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The Asud (Mongolian Cyrillic: Асуд, IPA: /ˈasʊt/) were a military group of Alani origin. The Mongol clan Asud is the plural of As, the Arabic name for the Alans.[1]

Against the Alans and the Cumans (Kipchaks), the Mongols used divide and conquer tactics by first telling the Cumans to stop allying with the Alans and after the Cumans followed their suggestion the Mongols then attacked the Cumans[2] after defeating the Alans.[3] Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).[4] Alan and Kipchak guards were used by Kublai Khan.[5] In 1368 at the end of the Yuan dynasty in China Toghan Temür was accompanied by his faithful Alan guards.[6] Mangu enlisted in his bodyguard half the troops of the Alan prince, Arslan, whose younger son Nicholas took a part in the expedition of the Mongols against Karajang (Yunnan). This Alan imperial guard was still in existence in 1272, 1286 and 1309, and it was divided into two corps with headquarters in the Ling pei province (Karakorúm).[7] In 1254 Rubruquis found a Russian deacon amongst the other Christians at Karakoram. The reason why the earlier Persian word tersa was gradually abandoned by the Mongols in favour of the Syro - Greek word arkon, when speaking of Christians, manifestly is that no specifically Greek Church was ever heard of in China until the Russians had been conquered; besides, there were large bodies of Russian and Alan guards at Peking throughout the last half of the thirteenth and first half of the fourteenth century, and the Catholics there would not be likely to encourage the use of a Persian word which was most probably applicable in the first instance to the Nestorians they found so degenerated.[8] The Alan guards converted to Catholicism as reported by Odorico.[9] Alans were converted to Roman Catholic Christianity in addition to Armenians in China by John of Montecorvino.

After the Mongol invasion of Rus, many Alans submitted to the Mongol Empire. Some of them resisted the Golden Horde longer. Many warriors moved from Northern Caucasia to Mongolia. It is also claimed that they helped their new masters to fight against the Circassians and that they participated in the Mongol invasion of Europe. Under the rule of Möngke Khan, many were brought east to fight against the Chinese Song Dynasty and Kingdom of Dali in Yunnan in 1258-1259. The Alan imperial guard was divided into two corps with headquarters in Karakorum.

After the coronation of Kublai Khan, those Alans participated in the campaign against Ariq Böke and later Qaidu under the Yuan Dynasty. They suffered heavy losses from Song resistance when they were under the command of Bayan of the Baarin and Aju.

Kublai Khan organized them into the Jasin guard (Alan guard) of 3,000 soldiers around 1271, along with some of the Kipchaks[citation needed]. The Alani guard reached its peak during the reign of Tugh Temür and their number expanded to 30,000.[citation needed] During the 15-16th centuries, they formed part of the Yungshebiyu tumen in central Inner Mongolia and the Asud were large tribe of Southern Mongolia[citation needed].

Today, there are few people with the clan name Asud in Ar Khorchin banner, Inner Mongolia. Mongolian Asuds live in Ulaanbaatar, Dundgovi, Töv and other aimags.[10]

See also

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References

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Asud

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The Asud (Mongolian: Асуд; also known as Asut) were a military contingent of Alan origin, an ancient Iranian nomadic people from the and Pontic-Caspian steppe, who were subjugated and integrated into the during the 13th century conquests. Following their submission to Mongol forces in the 1240s to 1270s, the Asud—numbering around 30,000 warriors—were resettled and deployed as elite guards, forming a key ethnic unit within the imperial bodyguard of the Great Khan and later the in . The term "Asud" derives from the Mongolian plural of "As," the Arabic designation for the , reflecting their ethnic identity and role as a distinct in Mongol . Renowned for their equestrian skills and martial traditions inherited from their Sarmatian and forebears, the Asud contributed significantly to Mongol campaigns and administration, often serving alongside other incorporated groups like the Qipchaqs and Onguts as personal guards (qinjun) to later khans such as Qubilai. Their relocation to eastern regions, including , facilitated cultural exchanges, with some Asud units adopting while integrating into the multicultural fabric of the Yuan court. By the late 13th and early 14th centuries, Asud regiments participated in imperial ceremonies, border defenses, and even diplomatic missions, underscoring their status as a loyal and privileged auxiliary force within the vast Mongol dominion.

