Hubbry Logo
Ant colonyAnt colonyMain
Open search
Ant colony
Community hub
Ant colony
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Ant colony
Ant colony
Ant colony
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Walter R. Tschinkel next to a plaster cast of a Pogonomyrmex badius nest
Ant hill and ant tracks, Oxley Wild Rivers National Park, New South Wales

An ant colony is a population of ants, typically from a single species, capable of maintaining their complete lifecycle. Ant colonies are eusocial, communal, and efficiently organized and are very much like those found in other social Hymenoptera, though the various groups of these developed sociality independently through convergent evolution.[1] The typical colony consists of one or more egg-laying queens, numerous sterile females (workers, soldiers) and, seasonally, many winged sexual males and females.[2] In order to establish new colonies, ants undertake flights that occur at species-characteristic times of the day.[3] Swarms of the winged sexuals (known as alates) depart the nest in search of other nests.[4] The males die shortly thereafter, along with most of the females.[5] A small percentage of the females survive to initiate new nests.[6]

Etymology

[edit]

The term "ant colony" refers to a population of workers, reproductive individuals, and brood that live together, cooperate, and treat one another non-aggressively. Often this comprises the genetically related progeny from a single queen, although this is not universal across ants.[6] The name "ant farm" is commonly given to ant nests that are kept in formicaria, isolated from their natural habitat. These formicaria are made by scientists to study by rearing or temporarily maintaining them.[7][8] Another name is "formicary", which derives from the Medieval Latin word formīcārium. The word also derives from formica.[9] "Ant nests" are the physical spaces in which the ants live. These can be underground, in trees, under rocks, or even inside a single acorn.[6] The name "anthill" (or "ant hill") applies to aboveground nests where the workers pile sand or soil outside the entrance, forming a large mound.[10]

Colony size

[edit]

Colony size (the number of individuals that make up the colony) is very important to ants: it can affect how they forage, how they defend their nests, how they mate, and even their physical appearances. Body size is often seen as the most important factor in shaping the natural history[clarification needed] of non-colonial organisms; similarly, colony size is key in influencing how colonial organisms are collectively organized.[11][6] Colonies have a significant range of sizes: some are just several[clarification needed] ants living in a twig, while others are super-colonies with many millions of workers. Within a single ant colony, seasonal variation may be huge. For example, in the ant Dolichoderus mariae, one colony can shift from around 300 workers in the summer to over 2,000 workers per queen in the winter.[12] Genetics and environmental factors can cause the variation among different colonies of a single species to be even bigger. Different ant species, even those in the same genus, may have enormous colony size disparities: Formica yessensis has colony sizes that are reported to be 306 million workers while Formica fusca colonies sometimes comprise only 500 workers.[11]

Supercolonies

[edit]
Main article: Ant supercolony

A supercolony occurs when many ant colonies over a large area unite. They still continue to recognize genetic differences in order to mate, but the different colonies within the super colony avoid aggression.[13] Until 2000, the largest known ant supercolony was on the Ishikari coast of Hokkaidō, Japan. The colony was estimated to contain 306 million worker ants and one million queen ants living in 45,000 nests interconnected by underground passages over an area of 2.7 km2 (670 acres).[14] In 2000, an enormous supercolony of Argentine ants was found in Southern Europe (report published in 2002).[15] Of 33 ant populations tested along the 6,004-kilometre (3,731 mi) stretch along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts in Southern Europe, 30 belonged to one supercolony with estimated millions of nests and billions of workers, interspersed with three populations of another supercolony.[15] The researchers claim that this case of unicoloniality cannot be explained by loss of their genetic diversity due to the genetic bottleneck of the imported ants.[15] In 2009, it was demonstrated that the largest Japanese, Californian and European Argentine ant supercolonies were in fact part of a single global "megacolony".[16] Because of this there is little doubt that the Argentine intercontinental super colony represents the most populous known animal society.[17]

Another supercolony, measuring approximately 100 km (62 mi) wide, was found beneath Melbourne, Australia in 2004.[18]

Organizational terminology

[edit]

The following terminology is commonly used among myrmecologists to describe the behaviors demonstrated by ants when founding and organizing colonies:[6]: p. 209 

Monogyny
Establishment of an ant colony under a single egg-laying queen.
Polygyny
Establishment of an ant colony under multiple egg-laying queens.
Oligogyny
Establishment of a polygynous colony where the multiple egg-laying queens remain far apart from one another in the nest.
Haplometrosis
Establishment of a colony by a single queen.
Pleometrosis
Establishment of a colony by multiple queens.
Monodomy
Establishment of a colony at a single nest site.
Polydomy
Establishment of a colony across multiple nest sites.

Colony structure

[edit]

Ant colonies have a complex social structure. Ants' jobs are determined and can be changed by age. As ants grow older their jobs move them farther from the queen, or center of the colony. Younger ants work within the nest protecting the queen and young. Sometimes, a queen is not present and is replaced by egg-laying workers. These worker ants can only lay haploid eggs producing sterile offspring.[19] Despite the title of queen, she does not delegate the tasks to the worker ants; however, the ants choose their tasks based on individual preference.[2] Ants as a colony also work as a collective "super mind". Ants can compare areas and solve complex problems by using information gained by each member of the colony to find the best nesting site or to find food.[2] Some social-parasitic species of ants, known as the slave-making ant, raid and steal larvae from neighboring colonies.[20]

Communication

[edit]

In ant colonies there can range from a few dozen to millions of ants so communication is very important, because of this ants have been known to communicate through something called odor trails or pheromone trails.[21] These pheromone or odor trails are secreted by certain glands on an ants body though these glands and where they are located differ for each ant species.[22] In general these animals are able to provide a positive and negative feedback with these pheromone trails, this is why ants are typically seen in a single file line going from point A to B. When a foraging ant is successful in finding food they will deposit their pheromone trail on the way back to their nest, the pheromone trail will get stronger as more ants tread it signaling there is still food to be had in that area and this is known as the positive feedback.[21] On the other hand once all the food has been scavenged the trail will lose its strength as ants will no longer tread leaving their pheromones and in turn it will be like the pheromone trail never existed, this is known as the negative feedback.[21]

