, where it is utilized via enzymes like AlsE aldolase; however, it does not function as a source for these organisms.

Effects on Carbohydrate Absorption

D-psicose, also known as D-allulose, undergoes rapid but partial absorption in the primarily through the facilitative 5 (GLUT5) on the apical membrane of enterocytes, analogous to transport, followed by efflux via GLUT2 on the basolateral membrane into the bloodstream. Approximately 70% of orally administered D-psicose is absorbed, achieving peak plasma concentrations within 1 hour post-ingestion in rats and humans, with the absorbed fraction largely excreted unchanged in urine due to minimal hepatic metabolism. The unabsorbed portion, roughly 30%, reaches the where it serves as a substrate for microbial by , yielding such as , propionate, and butyrate, though with lower fermentability compared to other carbohydrates and thus negligible contribution to host harvest. This process is associated with cecal in animal models but does not significantly elevate expenditure. D-psicose modulates the absorption of other carbohydrates by competitively inhibiting intestinal sucrase activity, which reduces the of into glucose and , thereby attenuating postprandial glucose excursions when co-consumed with in both and studies. Additionally, it potently stimulates (GLP-1) secretion from L-cells in the distal intestine, independent of GIP release, further aiding in the regulation of postprandial glycemia without directly influencing gastric emptying rates. In contrast to glucose, which is actively transported via SGLT1 and potently induces insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells, D-psicose exhibits no direct insulinotropic effect, as evidenced by stable insulin levels following its isolated administration; however, when combined with , it lowers both glycemic and insulinemic responses compared to sucrose alone.

Health and Physiological Effects

Caloric Value and Blood Sugar Impact

Psicose, also known as D-allulose, provides a low caloric value of approximately 0.2 to 0.4 kcal/g, significantly less than the 4 kcal/g of , due to its incomplete in the where a substantial portion is excreted unchanged in urine. The U.S. (FDA) has designated psicose as excluded from total and added s in nutrition labeling, allowing its caloric contribution to be calculated at 0.4 kcal/g or less while not counting it toward sugar content. Psicose has a near zero, as it does not significantly elevate blood glucose levels when consumed alone. Clinical trials have demonstrated that allulose reduces postprandial glucose excursions by approximately 10% when added to or substituting for glucose or loads, attributed to its limited absorption and . For instance, doses of 5-10 g of psicose added to a 50 g load have been shown to suppress the glycemic response in healthy individuals. Regarding insulin response, psicose elicits minimal stimulation compared to , leading to lower postprandial insulin levels in both healthy subjects and those with . This is particularly beneficial for glycemic control in diabetics, as it reduces insulin requirements without compromising β-cell function. The mechanism involves decreased hepatic glucose output through enhanced liver synthesis and inhibited . Long-term studies in animals and humans indicate that psicose consumption at doses up to 30 g/day does not adversely affect insulin sensitivity and may improve it over time. In a 12-week rat model of diet-induced , psicose supplementation enhanced insulin sensitivity markers without negative metabolic impacts. Human trials similarly report sustained benefits on glycemic outcomes with no detriment to insulin response at these intake levels.

Other Health Benefits and Safety

D-Allulose has demonstrated potential anti-obesity effects in studies, where supplementation reduced body fat accumulation and visceral fat mass in high-fat diet-induced obese models by suppressing and enhancing oxidation. In these models, D-allulose intake at levels up to 5% of the diet led to decreased hypertrophy and improved mitochondrial function in . Additionally, D-allulose exhibits prebiotic-like properties through partial fermentation by , promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria such as and increasing short-chain production, which supports gut health and may contribute to metabolic benefits. studies with human fecal samples have shown that D-allulose enhances butyrate production, a key short-chain linked to effects in the colon. The compound also possesses antioxidant properties, effectively scavenging and reducing in cellular models, as evidenced by its ability to activate the Nrf2 pathway and lower markers like in high-fat diet-fed . This antioxidant activity has been linked to protection against stress in adipocytes and hepatocytes. Regarding anti-diabetic potential, D-allulose improves profiles by lowering triglycerides and total in high-fat diet animal models, while reducing through decreased pro-inflammatory expression in adipose and liver tissues. A 2024 meta-analysis of human trials in confirmed significant reductions in postprandial glucose levels with allulose supplementation (5-10 g per meal), but evidence for long-term improvements in markers like HbA1c remains limited from short-term studies. D-Allulose holds (GRAS) status from the U.S. , based on extensive toxicological evaluations showing no evidence of in Ames tests or chromosomal aberration assays, no carcinogenicity in 90-day studies, and no reproductive or developmental in multi-generational models. The (NOAEL) was established at 3% of the diet (approximately 1.5 g/kg body weight per day) in subchronic studies, with no specified tolerable daily intake but safety confirmed up to 0.5 g/kg body weight in humans. Side effects are rare and primarily involve mild gastrointestinal discomfort, such as , , or , occurring at high doses exceeding 0.4 g/kg body weight, similar to other non-digestible polyols; these effects were transient and resolved without intervention in tolerance studies. In typical consumption levels of 5-15 g per day, as commonly used in foods and beverages, GI discomfort is uncommon, with no significant adverse effects reported in long-term human studies.

