Hubbry Logo
AtamasthanaAtamasthanaMain
Open search
Atamasthana
Community hub
Atamasthana
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Atamasthana
Atamasthana
Atamasthana
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Atamasthana (Sinhala: අටමස්ථාන) or Eight sacred places are a series of locations in Sri Lanka where the Buddha had visited during his three visits to the country. The sacred places are known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhiya, Ruwanwelisaya, Thuparamaya, Lovamahapaya, Abhayagiri Dagaba, Jetavanarama, Mirisaveti Stupa and Lankarama. They are situated in Anuradhapura, the capital of the ancient Anuradhapura Kingdom.

Key Information

The sacred city of Anuradhapura exerted a considerable influence on the development of architecture in the country for several centuries. The city was nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982, it lies 205 km north of the current capital Colombo in the island's North Central Province, on the banks of the historic Malvathu Oya.

According to the Mahavansa the sacred city was founded around 350 BC by Pandukabhaya, the 1st king of the Anuradhapura kingdom and sixth since the arrival of Vijaya. It eventually became the principal shrine of Buddhism including the branch planted of the sacred fig tree, Bodhi tree from Bodhgaya, under which Siddharta attained spiritual enlightenment and supreme wisdom. The sacred tree was brought there in the 3rd century BC during the second mission, led by Sangamitta, a Buddhist nun and daughter of Emperor Ashoka. The relics of Buddha have, moreover, shaped the religious topography of Anuradhapura, where the Thuparamaya was built by Devanampiya Tissa in the 3rd century BC to house the clavicle of Buddha, an important religious relic presented by Emperor Ashoka.[1]

The city's apogee was reached under the reign of Dutthagamani who, in 161 BC, defeated the South Indian invader Ellalan re-establishing Buddhism in place of Brahminism and endowed the site with extraordinary monuments including the Mirisaveti Stupa, Ruwanwelisaya, and the Brazen Palace. The city flourished for 1,300 years, then was abandoned after an invasion in 993. Later hidden away in dense jungle for many years, the splendid site, with its palaces, monasteries and monuments, is now accessible once again.[2]

List of Atamasthana

[edit]

Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi

[edit]
Main article: Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi
Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. The oldest living tree in the documented history of the world.

Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi is a Sacred Fig tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which Buddha became enlightened. It was planted in 288 BC and is said to be the southern branch of the Sri Maha Bodhi Bodhgaya India, also the oldest living human-planted tree in the world with a known planting date. The sacred tree brought by the Ven. Sangamitta, the sister of Ven. Arahath Mahinda who introduced Buddha's teachings to Sri Lanka.

The area around the Sri Maha Bodhi, the Brazen Palace and Ruvanvelisaya dageba was once probably part of the Maha Vihara (Great Temple). The sacred bodhi tree is the oldest historically authenticated tree in the world, for it has been tended by an uninterrupted succession of guardians for over 2000 years, even during the periods of Indian occupation.[3]

The Uda Maluwa, 35 feet by 55 feet, is 35 feet above the ground. The wall was constructed during the reign of King Kirthi Sri Rajasingha, to protect it from wild elephants. The late Ven. Pallegama Rewatha Thera had planted the Pariwara Bo trees (accompanying Bo trees) to camouflage the Bodhi to pd to safeguard it from natural disasters such as strong winds and rains.

All Sri Lankan Heads of State usually have sought the blessings of the Sri Maha Bodhi before commencing any important work.[4]

Ruwanwelisaya

[edit]
Ruwanwelisaya Chedi in the sacred city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
Main article: Ruwanwelisaya

The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, was defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya, Suvarnamali Mahaceti (in Pali) and Rathnamali Dagaba. Also, King Dutugemunu didn't live to see the completion of dageba but his final sight as he lay on his deathbed could be a false bamboo-and-cloth finish placed around the dageba to show his ‘completed’ masterpiece.

Today, after incurring much damage from invading Indian forces, it rises 55m, considerably less than its original height; nor is its form the same as the earlier ‘bubble’ shape. A limestone statue south of the great dageba is popularly thought to be of King Dutugemunu.[5]

Thuparamaya

[edit]
Main article: Thuparamaya
Thuparamaya dageba in Anuradhapura.

Thuparamaya is a dageba in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is a Buddhist sacred place of veneration. Thera Mahinda, an envoy sent by King Ashoka himself introduced Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request, King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which the collarbone of the Buddha was enshrined. It is considered to be the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka following the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument, the construction of which was chronicled in Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

Thuparama dageba is the oldest dageba in Sri Lanka – indeed, probably the oldest visible dageba in the world. It was constructed by Devanampiya Tissa in the 3rd century BC and is said to contain the right collarbone of the Buddha. Its ‘heap-of-paddy-rice’ shape was restored in 1862 in a more conventional bell shape and to a height of 19m.

The surrounding vatadage's slender, capital-topped pillars, perhaps the dageba's most unusual feature, enclose the structure in four concentric circles. Impressions on the dageba pediments indicate the pillars originally numbered 176, of which 41 still stand. Although some Sri Lankan scholars believe these once supported a conical wooden roof, there is no archaeological evidence for this theory, nor does it follow any known antecedent in South India, whose dagebas were the prototypes for virtually all Sinhalese dagebas.[6]

Lovamahapaya

[edit]
Main article: Lovamahapaya
Lovamahapaya

Lovamahapaya is a building situated between Ruvanveliseya and Sri Mahabodiya in the ancient city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is also known as the Brazen Palace or Lohaprasadaya because the roof was covered with bronze tiles.