Some ants like the pharaoh ant are even known to use more than one pheromone to help communicate many things like rewarding trails or a "no-entry" trail for unrewarding routes.[21] Pharaoh ants are also different in the sense that they are able to create short-lived and long-lived pheromone trails as well as being able to secrete an attractive and repellent pheromone trail. The long-lived pheromone trails act as memory telling the ants to check certain trails often due to the success rate of finding food.[21] The short-lived trails communicate the current food sources that they have just happened to find while foraging. Lastly these ants are able to secrete a repellent and attractive pheromone, and this is short-lived as it tells other ants if there is food in an area or to not bother looking in this area as there is no food.[21]

Pheromone communication isn't only used when it comes to foraging but also in sending alarms that there is danger around. For example, the Atta leafcutter ants possess a different blend of pheromones and are able to alarm other leafcutter ants about the danger that is nearby.[21] Another form of communication that some ants like the carpenter ants participate in is communicating through vibrations. The carpenter ants are able to do this by smacking on their heads and abdomens against the chambers and galleries they've carved out in the rotten wood or stumps. These vibrations act as an alarm system warning of danger that can be perceived by their nest mates twenty or more centimeters away.[23] These forms of communication allow for the ants to be able to stay organized no matter how large their colony grows.

Aggression within colonies

[edit]

Aggression between ants can vary depending on the relationship between their colonies.[24] The aggression levels in ants can increase when colonies are in close proximity to each other due to limited resources.[24] Variation in size can also affect aggression levels as when a larger ant species encounters a smaller ant species, they are more likely to raid or destroy their smaller competition.[24] If conflicts were to arise between two colonies, then the losing colony would either retreat or be completely destroyed.[25]

It is common for ants to engage in battle with ants from different colonies, but uncommon for conflict to arise between ants in the same colony. Cardiocondyla ants are an exception because of their ability to produce wingless males, creating the opportunity for these males to mate with the queen ants that inhabit the nest without having to leave the nest like other ant species.[24] The competition to mate is thus increased as there are more available males. The wingless males typically fight to the death until only one remains in the colony. These wingless males are born with stronger mandibles than other winged males in order to give them a fighting chance at being the last remaining male in the colony so that they may be able to mate and reproduce.[24]

Mutualistic relationships

[edit]

Collecting food for a colony can be difficult as forage workers must be able to provide food that satisfies their own "nutritional requirements while also addressing the nutritional needs of the other members of the colony, including the queen, the larvae, and the other workers".[26] Because of this these ants have been known to form mutualistic interaction with different species like the mutualistic interaction between ants and hemipterans.[27] Ants protect the hemipterans, a tree bug from predators and in turn the hemipterans provide honeydew which is rich in carbohydrates and have been seen to increase an ants activity, aggressiveness, population size, and dominance of ants within a community.[27]

Another mutualistic relationship is the relationship between ants and fungal hyphae. The worker ants of an African crematogaster species build small shelters for the hemipterans using chewed wood and use fungal hyphae to strengthen the structure.[28] Fungal hyphae like chaetothyriales and capnodiales are also often used in the structural construction of ant colonies because as these fungi age they leave behind resistant tube-shaped cell walls ensuring these colonies will have sturdy walls even long after these fungi have died.[28]

Excavation

[edit]

Ant hill art is a growing collecting hobby. It involves pouring molten metal (typically non-toxic zinc or aluminum), plaster or cement down an ant colony mound acting as a mold and upon hardening, one excavates the resulting structure.[29] In some cases, this involves a great deal of digging.[30]

The casts are often used for research and education purposes, but many are simply given or sold to natural history museums, or sold as folk art or as souvenirs. Walter R. Tschinkel notes in Ant Architecture: The Wonder, Beauty, and Science of Underground Nests that many commercial operations seem to use a casting procedure he developed and published based on the work of Brazilian myrmecologists Meinhard Jacoby and Luiz Forti. Usually, the hills are chosen after the ants have abandoned so as to not kill any ants; however in the Southeast United States, pouring casting into an active colony of invasive fire ants is a novel way to eliminate them.[31]

Ant-beds

[edit]
See also: Termite mound
Nest construction of ants

An ant-bed, in its simplest form, is a pile of soil, sand, pine needles, or clay or a composite of these and other materials that build up at the entrances of the subterranean dwellings of ant colonies as they are excavated.[32] A colony is built and maintained by legions of worker ants, who carry tiny bits of dirt and pebbles in their mandibles and deposit them near the exit of the colony.[33] They normally deposit the dirt or vegetation at the top of the hill to prevent it from sliding back into the colony, but in some species, they actively sculpt the materials into specific shapes and may create nest chambers within the mound.[34]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ant colony

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
An ant colony is a eusocial of , typically from a single , comprising one or more , thousands to millions of sterile female workers, reproductive males, and developing brood (eggs, larvae, and pupae), capable of sustaining a complete lifecycle through brood care, overlapping generations, and division of labor dominated by non-reproductive castes. Colonies exhibit a highly organized structure, with castes specialized for tasks: queens primarily lay eggs and may live up to 100 times longer than similar-sized solitary , while workers perform , nest maintenance, defense, and nursing duties, often showing morphological variations such as minor and major workers in species like Pheidole. This organization arises from self-regulating behaviors, including pheromone-based communication and local interactions, enabling emergent properties like efficient without centralized control. Social networks within ant colonies are remarkably conserved across species, forming modular structures with two primary communities: a nurse group that remains in the nest to rear brood and a forager group that ventures out for food, reflecting a fundamental behavioral division of labor that has persisted for over 100 million years of evolution. Foraging, a critical colony activity, unfolds in spatiotemporal phases—exploration by scouts, rapid trail formation and recruitment during exploitation (with ant numbers increasing 5-10 times within about 35 minutes of food discovery), and relaxation afterward—demonstrating adaptive self-organization that balances efficiency and flexibility in resource-scarce environments. Colony sizes vary widely, from tens of individuals in small species to over 20 million in mature supercolonies like those of Argentine ants, with nesting strategies ranging from subterranean chambers to arboreal or polydomous (multi-nest) systems, all supporting long-term survival and expansion.