Production Methods

Natural Extraction

D-psicose occurs naturally in trace amounts in carbohydrate-rich plant materials and processed products, including dried figs (approximately 0.3 g/kg), corn snacks (0.5 g/kg), raisins (0.4 g/kg), and (0.7 g/kg). These low concentrations, often below 1 g/kg, necessitate targeted extraction strategies to isolate the from complex matrices dominated by other carbohydrates like and glucose. Extraction begins with preprocessing the plant material to liberate free sugars, typically involving enzymatic of such as fructans or using enzymes like inulinase or amyloglucosidase to generate a fructose-enriched containing the trace psicose. The resulting mixture then undergoes purification via chromatographic techniques, such as simulated moving bed (SMB) chromatography with ion-exchange resins, to separate D-psicose from and impurities based on differential adsorption. This process achieves high purity levels exceeding 95% for the psicose fraction, with representative yields under 1% relative to the input content in natural feeds. Despite these methods, extraction faces significant challenges due to the sugar's in source materials, leading to low overall recovery and high operational costs. Historical approaches, including early efforts in Izumori's rare sugar initiatives that emphasized biological sourcing, highlighted the impracticality for commercial viability and confined to laboratory-scale operations.

Industrial Bioproduction

The primary method for industrial bioproduction of D-psicose involves the enzymatic of D-fructose using D-psicose 3-epimerase (DPEase), an sourced from thermophilic such as Thermus thermophilus and heterologously expressed in engineered hosts like . This exploits the reversible epimerization at the C-3 position of D-fructose, catalyzed by the Mn²⁺-dependent DPEase, to produce D-psicose at equilibrium yields typically limited to around 25-30% without additives. Industrial processes commonly employ immobilized DPEase in packed-bed reactors for continuous operation, achieving conversion yields of 20-30% from high-concentration D-fructose substrates (up to 500-600 g/L). Fed-batch strategies are used in multi-enzyme cascades, often co-expressing DPEase with D-glucose to convert glucose-fructose mixtures directly into D-psicose, enhancing substrate utilization and process efficiency. Post-reaction purification involves ion-exchange to remove salts and impurities, followed by concentration and crystallization to isolate high-purity D-psicose crystals (≥99% purity). Advancements in the have focused on to create thermostable DPEase variants, with optimal activity shifted to 60-70°C through introducing bridges or other stabilizing mutations, enabling operation at higher temperatures to reduce and improve . Yields have been boosted beyond equilibrium limits to approximately 40-50% via whole-cell biocatalysts incorporating cofactor-balanced cascades, such as those pairing DPEase with dehydrogenases like ribitol dehydrogenase and formate dehydrogenase for neutrality in glucose-to-D-psicose conversions. These improvements, including secretory expression in hosts like Pichia pastoris for easier immobilization, support scalable, cost-effective production. Production costs have declined significantly since the early , driven by scaled enzymatic processes and larger facilities, enabling cost-effective production by 2025. In 2025, D-allulose received approval as a ingredient in , further supporting global industrial production. Key industry players include Samyang Corporation, which utilizes non-GMO enzymatic conversion from corn-derived syrup in a 13,000-ton annual capacity plant, and , employing a corn-based to produce DOLCIA PRIMA® allulose for commercial applications.