Etymology and Origins

Name Derivation

The term "Asud" originates from the "As," with "Asud" serving as its plural form to denote the , a nomadic Iranian people, in medieval and Persian historical texts. This linguistic adaptation reflects the integration of Alanic groups into broader Islamic scholarly traditions during the Mongol era. In Mongolian sources, the name appears as the clan designation Асуд in , highlighting its adoption within Mongol imperial nomenclature for Alanic military contingents. This terminology is distinguished from "Jasin," a related Mongol term specifically applied to Alans or Asud formations within elite guard units, as evidenced in administrative records.

Alani Heritage

The Alans were an ancient nomadic people of Iranian origin, emerging from the Sarmatian confederation that dominated the Pontic-Caspian steppes and regions from the 5th century BCE onward. As a subgroup of the broader Sarmatian tribes, they shared linguistic and cultural ties to other Indo-Iranian nomads, including the , and maintained a distinct identity through their migrations across . Their , a Northeast Iranian dialect, survives today in the Ossetian tongue spoken by modern in the , underscoring their enduring ethnic continuity despite centuries of upheaval. Prior to the 13th century, the established several polities that reflected their strategic position between empires. In the , they formed the by the 9th-10th centuries, a semi-sedentary state centered around fortified settlements like Magas, which served as a bulwark against invasions from the steppes. This kingdom allied closely with the , providing mercenaries and auxiliary forces in exchange for recognition as an independent entity; Byzantine emperors such as and later rulers integrated Alan warriors into their armies, with notable figures like rising to prominence as consuls and generals in the . also participated in Byzantine-Persian conflicts, leveraging their expertise to raid and defend border regions. Further west, Alan groups settled in and the Don region during the 1st-4th centuries, forming transient kingdoms disrupted by Hunnic incursions around 375 CE. Interactions with the Rus' principalities were primarily commercial, centered on the principality in the during the 10th-11th centuries, where Alans facilitated trade in furs, slaves, and horses across routes. Alanic society was fundamentally shaped by its warrior ethos and pastoral nomadism, with central to both and identity; elite males trained from youth in and combat, forming the backbone of their raiding and defensive strategies. This horse-based supported a mobile, clan-based structure emphasizing honor, feasting, and ancestor veneration, often symbolized by sacred swords and deer motifs in their and . By the , partial occurred among the Caucasian , influenced primarily by Byzantine Orthodox missionaries and Georgian who established churches and integrated Alan elites into Orthodox networks around 921-925 CE.

Historical Integration

Recruitment by Mongols

The Mongol western campaign, initiated under as part of the broader expansion of the , reached the Rus' principalities in late 1237 and continued through 1240, during which forces under commanders such as Möngke and advanced into the Northern to subdue Alan groups inhabiting the region. This invasion facilitated the capture of scattered Alan communities along the Lower and in Ciscaucasia, where the Alans had maintained semi-independent polities amid prior disruptions from Kipchak migrations. In 1239–1240, as the campaign extended southward, Mongol armies under Möngke and Güyük besieged the Alan capital of Magas for one to three months during the winter, ultimately capturing it and breaking organized Alan resistance in the eastern . Some Alan factions mounted fierce opposition against the encroaching , retreating to mountainous strongholds and prolonging conflicts, as observed by contemporary European travelers like . However, following these defeats, integration ensued through a mix of and alliances, with Alan rulers such as Khankhusy and Atachi submitting to Mongol and incorporating their warriors into the imperial forces. Batu Khan, having established dominance over the conquered territories by 1240, oversaw the subjugation of remaining Alan holdouts in the early 1240s, leveraging their military expertise to secure and consolidate Mongol control across the volatile Caucasus frontier. This recruitment process transformed segments of the Alan population into auxiliary troops within the Golden Horde's structure, marking their initial incorporation as the Asud into the Mongol military system.

Migration Patterns

Following their recruitment into Mongol service during the invasion of in the late 1230s, the Asud were relocated from northern Caucasia to proper, where they were settled among the tribes of the Mongol heartland to bolster military forces. This displacement integrated the Asud into the western wing of the Mongol tribal structure, facilitating their assimilation while preserving distinct units for service. By the mid-13th century, Asud communities had become established in , the burgeoning capital of the , serving as a central hub for their guard units and administrative roles under leaders like . These settlements reflected the Asud's growing prominence in the imperial core, with families and warriors contributing to the cosmopolitan fabric of the city amid its expansion as a political and military center. As the Mongol Empire expanded eastward, Asud contingents participated in invasions that led to permanent bases in northern during the establishment of the , where up to 30,000 formed elite imperial guards in Dadu (modern ). Further movements occurred during the 1258–1259 campaigns in , where Asud forces helped secure southwestern frontiers, resulting in dispersed communities and garrisons in the region.