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition

An ant colony is defined as a population of comprising one or more , sterile female workers, and, during certain reproductive phases, winged males, which collectively function as a exhibiting integrated behaviors for survival, reproduction, and resource acquisition. This analogy highlights how individual contribute to colony-level goals through cooperative actions, akin to cells in a . Ant colonies originated within the social order, where evolved, characterized by reproductive division of labor, cooperative brood care, and overlapping generations. in ants is underpinned by , as formalized in Hamilton's rule (rB>CrB > C), where rr represents genetic relatedness among colony members, BB the fitness benefit to the recipient of an altruistic act, and CC the fitness cost to the actor; this inequality predicts the evolution of self-sacrificial behaviors that enhance . To arrive at this rule, Hamilton integrated direct fitness (personal reproduction) with indirect fitness (aid to relatives' reproduction, weighted by relatedness), showing that genes promoting altruism can spread if the inclusive fitness gain exceeds . Key features of ant colonies include decentralized , where no central directs actions but outcomes emerge from local interactions among individuals. Emergent behaviors, such as the formation of efficient trails, arise from these interactions, optimizing resource collection without explicit planning. Colony-level adaptations further enhance resilience, including seasonal to conserve energy during resource scarcity and fission, a reproductive strategy where portions of the colony split to establish new units. Colonies vary in queen number, with monogynous forms featuring a single queen, as seen in leafcutter ants (Atta spp.), which rely on one founding queen for long-term reproduction and colony growth. In contrast, polygynous colonies host multiple queens, exemplified by Argentine ants (Linepithema humile), enabling rapid expansion through queen adoption and budding.

Etymology

The term "colony" originates from the Latin colonia, denoting a farm or settled land, derived from colonus ("farmer" or "settler") and the verb colere ("to cultivate" or "inhabit"). This root emphasized organized human settlements, but by the late 16th century, it extended to biological contexts, describing structured groups of insects such as ants and bees as analogous to human communities. In the 17th century, English naturalist John Ray applied such concepts to ants in his 1691 work The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation, portraying their cooperative behaviors—like food storage and communal labor—as evidence of divine order in organized insect societies. The word "ant" traces back to Old English ǣmette (also spelled æmette), from Proto-Germanic *amaitjō, a compound of *ai- ("off" or "away") and *mait- ("to cut"), literally meaning "the biter-off," in reference to the insect's mandibles and cutting action. Cognates appear in āmeiza and modern German Ameise, reflecting its ancient Germanic roots tied to the of as small, biting creatures. In entomological , the term evolved from denoting solitary individuals to highlighting colonial organization, particularly as observations revealed ' shift from isolated foragers to interdependent social units. Early historical references to ant societies date to , where described ants' collective behaviors in (circa 350 BCE), noting their cooperative food gathering, storage in chambers, and apparent lack of leadership, classifying them among "political animals" capable of communal action. By the early 20th century, American entomologist William Morton Wheeler advanced this view in his 1911 paper "The Ant-Colony as an Organism," introducing the "" metaphor to depict ant colonies as integrated wholes, where individual function like cells in a multicellular body, prioritizing collective survival over personal reproduction. In , "" specifically denotes the social unit comprising workers, , males, and brood that cooperate and reproduce as a cohesive , distinct from "nest," which refers solely to the physical or . For instance, polydomous ant species like Temnothorax curvispinosus may distribute across multiple nests while maintaining a single identity through chemical cues and . This distinction underscores the colony's emphasis on rather than mere habitation.

Size and Variation

Typical Colony Sizes

Ant colony sizes vary widely across the more than 15,000 described species, ranging from fewer than 100 workers in some primitive forms to several million in advanced eusocial taxa. For instance, colonies of the bulldog ant typically contain 50 to 2,200 individuals, reflecting the relatively simple social structure of these basal species. In contrast, harvester ants like Pogonomyrmex californicus form colonies with 2,000 to 4,500 workers, while many species, such as Formica obscuripes, average 5,000 to 10,000 workers but can reach tens of thousands in mature nests. At the upper end, army ants of the genus , including Dorylus nigricans, sustain colonies exceeding 20 million workers, enabling their nomadic raiding lifestyle. These variations underscore how colony size correlates with evolutionary advancements in social complexity, from solitary foraging in small groups to mass recruitment in large societies. Several ecological factors influence this size variation, with resource availability playing a central role in supporting larger populations. Abundant supplies, such as or prey in resource-rich environments, allow colonies to scale up worker production and metabolic demands, as seen in studies where increased provisioning led to higher colony masses across ant . Habitat type also modulates size; contrary to expectations for individual body size, temperate-zone ants often form larger than tropical ones, potentially as a buffer against seasonal , with tropical averaging about one-tenth the worker numbers of temperate counterparts. Predation further shapes sizes, as high-risk environments favor rapid growth to overwhelming numbers for defense, while —the presence of multiple queens—facilitates expansion by boosting reproductive output and worker recruitment, often resulting in colonies orders of magnitude larger than monogynous equivalents. Colony growth typically follows exponential dynamics in early stages, driven by the queen's initial broods of workers that enable foraging and further reproduction, before plateauing at environmental carrying capacity due to resource limits or density-dependent regulation. Field observations of Dorylus species, for example, show rapid buildup to millions within months post-founding, stabilizing through emigration or mortality when resources dwindle. This pattern highlights how size reflects a balance between reproductive investment and ecological constraints. Estimating colony sizes relies on methods like nest excavation for direct counts in accessible species or mark-recapture techniques, such as the , which tags and recaptures foragers to infer total population via probabilistic modeling. These approaches have validated the vast ranges observed, providing reliable data for while accounting for subterranean or dispersed nests.