History and Regulation

Discovery and Early Research

D-psicose, also known as D-allulose, was initially recognized in the early as D-pseudofructose, a minor component in sugar processing. In 1935, German chemists Heinz Ohle and Felix Just elucidated its through synthesis and analysis of derivatives, renaming it D-psicose to reflect its pseudo-fructose nature. The name derives from the Greek letter psi (ψ), symbolizing its close but distinct relation to . This structural determination established D-psicose as a C-3 of D-fructose, a ketohexose with the systematic name D-ribo-2-hexulose. The first isolation of D-psicose in crystalline form occurred in 1942, when researchers F.W. Zerban from the New York Sugar Trade Laboratory and Louis Sattler from separated it from commercial cane molasses, a of processed sugars. This isolation involved chromatographic techniques on a small scale, yielding trace amounts of the sugar, which was noted for its non-fermentability by and limited apparent utility at the time. Early assessments deemed it a curiosity rather than a viable commercial product, confining interest to basic carbohydrate chemistry. In the , renewed synthetic efforts provided deeper confirmation of its D-ribo-hexulose configuration through preparation of protected derivatives, such as diisopropylidene acetals, facilitating stereochemical analysis and enabling small-scale production for biochemical studies. These works built on prior knowledge but emphasized practical synthesis routes, highlighting D-psicose's rarity in nature and challenges in obtaining pure samples. The marked a pivotal shift with Ken Izumori's pioneering research at Kagawa University on rare sugars, where he conceptualized an enzymatic "Izumoring" cycle for their interconversion. A breakthrough came in 1993 with the discovery of D-ketohexose 3-epimerase (D-PE) from sp. ST-24, an enzyme that reversibly epimerizes D-fructose to D-psicose at the C-3 position with equilibrium yields around 20-25%. This enzyme's identification opened avenues for targeted production of rare sugars previously limited by inefficiencies. Into the 2000s, initial applications research underscored D-psicose's low-calorie potential, with studies demonstrating it provides negligible energy (approximately 0.2-0.4 kcal/g) and is poorly absorbed in the gut, making it suitable as a substitute without impacting blood glucose or insulin levels in animal models. For instance, feeding trials in rats showed no caloric contribution and even suppression of fat accumulation. In 2002, Japanese patents were issued for epimerase-based bioproduction methods, including systems for converting D-fructose to D-psicose, marking the first scalable enzymatic processes. Prior to commercial viability, D-psicose was restricted to academic applications, such as metabolic studies, until mid-2000s biotechnological optimizations improved yields and purification, paving the way for broader exploration.

Regulatory Approvals and Status

In the United States, D-psicose (allulose) has been affirmed as (GRAS) by the (FDA) through multiple notices, including GRN 400 in 2012, GRN 498 in 2014, and GRN 828 in 2019, allowing its use as a in various categories at levels up to (GMP). In 2020, the FDA issued guidance excluding allulose from "total sugars" and "added sugars" declarations on Nutrition Facts labels, while requiring it to be listed under total carbohydrates with a caloric value of 0.4 kcal/g; as a GRAS substance, no (ADI) limit is established. Internationally, approved D-psicose as a special-purpose in 2011, enabling its use without caloric contribution (0 kcal/g) in foods and beverages, with limiting intake to approximately 30 g/day. In , it received approval between 2016 and 2018 as a zero-energy , with expanded authorization in 2020 to include all food categories, such as alcoholic beverages. granted its first approval for D-psicose as a new food ingredient on July 2, 2025, permitting use at up to 20 g/day but excluding infants, pregnant, and lactating women, based on safety dossiers including 90-day toxicity studies. In , D-psicose is approved for use in natural health products since 2018 but remains under review for broader food applications as of 2025, with no full authorization yet. The classifies D-psicose as a , with an application under evaluation; however, the (EFSA) concluded in June 2025 that safety could not be established due to insufficient data, delaying authorization and restricting expanded uses such as in infant foods. Labeling requirements vary by region but generally mandate declaration as "allulose" or "D-psicose" in lists and facts, with its low caloric contribution (0.4 kcal/g in the and similar in approved markets) distinguished from traditional sugars. Global harmonization efforts through the Commission are ongoing to standardize specifications and safety assessments, though no specific Codex standard for D-psicose exists as of November 2025.