Military Organization and Role

Guard Formations

The Asud, descendants of the integrated into the Mongol military structure, were primarily organized into the Right Alan Guard, also referred to as the Jasin or Asud unit, which served as an elite formation within the Yuan dynasty's forces. This guard was established under around 1271 and incorporated a diverse composition of , , Chinese auxiliaries, and , reflecting the multi-ethnic nature of the Mongol Empire's military apparatus. The unit functioned as a key component of the imperial bodyguard, emphasizing loyalty and cavalry expertise drawn from the ' steppe heritage. Initially comprising approximately 3,000 soldiers, the Right Alan Guard expanded significantly over time, reaching a peak strength of around 30,000 troops by the early under the reign of Tugh Temür (r. 1323–1328). This growth paralleled the broader consolidation of non-Mongol elements into the Yuan military, with the Asud providing skilled and administrative support. By this period, the guard was formally divided into two main corps—the Right and Left Wings—to enhance operational efficiency and regional control, with headquarters established in , the traditional Mongol capital. The Asud's integration into the imperial keshig system underscored their administrative and protective roles, extending service to subsequent rulers such as Toghan Temür (r. 1333–1368), the last Yuan emperor. Within the keshig, the Right Alan Guard handled palace security, imperial escorts, and logistical oversight, maintaining their status as a privileged ethnic amid the empire's diverse guard units. This structure ensured the Asud's enduring influence until the fall of the Yuan in 1368.

Participation in Campaigns

The Asud, incorporated into the Mongol forces following the conquest of in the during the western expeditions of the 1230s and 1240s, contributed to ongoing operations in the region, including engagements against and other groups resisting Mongol expansion. Their submission to the under and allowed for the integration of Alan warriors into the imperial army, where they served in auxiliary roles during the broader invasion of , aiding in the subjugation of the Kipchak and adjacent territories. In the eastern theater, the Asud formed part of the diverse ethnic contingents in the Yuan armies during campaigns against the . These sacrifices helped break Song defenses, contributing to the eventual fall of the dynasty in 1279. The Asud also supported the consolidation of control in , including the region during the 1253 expedition led by Uriyangqadai. Throughout the , the Asud guards, formalized as elite units like the Left and Right Asud Wei in 1309, shifted focus to internal stability and border defense within the Yuan realm. They were instrumental in suppressing the revolt of Nayan in in 1287, combining with Chinese units to restore order against the rebellious prince. Later, Asud forces participated in campaigns against rebel leaders such as Chang Shicheng in 1354, forming the core of expeditionary armies drawn from princely and provincial levies, though their effectiveness waned amid the dynasty's decline, leading to increased reliance on local auxiliaries. These engagements underscored the Asud's enduring role in maintaining Mongol political cohesion amid rising internal threats.

Notable Figures

Early Leaders

Arslan, an prince, was captured by Mongol forces during their invasion of the Rus' principalities and the in the late 1230s to early 1240s, a period that encompassed the conquest of around 1238–1239. Following his capture, likely near the Alan capital of Maghas, Arslan played a pivotal role in the initial integration of Alans into Mongol service, emerging as a leader of early Asud contingents—elite guard units composed of Alan warriors who served as vanguard or ba'atur (brave) troops. His family's history is documented in the Yuan shi, tracing from Arslan through several generations to his great-grandson Qutuq-Temür, who died in 1311, highlighting the enduring Asud lineage in Mongol military structures. Under (r. 1251–1259), Arslan negotiated the partial enlistment of his troops into the khan's , with half of his forces incorporated into the Asud, facilitating the Alans' transition from subjugated elites to trusted auxiliaries during the empire's expansion. Arslan's diplomatic efforts in the 1240s were instrumental in securing Alan-Mongol alliances post-capture, as he mediated between Mongol commanders and remaining Alan groups, enabling smoother submission and integration amid the broader recruitment of peoples into the Mongol armies. This phase reflected the ' strategy of co-opting local leaders to stabilize conquered regions, with Arslan installed as one of two princes in alongside Hanghusi to administer on behalf of the empire. His leadership established the Asud as a distinct unit within the keshik (), where Alans provided specialized cavalry support, drawing on their nomadic heritage to bolster and . Nicholas, Arslan's younger son, succeeded his father in Mongol service and further solidified the family's influence by serving in the , where he acted as a mediator in diplomatic affairs between and Mongol authorities. participated in key military expeditions, including the Mongol campaign against the kingdom of Dali (Qarajang) in during the 1250s, demonstrating the Asud's growing role in distant operations. His contributions helped foster alliances by leveraging Alan networks to integrate additional recruits, ensuring the Asud's loyalty and prominence in the early phases of Mongol rule over diverse conquered populations.