Supercolonies

Supercolonies represent an extreme form of in certain ant species, characterized by vast, interconnected networks of nests spanning thousands of square kilometers, where individuals from different nests coexist without aggression and share resources freely, effectively functioning as a single, expansive colony. This unicolonial structure contrasts with typical discrete colonies by lacking strong nestmate recognition cues, allowing workers, queens, and brood to intermingle across physically separated sites. The phenomenon is most prominently observed in like the (Linepithema humile), where supercolonies emerge as dominant ecological forces. A prime example is the supercolony of Argentine ants, which extends over 1,000 km from to the Mexican border, encompassing billions of individuals across urban, agricultural, and natural landscapes. Similarly, the European supercolony along the Mediterranean coastline spans approximately 6,000 km from to northwestern , forming one of the largest documented societies. These formations arise primarily through human-mediated dispersal, such as via ships and trade goods, which introduce small founding populations that expand rapidly. Low , resulting from population bottlenecks during invasions, plays a key role by diminishing intraspecific aggression; genetic studies reveal that introduced populations exhibit reduced variation in cuticular hydrocarbons—chemical signatures used for nestmate identification—leading to widespread acceptance among unrelated individuals. Furthermore, the species' polygynous , involving multiple queens per nest and often clonal through , facilitates unchecked growth and fusion of nearby nests into sprawling networks. Ecologically, supercolonies exert profound competitive dominance, aggressively displacing native ant species and disrupting food webs in invaded regions. In , supercolonies have eliminated up to 90% of native ant diversity in coastal habitats, altering communities and reducing prey availability for species like the coast horned lizard (Phrynosoma blainvillii), whose populations have declined sharply since the . Case studies from the early 2000s, such as those in riparian woodlands, documented how supercolony expansion leads to homogenization of ant assemblages, with invasive ants monopolizing resources like honeydew from and seeds, thereby suppressing and ecosystem services. Recent research post-2020 has illuminated the evolutionary underpinnings of these supercolonies, revealing hybrid origins from multiple native-range introductions that contribute to their invasiveness despite overall low . genomics analyses indicate ongoing positive and balancing selection within supercolonies, enabling adaptation to diverse environments like urban . remains challenging as of 2025, particularly in cities where supercolonies' vast scale and evasion behaviors hinder eradication; innovative approaches, including RNAi-based targeting and hydrogel-delivered insecticides, are under trial, with a notable success in eradicating a on to monitor recovery.

Social Organization

Organizational Terminology

In ant colonies, the core reproductive and non-reproductive members are defined by specific terminology reflecting their roles in social organization. The queen is the primary reproductive female, responsible for egg-laying and colony founding, typically larger than other colony members and capable of living for years or decades depending on the species. Workers are sterile females that perform the majority of colony maintenance tasks, such as foraging, brood care, and nest defense, emerging from fertilized eggs developed by the queen. Males, also known as drones, are winged or wingless individuals produced from unfertilized eggs, existing primarily for mating with queens during nuptial flights before dying shortly thereafter. Alates refer to the winged reproductive forms, encompassing both virgin queens (gynes) and males that participate in colony reproduction through swarming events. Colony lifecycle is described through stages that mark developmental progression from to . The founding stage begins when a mated queen establishes a new nest, often laying her first eggs alone until the initial workers emerge to support further growth. During the growth phase, the workforce expands rapidly as the queen produces more workers, enabling the colony to , expand the nest, and accumulate resources. The mature colony stage is reached when the population stabilizes at a sustainable size, with resources allocated toward maintenance and preparation for . Reproductive swarming, or , occurs in mature colonies when alates depart en masse to mate and initiate new foundings, often synchronized with environmental cues like temperature or rainfall. Social structure in ant colonies is characterized by terms denoting queen number and nest distribution. Monogyny describes colonies with a single reproductive queen, common in many species for maintaining genetic cohesion and resource efficiency. , in contrast, involves multiple queens coexisting within the same colony, which can accelerate but may lead to increased competition or . Monodomy refers to a colony occupying a single nest site, facilitating centralized coordination, while polydomy indicates multiple interconnected nests used by one colony, enhancing resource exploitation across larger areas. These terms were standardized in seminal entomological works, such as Hölldobler and Wilson's (1990), which synthesized morphological and behavioral based on extensive observations across Formicidae. Modern glossaries, including those in ant ecology texts, have refined these definitions to incorporate genetic and ecological insights, such as distinguishing primary from secondary based on colony founding history, without altering the core lexicon.

Caste System and Roles

Ant colonies exhibit a highly specialized system that divides labor among morphologically and behaviorally distinct groups, ensuring the colony's survival and growth. The primary castes include , workers, and males, each with roles adapted to the colony's needs. are the reproductive caste, typically larger and wingless after , dedicated to egg-laying; in like the Solenopsis invicta, a mature queen can produce over 2,000 eggs per day, supporting expansion. Workers form the non-reproductive majority, performing all maintenance tasks, and often divide into subcastes based on size and function, such as minor workers for nursing brood and , and major workers as soldiers for defense. Males, or drones, are short-lived and solely responsible for with new during nuptial flights, after which they die without contributing to labor. Role specialization within castes is influenced by both age-based polyethism and morphological adaptations, promoting efficiency in task allocation. In many species, young workers engage in intracolonial duties like brood care and nest maintenance inside the nest, transitioning to external as they age, a pattern observed in leaf-cutter ants (Atta spp.) where this temporal division optimizes use. Morphological differences further refine roles; for instance, in army ants of the Eciton, larger subcastes possess exaggerated, sickle-shaped mandibles suited for subduing prey and defending raids, enabling the colony's nomadic predatory lifestyle. These adaptations arise from environmental cues during larval development, such as , which determine fate and size. Caste roles demonstrate flexibility, particularly under stress, allowing colonies to adapt to challenges like queen loss through hormonal and genetic mechanisms. In queenless colonies, workers can switch to reproductive roles, laying unfertilized eggs that develop into males via , as seen in species like Pogonomyrmex ants, where workers lay unfertilized eggs that develop into males, temporarily sustaining the colony. regulates such transitions, modulating behavior from sterile worker tasks to egg production when needed. In leaf-cutter ants, specialized subcastes like minima workers handle garden tending and waste removal, while soldiers protect trails, illustrating how diversity supports complex mutualisms like fungus farming. Similarly, Eciton soldiers not only defend but also assist in brood transport during emigrations, highlighting role versatility in nomadic species. This plasticity ensures colony resilience without rigid hierarchies.