Commercial Applications

Use in Food and Beverages

Psicose, also known as allulose, serves as both a bulking agent and a low-calorie in low- and no-sugar and beverage products, providing volume and texture similar to while contributing approximately 0.4 kcal/g compared to 's 4 kcal/g. It can replace on a 1:1 basis by weight in many formulations, particularly in , where it supports comparable Maillard browning reactions and tender crumb structure due to its hygroscopic properties that mimic sugar's moisture retention. Due to its similar bulk density to sucrose, psicose also allows for approximately comparable volume-to-weight conversions. For example, using the common approximation in some recipes where 1 tablespoon of granulated sugar is 25 grams, 45 grams of psicose is equivalent to approximately 1.8 tablespoons; however, for precision, ingredient scales are recommended as minor variations in density or packing may affect volume measurements. This functionality allows psicose to maintain the sensory qualities of traditional recipes while reducing overall caloric content. In beverages such as sodas and juices, psicose is incorporated at levels up to 10% by weight to achieve desired sweetness and without impacting clarity, leveraging its high in aqueous solutions. For dairy products like and , it is used at around 5% by weight, enabling up to a 30% calorie reduction by substituting for while preserving creaminess and preventing excessive hardness upon freezing. In baked goods such as cookies, psicose at 10-20% by weight helps retain moisture for a chewy texture, avoiding the dryness often seen with other substitutes. Beyond basic sweetening, psicose functions as a cryoprotectant in frozen foods, depressing the freezing point to inhibit formation and maintain product integrity during storage and thawing. It also synergizes with high-intensity sweeteners like and , enhancing overall sweetness perception and masking any lingering aftertastes for a cleaner flavor profile in blended formulations. Psicose has gained notable popularity within low-carbohydrate and ketogenic diet communities due to its negligible impact on blood glucose and insulin levels, making it suitable for non-glycemic sweet treats. This appeal is reflected in numerous user-shared recipes on social media platforms and forums, including Facebook and PTT.cc, featuring low-calorie caramel pudding (prepared by cooking psicose into caramel, often using quantities such as 30g), peanut soft nougat incorporating psicose syrup, ketogenic adaptations of traditional cakes, tofu pudding, sugar-free low-fat gelato bases (e.g., using 80g psicose syrup), and cheese ice cream. These homemade applications demonstrate psicose's versatility in replicating the sensory qualities of traditional desserts while aligning with dietary goals of reduced sugar and blood sugar stability. Despite these advantages, the higher production cost of psicose compared to conventional sugars restricts its primary application to premium or health-focused products, where consumers are willing to pay for reduced-calorie options. Its excellent further supports use in clear beverages, minimizing formulation hurdles in liquid applications. The global market for allulose (D-psicose) was valued at approximately USD 167.4 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 712.11 million by 2034, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 14.2% from 2025 onward. This expansion is primarily driven by increasing consumer demand for low-calorie sweeteners amid the rising prevalence of keto diets and diabetes management needs, as allulose offers sugar-like sweetness with minimal caloric impact. Alternative projections estimate a more conservative CAGR of 8.6%, with the market reaching USD 509.3 million by 2030 from USD 283.4 million in 2023, reflecting steady adoption in health-focused products. Key producers in the allulose market include Samyang Corporation in , Tate & Lyle PLC in the and , and CJ CheilJedang Corporation in , which dominate through enzymatic conversion processes. The supply chain typically begins with corn-derived as the primary feedstock, which is enzymatically epimerized to produce allulose, leveraging abundant corn supplies to support scalable manufacturing. These companies have invested in capacity expansions to meet growing demand, with CJ CheilJedang and Samyang focusing on Asian production hubs while Tate & Lyle emphasizes North American distribution. Allulose is widely available in and , where it has received regulatory approvals for use in food and beverages, including China's approval on July 2, 2025. It is often sold in retail forms such as crystalline s and liquid syrups. Notable brands include & Lyle's Dolcia Prima, offered in both and syrup variants for easy incorporation into consumer products. In the , availability remains limited due to ongoing novel food authorization processes, with the (EFSA) unable to establish full safety as of November 2025, though applications continue to progress. As of 2025, market trends indicate expansions into niche sectors such as pet foods, where allulose is explored as a low-calorie additive to support in animals, and pharmaceuticals, including supplements and medications as a non-glycemic . Additionally, there is a growing emphasis on , with industry shifting toward biotech-based enzymatic and microbial methods over traditional to reduce environmental impact and improve yield efficiency.

References

  1. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34409930/
  2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/psicose
  3. https://www.acs.org/molecule-of-the-week/archive/p/d-psicose.html
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