Later Commanders

During the , Asud forces played a significant role in major military endeavors, often under the command of high-ranking generals who integrated them into broader Mongol strategies. , a general from the Jarchud clan of the , led Asud contingents in the campaigns against the in the 1270s, where the units faced fierce resistance, resulting in substantial casualties among the Asud troops. Bayan of the Baarin, an ethnic Mongol commander with notable Asud influences in his army composition, directed the final push against the Southern in the 1270s, overseeing the advance across the River and the capture of key cities like and Lin'an, which accelerated the dynasty's collapse. His integration of Asud warriors into the vanguard contributed to the effectiveness of these operations, though the Asud suffered heavy losses from prolonged Song defenses. Under , Asud units were reorganized into the elite Jasin (Alan) guard around 1271, comprising approximately 3,000 soldiers alongside Kipchak elements, serving as imperial bodyguards and participating in internal security efforts, including suppression of rebellions in the late . This guard formation highlighted the Asud's loyalty and tactical value, and they remained a core component of Yuan military structure for anti-rebellion operations against dissident princes and local uprisings.

Legacy

Descendants and Distribution

The descendants of the Asud, originally an Alan group integrated into the , now constitute small populations scattered across and , reflecting their historical dispersal following the empire's fragmentation. These remnants are primarily found in Ar Khorchin banner in eastern , as well as in , Dundgovi, and Töv aimags of (as of the early 2000s). Over centuries, the Asud underwent significant assimilation into broader Mongol society, gradually losing most distinct ethnic identifiers while retaining the clan name among some lineages. By the 20th century, this process had resulted in few overt markers of Asud identity separate from Mongol cultural norms, with survivors integrated into local nomadic and urban communities. In the , Asud recognition remains limited, confined largely to clan genealogies and regional ethnographies.

Cultural and Religious Influences

In the , Franciscan missionary , appointed archbishop of Khanbaliq (modern ) in 1307, achieved partial conversions among the Asud and associated Alan contingents serving in the Yuan court, baptizing an estimated 30,000 individuals who shifted from Nestorian affiliations to Roman Catholicism. Montecorvino's efforts, supported by papal envoys and his establishment of churches, targeted the Asud's military elite, leveraging their proximity to the imperial household to promote Latin rites, though full assimilation remained limited amid competing influences like and shamanism. The Asud's cultural legacy endures in Mongol and historical chronicles, where they are depicted as exemplary elite warriors, as seen in accounts from Rashid al-Din and the Secret History of the Mongols that highlight their valor in imperial guards (keshig) and tactical commands during campaigns. These narratives have shaped modern Mongolian identity, with the Asud persisting as a recognized name among ethnic , symbolizing resilience and integration into the national heritage.

References

  1. https://www.academia.edu/17005568/ALANS_THE_MISSING_LINK_BETWEEN_THE_ORIENT_AND_THE_OCCIDENT_DURING_THE_GENGHISID_ERA
  2. https://www.podgorski.com/main/assets/documents/Alemany_2000.pdf
  3. https://www.academia.edu/9041649/Onguts_in_Mongol_Empire
  4. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41913240
  5. https://www.austriaca.at/0xc1aa5576_0x003737b1.pdf
  6. http://ossetians.com/eng/news.php?newsid=617&f=3
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  10. https://www.podgorski.com/main/assets/documents/Bachrach_1973.pdf
  11. https://www.academia.edu/97401615/Sources_on_the_Alans_A_Critical_Compilation
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  18. https://abkhazworld.com/aw/Pdf/The_Ossetes_Modern-Day_Scythians_of_the_Caucasus.pdf
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  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318075761_The_Christian_Nobles_at_the_Court_of_Great_Khan_as_Described_in_Mediaeval_European_Sources
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  26. https://www.nauka-dialog.ru/jour/article/view/4304?locale=en_US
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  30. https://mrijournal.riccimac.org/index.php/en/issues/issue-13/332-mrij13-2-en
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