Physical Structure

Overall Colony Architecture

Ant colony nests exhibit a modular architecture characterized by interconnected chambers and galleries, which provide structural integrity and functional efficiency. The majority of ant species construct hypogeal nests, consisting of extensive underground tunnel networks extending up to several meters in depth, with chambers arranged in a decentralized, branching pattern connected by narrow galleries for movement and material transport. In contrast, epigeal designs feature above-ground mounds or thatched structures overlying subterranean components, as seen in species like the Solenopsis invicta, where the mound serves as a heat-collecting dome while the underground portions house the core nest. This modularity allows colonies to expand incrementally without compromising stability, with chambers typically oval or irregular in shape and sized according to colony needs. Functional zoning within the nest optimizes and environmental control. Brood chambers are often centrally located and maintained at high levels (around 80-90%) to support larval development, positioned deeper to shield from surface fluctuations. Food storage areas, such as granaries in harvester , are distributed peripherally for easy access, while dumps are relegated to outer edges or basal regions to minimize contamination. Ventilation is facilitated by surface funnels or chimneys that promote airflow, drawing in fresh air through peripheral entrances and expelling gases like CO₂ via central shafts, thereby regulating and oxygen levels throughout the structure. Habitat adaptations influence nest design, reflecting evolutionary responses to environmental constraints. Arboreal species like the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina build nests from living leaves bound together with larval , forming multiple interconnected folios in canopies for protection from ground predators and access to arboreal resources. In contrast, soil-dwelling species such as Solenopsis invicta excavate hypogeal nests with expansive, multi-level chambers beneath protective mounds, enabling in variable terrestrial environments. These adaptations ensure resilience, with arboreal nests emphasizing , waterproof enclosures and soil nests prioritizing depth for stability against . Engineering principles underlying nest architecture arise from , where individual ' local behaviors produce global patterns without central planning. Tunnel shapes emerge through probabilistic branching and deposition rules, yielding stable, ramifying networks that resist collapse, as demonstrated in simulations of Lasius niger tunneling. These models reveal fractal-like patterns in branch distributions, enhancing connectivity and resource flow while minimizing material use, with meshedness ratios remaining invariant across growth stages for optimal structural integrity.

Excavation and Nest Building

Ants excavate nests primarily using their to loosen and remove particles, a process known as jaw-mediated digging. Workers grasp grains or clumps with their jaws and them outward in their mandibles, often carrying loads comparable to their body size for efficient removal. This method allows for precise control, with ants preferring particles around 1-2 mm in diameter to match mandible dimensions. Cooperative excavation relies on , where the physical deposition of excavated serves as a cue to guide subsequent digging by other workers. Piles of removed create patterns that amplify further work at specific sites, enabling decentralized coordination without direct interaction. For instance, in like Pogonomyrmex occidentalis, segments form piecewise linearly, with deposited material influencing the direction and stability of expansion. Nest construction incorporates various building materials, including soil particles, fibers, and secretions such as to components together. These materials form firm, brick-like structures that enhance durability; for example, in leaf-cutter ants like Atta bisphaerica, mixed with fungal debris and creates reinforced tunnels. Some species, such as pyramid ants (Dorymyrmex spp.), build volcano-shaped mounds using compacted , mimicking the epigeal structures of for protection and ventilation. Nest expansion occurs in response to , with larger colonies exhibiting faster and more extensive digging. In laboratory studies with Lasius niger, groups of 300 workers achieved greater tunnel ramification and area coverage compared to smaller groups of 50, transitioning to branched structures at about 60% of final nest size. Excavation rates typically range from 1-2 cm per day in initial phases, as observed in controlled setups where depth increases progressively over days. In flood-prone environments, ants adapt nests through waterproofing measures, such as constructing soil mounds around entrances to divert water and maintain internal humidity. Species like Diacamma indicum in monsoon regions elevate nest openings and consolidate barriers with soil balls after rain, reducing flood ingress. Recent studies highlight how collisional cues during excavation—perceived through physical contacts that may include subtle vibrations—help regulate activity to prevent structural instability and potential collapses in fire ants (Solenopsis invicta).

Chambers and Ant-Beds

Ant colonies feature specialized internal chambers tailored to distinct functions, enhancing efficiency and survival. Brood chambers serve as primary nurseries where eggs, larvae, and pupae develop under tightly controlled conditions, with workers maintaining temperatures between 25°C and 30°C by relocating brood to optimal zones or ventilating the nest. Granaries, observed in species like those in the Pogonomyrmex, store harvested seeds for later consumption, preventing spoilage through strategic placement and periodic redistribution by workers. Queen chambers provide a secure, central space for the reproductive female, often deeper in the nest and isolated to minimize disturbances during egg-laying. Ant-beds refer to the layered, protective constructed within brood chambers to support pupal development, offering insulation and moisture retention. In attine , such as leaf-cutter in the Atta, these beds incorporate fungal hyphae from their cultivated gardens, enveloping pupae to shield them from pathogens and . Workers regulate in these areas through fanning behaviors that promote air circulation, ensuring levels suitable for —typically 50-70% relative —while preventing excess moisture that could foster harmful microbes. Maintenance of chambers involves diligent hygiene by worker ants, who remove debris, fungal contaminants, and waste to avert mold growth and disease outbreaks, a process critical for colony health. In like Pogonomyrmex badius, nests form multi-level structures with up to four vertical series of chambers, potentially exceeding 100 compartments in mature colonies to accommodate expanding populations. Recent research highlights how microbial symbioses within these chambers, such as bacterial communities aiding nutrient cycling, further bolster nest and stability. Chamber designs vary widely across ant species, contrasting permanent subterranean architectures with transient setups. Army ants (Ecitoninae) forgo fixed nests, instead forming temporary bivouacs—living shelters woven from workers' bodies—that serve as mobile brood and queen enclosures during nomadic phases.

Communication and Coordination

Pheromone-Based Communication

primarily communicate through pheromones, which are chemical signals released by exocrine glands to coordinate colony activities such as , defense, and nest . These semiochemicals enable rapid, decentralized across large groups, allowing colonies to function as superorganisms. Pheromones are species-specific and can elicit immediate behavioral responses, from individual alerting to . Alarm pheromones trigger defensive responses, such as flight or , upon detecting threats. In like , from the poison gland acts as a key alarm component, causing nestmates to evacuate or attack intruders when diffused as a volatile signal. Similarly, in Camponotus ants, combined with hydrocarbons like n-undecane from the Dufour's gland heightens alertness and orients workers toward danger sources. These pheromones spread quickly via air to alert distant colony members. Trail pheromones guide foragers to food sources or new nests by forming persistent chemical paths. For example, in the Linepithema humile, iridoids such as dolichodial and iridomyrmecin from the pygidial gland serve as primary trail markers, deposited by leading workers to orient followers along optimal routes. Recruitment pheromones, often overlapping with trail signals, amplify mobilization through gland secretions; in Solenopsis invicta, Dufour's gland extracts like Z,E-α-farnesene initiate mass recruitment by attracting and exciting workers to join efforts. These pheromones are released from the sting apparatus, combining orientation and excitatory effects. Pheromone mechanisms rely on volatility for short-range signaling and durability for trails, with enabling rapid spread and rates optimizing path relevance. Alarm pheromones like volatilize quickly to diffuse through the nest, ensuring fast propagation without lingering. Trail pheromones form long-lasting deposits that degrade differentially; higher at elevated temperatures reduces trail potency, preventing outdated paths from misleading foragers and promoting route . This balance allows colonies to adapt trails dynamically to resource availability. In Temnothorax ants, tandem running integrates for teaching navigation, where leaders release a short-range "calling" from the to attract and guide a single follower to a , facilitating route learning without trails. This teaching process involves bidirectional feedback between leader and pupil, exemplifying social learning in ants. Ants exhibit elements of culture through such social learning, such as tandem running to teach foraging paths and using nestmate cues to adjust behavior, enabling transmission of adaptive strategies across generations. Conversely, Solenopsis invicta employs recruitment for colony-level responses, where initial scouts deposit Dufour's signals to draw hundreds of workers, escalating to rapid food retrieval or defense. These strategies highlight ' role in scaling from individual to . Recent research has illuminated , with a ancestral reconstruction study indicating repeated losses of certain pheromonal communication modalities across lineages, suggesting flexibility in chemical signaling amid diverse ecologies. Additionally, synthetic versions of candidate pheromones, such as microencapsulated (Z)-9-hexadecenal, have been developed for pest ; when combined with baits, they disrupt foraging in like Linepithema humile, reducing activity by 74% after four weeks in field trials without broad-spectrum insecticides. These applications underscore pheromones' potential in targeted control while preserving non-target ecosystems.

Tactile and Visual Signals

Ants employ tactile communication primarily through physical contact, which is essential in the dark environments of their nests where visual cues are unavailable. Antennation, the mutual touching of antennae between individuals, serves for nestmate recognition and , such as detecting cuticular hydrocarbons from postpharyngeal glands in species like Cataglyphis niger. This contact allows ants to assess identity and status rapidly during encounters, facilitating coordination without relying on chemical . Trophallaxis, the oral exchange of liquid food or secretions, not only distributes nutrients but also conveys social information, including learning about in Camponotus aethiops and transferring proteins or hormones in various species. Visual signals play a limited role in ant communication due to the generally poor eyesight of most species, which possess compound eyes with low resolution suited mainly for detecting motion rather than fine details. In dark nest conditions, tactile methods predominate as a reliable alternative, providing instantaneous feedback through physical contact that is ineffective for in low light. However, some diurnal use visual landmarks for trail following during , integrating them with other cues to navigate familiar routes, though this is constrained by their and environmental factors like occlusion. Stridulation, the production of vibrations by rubbing body parts, functions as a tactile signal transmitted through substrates, often serving alarm or recruitment purposes in species with limited vision. In leaf-cutting ants like Atta cephalotes, restrained workers stridulate to emit ground-conducted vibrations that attract nestmates for rescue or digging, rather than airborne sounds audible to humans. Workers in Crematogaster scutellaris modulate these signals contextually, producing distinct chirp patterns for alarm versus food-related recruitment, with frequency varying by stimulus size to convey specific information. Recruitment behaviors in some incorporate movement-based tactile cues, such as exciting antennal contacts or jerking motions to stimulate followers. In Myrmica species, scouts use group involving dynamic body movements and tactile stimulation to rally nestmates to sources, adapting based on resource size. These signals complement pheromone trails in volatile conditions, providing a robust for coordination. Recent research highlights the expanding role of vibrational communication in invasive ant species, where substrate-borne signals aid rapid colony responses. A 2025 study on biotremology using DIY piezoelectric sensors recorded vibrations in like Myrmica karavajevi (related to invasive Myrmica rubra), demonstrating their use in social deception and alarm, enhancing detection in field studies of invasive spread.

Internal Dynamics

Cooperation and Division of Labor

Ant colonies exhibit remarkable division of labor, where workers specialize in specific tasks to enhance overall colony efficiency without centralized control. This specialization emerges through mechanisms like temporal polyethism, in which young workers typically perform intra-nest duties such as brood care and nest maintenance, while older workers transition to external tasks like and defense. This age-based progression, observed in species like Pogonomyrmex barbatus, allows colonies to allocate labor dynamically based on individual development and colony needs, ensuring that high-risk activities are handled by more experienced . Spatial polyethism complements this by segregating tasks across physical locations within the nest; for instance, workers near the nest entrance focus on guarding, while those deeper inside handle nursing. Such , demonstrated in Temnothorax species, minimizes interference and optimizes resource flow through simple movement rules that bias workers toward nearby tasks. A key theoretical framework explaining these patterns is the response threshold model, where individual workers have varying sensitivity thresholds to task-related stimuli, such as levels or visual cues. Workers with lower thresholds for common tasks like cleaning respond quickly, while those with higher thresholds specialize in rarer activities, like nest repair, leading to self-organized division without direct communication. This model, introduced through theoretical simulations, predicts that threshold variability alone can generate stable labor allocation, with rare tasks performed by a small subset of responsive individuals. Recent extensions, including 2023 agent-based modeling, incorporate constraints like task urgency and worker fatigue to simulate resilient labor dynamics, showing how thresholds adapt to disruptions for sustained colony performance. Cooperative behaviors further amplify this division, enabling complex achievements like collective transport of oversized prey. In Paratrechina longicornis, groups of up to 50 workers coordinate to carry large loads, such as pieces of weighing 30–100 mg, using tactile cues and load-sharing to navigate obstacles without a leader. Similarly, occurs through clustering, where workers aggregate to generate metabolic heat or bask in , maintaining brood temperatures within 28–32°C in species like Formica polyctena. This behavior, driven by response to thermal gradients, prevents overheating or chilling and integrates with polyethism by assigning perimeter workers to ventilation tasks. Additionally, tool use in certain species represents an advanced form of individual innovation that contributes to collective problem-solving and benefits the colony. For example, workers of the genus Aphaenogaster (such as Aphaenogaster rudis) demonstrate tool use by dropping debris into liquid food sources to soak up the liquid, then transporting the food-impregnated debris back to the nest. This behavior allows the colony to exploit liquid resources that would otherwise be inaccessible, highlighting specialization and innovative adaptation within the division of labor. These mechanisms yield emergent , where decentralized decisions result in high efficiency. Overall, division of labor fosters adaptability, allowing colonies to information collectively and outperform solitary efforts in dynamic environments.

Aggression and Conflict Resolution

Within ant colonies, aggression manifests primarily through , where workers destroy eggs laid by reproductively active nestmates to suppress selfish . This behavior is particularly prevalent in queenright colonies, where workers preferentially consume worker-laid eggs over queen-laid ones, ensuring that the queen's predominate. Such policing arises from genetic conflicts rooted in theory; under , workers share 75% relatedness with their sisters (the queen's daughters) but only 25% relatedness with nephews (sons of their full sisters), making it evolutionarily advantageous to rear the queen's sons (to which they are 50% related) instead of allowing worker . Resource competition exacerbates these conflicts, as limited colony resources favor centralized by the queen to maximize . In polygynous colonies, which harbor multiple , inter-caste often involves fights between workers of different matrilines or between workers and vying for reproductive control. Workers may attack and immobilize rival or reproductives from less related lineages, establishing dominance through physical confrontations that resolve disputes. These conflicts stem from asymmetries in genetic relatedness, where workers from one queen's lineage (r=75% among full sisters) may police or eliminate eggs and individuals from another queen's lineage to prioritize their own kin, thereby mitigating the dilution of in multi-queen setups. Conflict resolution mechanisms include pheromone-mediated suppression and the formation of dominance hierarchies. Queen pheromones inhibit ovarian development in workers and rival queens, reducing aggressive tendencies by chemically enforcing reproductive monopoly and promoting colony cohesion. In queenless or post-reproductive scenarios, dominance hierarchies emerge among workers through ritualized , such as antennation and , which minimize costly fights by signaling status and allocating to high-ranking individuals. For instance, in polygynous exsecta colonies, workers selectively kill excess queens when the colony's biases toward females, adjusting reproductive output to optimize male production and enhance overall colony fitness. These resolution strategies provide evolutionary benefits by preserving colony-level fitness, as unresolved conflicts could lead to reproductive and reduced rates. By curbing selfish behaviors, policing and hierarchies align individual actions with collective success, as evidenced in studies showing higher colony productivity in policed versus unregulated groups. Recent research on hybrid zones, such as those involving species, highlights how interspecific conflicts intensify intracolonial aggression, with hybrid workers exhibiting heightened policing to counteract genetic incompatibilities and maintain social stability.

Ecological Interactions

Mutualistic Symbioses

Ant colonies engage in diverse mutualistic symbioses with other organisms, providing mutual benefits such as , , and that enhance colony survival and fitness. These relationships often involve trophic exchanges, where ants receive resources in return for defense or cultivation services, and have co-evolved over millions of years to optimize partner fidelity and efficiency. A prominent example is the obligate mutualism between fungus-growing ants of the tribe Attini and their cultivated fungi, where ants harvest plant material, such as leaf fragments, to fertilize and maintain subterranean fungus gardens that serve as the colony's primary food source. The ants process fresh vegetation into a substrate, which the fungus breaks down into digestible gongylidia—nutrient-rich hyphal swellings—that workers and larvae consume, establishing a sophisticated agricultural system. This symbiosis originated approximately 66 million years ago, coinciding with the end-Cretaceous extinction event, and has since undergone reciprocal genomic adaptations in ants and fungi to strengthen partner specificity. To defend these gardens from specialized pathogens like the fungus , Attine produce and apply antibiotics derived from symbiotic actinobacteria, such as species, which they cultivate on their exoskeletons and actively smear onto the garden substrate. This chemical defense mechanism, involving multiple antibiotic compounds, suppresses microbial competitors and parasites, ensuring the mutualist's health and preventing garden collapse. Trophic exchanges in this system are tightly integrated, with providing substrate and protection while the delivers essential nutrients, including proteins and , that support high colony densities. In contrast, many Formicinae ants, such as those in the genus , practice "aphid farming," a facultative mutualism where they protect colonies from predators and parasitoids in exchange for honeydew—a sugar-rich excretion from feeding on phloem . Ants actively tend by transporting them to optimal feeding sites, removing waste, and even manipulating reproduction to maximize honeydew production, which constitutes a vital source for the ants. This relationship enhances ant nutrition during resource-scarce periods and boosts colony growth through reduced mortality, though it can limit dispersal.01077-6) Ant-plant mutualisms further illustrate these symbioses, particularly in myrmecophilous plants that provide domatia—specialized hollow structures in stems or leaves—for colonies to nest in, along with extrafloral or food bodies as rewards. In the case of trees and their obligate ant partners, such as Pseudomyrmex species, the ants aggressively defend the host plant from herbivores, vines, and even large mammals like by patrolling and stinging intruders, thereby reducing damage and promoting plant growth. These interactions, evolved over tens of millions of years, involve co-adaptations like swollen thorns for housing and beltian bodies—lipid-rich leaf tips—for ant consumption, yielding enhanced resource acquisition for both parties.30009-0) Such symbioses profoundly impact colony health by diversifying nutritional inputs and bolstering resilience against environmental stressors. Recent highlights the role of ant microbiomes in these mutualisms; for instance, bacterial communities in the guts and on exoskeletons of species like Veromessor andrei influence digestion of symbiotic resources and pathogen resistance, with social organization and environmental factors shaping composition to support overall colony vitality. In Aphaenogaster ants, developmental stage-specific microbiomes further modulate symbiotic efficiency, underscoring microbes as integral to sustaining these long-term partnerships.

Defense Against Predators and Competitors

Ant colonies utilize diverse defensive tactics to safeguard against predators and competitors, encompassing chemical, physical, and behavioral strategies. Chemical defenses, such as the ejection of by species, serve as a potent deterrent; these spray the corrosive substance from their abdomens to irritate and repel intruders, including vertebrates and rival , often in combination with applications to maintain nest hygiene during threats. Physical tactics include biting and swarming, exemplified by army ants (Ecitoninae), which deploy massive worker swarms armed with sharp mandibles to overwhelm and dismember attackers through coordinated mass assaults. Nest further bolsters these efforts, with workers reinforcing entrances using soil, resin, or to create barriers that impede invasion while allowing rapid egress for counterattacks. Responses to predators often involve rapid mobilization and self-sacrifice to protect the brood and queen. Alarm recruitment, triggered by pheromones released upon detecting threats, summons hundreds of workers to the site of intrusion, amplifying defensive force; this is particularly effective in species like Argentine ants (Linepithema humile), where chemical signals coordinate swarm responses against vertebrate or predators. Sacrificial workers exemplify ultimate , as seen in Azteca ants, where individuals plug nest entrances with their bodies to block raiders, perishing to ensure colony survival. Specialized morphology enhances these responses, such as in trap-jaw ants ( spp.), which snap their mandibles at speeds exceeding 140 km/h to strike and eject intruders, providing both offensive and escape capabilities. Intercolony competition manifests in territorial wars and parasitic strategies that secure resources and expand influence. Argentine ants engage in epic battles with rival colonies or native species, mobilizing thousands in prolonged conflicts along borders, often resulting in substantial worker losses but enabling supercolony dominance over vast territories. Slave-making ants like Formica sanguinea conduct raids on host colonies, capturing pupae to rear as enslaved workers that perform and brood care, thereby augmenting the raider's workforce and defensive capacity without direct combat investment. The effectiveness of these defenses varies by colony size, threat type, and environmental conditions, with larger, well-coordinated colonies often repelling attackers and retaining over 75% of brood in raids by army ants. Recent studies indicate that warming habitats exacerbate vulnerabilities; experimentally elevated temperatures reduce ant activity and defensive aggression, pushing species toward their limits and potentially lowering survival against predators in climate-stressed ecosystems.

References

  1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/ant-colonies
  2. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-63307-1
  3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11288679/
  4. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/23/5/925/232024
  5. https://www.edge.org/conversation/e_o_wilson-a-united-biology
  6. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/an-introduction-to-eusociality-15788128/
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3982664/
  8. https://arxiv.org/abs/2105.00883
  9. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10110237/
  10. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/60505
  11. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/10-2347.1
  12. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2937030/
  13. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-46972-5
  14. https://www.etymonline.com/word/colony
  15. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3594893/
  16. https://www.etymonline.com/word/ant
  17. https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/59/8/702/256209
  18. https://academic.oup.com/book/26117/chapter/194135840
  19. https://ecologicalneuroscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/reid-aust-j-zool.pdf
  20. https://buckeyemyrmecology.com/product/pogonomyrmex-californicus/
  21. https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Formica_obscuripes
  22. https://tb.plazi.org/GgServer/html/FB705FE0C721C3A393B51DD0057635C3
  23. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/eap.70071
  24. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0407827102
  25. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/285758
  26. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25302869/
  27. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7391535/
  28. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25005698
  29. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC122904/
  30. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-56189-1
  31. https://ncseagrant.ncsu.edu/coastwatch/naturalists-notebook-coastal-invasion-the-argentine-ant/
  32. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC18539/
  33. https://grosberglab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/453/2017/05/2003-Tsutsui-N.-D.-A.-V.-Suarez-R.-K.-Grosberg.pdf
  34. https://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/argentine-ant
  35. https://app.sib.illinois.edu/suarez/local/suarez/uploads/2020/01/Holway_etal2002ARES.pdf
  36. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.10.29.620798v1
  37. https://pestboard.ca.gov/about/agenda/20251001_agenda_item_9b.pdf
  38. https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-023-05729-7
  39. https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/g7392
  40. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/ants/pest-notes/
  41. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/ant-colony-life-cycle
  42. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/TOOLS/ANTKEY/biolcol.html
  43. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221457451400073X
  44. https://antwiki.org/wiki/Polygyny
  45. https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674040755
  46. https://agriculture.okstate.edu/departments-programs/entomol-plant-path/research-and-extension/red-imported-fire-ants/site-files/documents/rifabiology2-1.pdf
  47. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10265030/
  48. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1559956/
  49. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/285279
  50. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11139587/
  51. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6398374/
  52. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/leafcutter-castes
  53. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1582&context=tropical_ecology
  54. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/12/12/2225
  55. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295987429_The_nest_architecture_of_the_Florida_harvester_ant_Pogonomyrmex_badius
  56. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228666287_A_masterpiece_of_evolution-Oecophylla_weaver_ants_Hymenoptera_Formicidae
  57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.06.018
  58. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8433525/
  59. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0902685106
  60. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02491-w
  61. https://www.nature.com/articles/srep13716
  62. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2022.0597
  63. https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3032.2008.00658.x
  64. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022191076901554
  65. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2912167/
  66. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17912739/
  67. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0045016
  68. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24276134/
  69. https://www.ars.usda.gov/arsuserfiles/60360510/publications/Vander_Meer_et_al-1990%28M-2399%29.pdf
  70. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51752893_Temperature_limits_trail_following_behaviour_through_pheromone_decay_in_ants
  71. https://www.nature.com/articles/439153a
  72. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21520393/
  73. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8225145/
  74. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01132686
  75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2009.09.007
  76. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20375
  77. https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/bug-bytes/communication/tactile-communication/
  78. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.149.3690.1392
  79. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-84925-z
  80. https://doi.org/10.1155/1991/38402
  81. https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.13.e143481
  82. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10070654
  83. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-34706-7
  84. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.1998.0299
  85. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bioengineering-and-biotechnology/articles/10.3389/fbioe.2023.985550/full
  86. https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/219/21/3366/15576/Collective-strategy-for-obstacle-navigation-during
  87. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3962001/
  88. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00040-006-0897-2
  89. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.6968
  90. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1304917110
  91. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/508619
  92. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/15/6/970/205337
  93. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2132993100
  94. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/10/3/323/201662
  95. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-023-03378-8
  96. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00442-002-1072-8
  97. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2017.2548
  98. https://academic.oup.com/evolut/article/76/9/2105/6966150
  99. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10375366/
  100. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn7179
  101. https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms12233
  102. https://www.nature.com/articles/19519
  103. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1367593120301095
  104. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1685857/
  105. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982221011362
  106. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369526624001389
  107. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0102604
  108. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11921602/
  109. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389357181_Impact_of_Species_and_Developmental_Stage_on_the_Bacterial_Communities_of_Aphaenogaster_Ants
  110. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5383563/
  111. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ento-082521-072638
  112. https://academic.oup.com/jinsectscience/article/24/3/25/7697941
  113. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18928332/
  114. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1568925/
  115. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5052306/
  116. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-023-03660-x
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.