It was originally built by King Dutugemunu more than 2,000 years ago, but throughout the ages, it was rebuilt many times, each time a little less grandiosely. There are remains of 1600 columns all that is left of this huge palace, Archaeological evidence said to have had nine storeys and could accommodate around 1000 monks and attendants.

The current stand of pillars (now fenced off) is all that remains from the last rebuild – that of King Parakramabahu around the 12th century.[7]

Abhayagiri Dagaba

[edit]
Main article: Abhayagiri Dagaba
The Abayagiri dageba in Anuradhapura.

The Abhayagiri Dagaba is situated in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It was built during the reign of King Wattagamini Abhaya (commonly known as King Valagamba). It is one of the most extensive ruins in the world and one of the most sacred Buddhist pilgrimage cities. Historically it was a great monastic centre as well as a royal capital, with magnificent monasteries rising to many stories, roofed with gilt bronze or tiles of burnt clay glazed in brilliant colours. To the north of the city, encircled by great walls and containing elaborate bathing ponds, carved balustrades and moonstones, stood "Abhayagiri", one of seventeen such religious units in Anuradhapura and the largest of its five major viharas. Surrounding the humped dagaba, Abhayagiri Vihara was a seat of the Northern Monastery or Uttara Vihara.[8]

The 1st or 2nd century BC Abhayagiri dageba (confused by some books and maps with the Jetavanarama), was the centrepiece of a monastery of 5000 monks. The name means ‘Hill of Protection’ or ‘Fearless Hill’, another claim ‘Giri’ was the name of a local Jain monk. The monastery was part of the ‘School of the Secret Forest’, a heretical sect that studied both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, also Chinese traveller Faxian (also spelt Fa Hsien) visited in AD 412.

The dageba was probably rebuilt several times to reach its peak 75m height. It has some interesting bas-reliefs, including one near the western stairway of an elephant pulling up a tree. A large slab with a Buddha footprint can be seen on the northern side, and the eastern and western steps have unusual moonstones made from concentric stone slabs.[9]

Jetavanaramaya

[edit]
Main article: Jetavanaramaya
The Jetavanarama dageba in Anuradhapura.

The Jetavanaramaya is a stupa, located in the ruins of Jetavana Monastery in the sacred world heritage city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. King Mahasena (273-301 AD) initiated the construction of the stupa following the destruction of Mahavihara, and his son Meghavanna resumed the construction work of the stupa.[10] A part of a sash or belt tied by the Buddha is believed to be the relic that is enshrined here.

The archaeologists believe it may have an original height of over 100m, but today is about 70m, and this was a similar height to the Abhayagiri as well. When it was built, it was the third-tallest monument in the world, the first two being Egyptian pyramids. A British guidebook from the early 20th century calculated that there were enough bricks in the dageba's brick core to make a 3m-high wall stretching from London to Edinburgh.

Behind it stand the ruins of a monastery that could accommodate around 3000 monks, and one building has doorjambs over 8 m high which is still standing, with another 3 m underground. At one time, massive doors opened to reveal a large Buddha image.[11]

Mirisaveti Stupa

[edit]
Main article: Mirisaveti Stupa
Mirisawetiya Stupa

The Mirisaveti Stupa is situated in the ancient city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.[12] King Dutugamunu built the Mirisaveti Stupa after defeating King Elara. After placing the Buddha relics in the sceptre, he had gone to Tisawewa for a bath leaving the sceptre. After the bath, he returned to the place where the sceptre was placed, and it was said that it could not be moved. The stupa was built in the place where the sceptre stood. It is also said that he remembered that he partook in a chilly curry without offering it to the sangha. In order to punish himself he built the Mirisavetiya Dagaba. The extent of this land is about 50 acres (20 hectares). Although the king Kasyapa I and Kasyapa V renovated this, from time to time it was dilapidated. What stands today is the renovation done by the Cultural Triangle Fund.

Lankarama

[edit]
Main article: Lankarama
The Lankarama dageba.

Lankarama is a stupa built by King Valagamba, in an ancient place at Galhebakada in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Nothing is known about the ancient form of the stupa, and later this was renovated. The ruins show that there are rows of stone pillars and it is no doubt that there has been a house built encircling the stupa (Vatadage) to cover it. The round courtyard of the stupa seems to be 10 feet (3.0 m) above the ground. The diameter of the stupa is 45 feet (14 m). The courtyard is circular in shape and the diameter is 1,332 feet (406 m).

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Atamasthana

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Atamasthana (Sinhala: අටමස්ථාන), meaning "eight places," denotes the eight principal Buddhist sacred sites located in the ancient city of , , which tradition holds were visited by during his three purported journeys to the island.
These sites, central to Sri Lankan , encompass monumental , a sacred bodhi tree, and relic shrines that symbolize key events in and history, drawing pilgrims for millennia and forming a core component of Anuradhapura's World Heritage status.
The ensemble includes the , a sapling from the original Bodhi tree under which attained enlightenment; the , a massive white enshrining relics built by King Dutugemunu in the 2nd century BCE; the , the oldest in housing the right collarbone relic; the , remnants of a grand with thousands of stone columns; the Abhayagiri Dagaba, once among the tallest structures in the ancient world; the , a colossal brick from the 3rd century CE; the Mirisaveti Stupa, erected by King Dutugemunu as ; and the Lankarama Stupa, a smaller relic mound.
Preserved amid Anuradhapura's ruins, the Atamasthana exemplify ancient Sinhalese engineering and devotion, underscoring the island's role as a bastion of since its introduction in the 3rd century BCE, though archaeological confirms the sites' antiquity while the Buddha's visits remain a matter of pious tradition rather than verifiable history.

Historical Background

Traditional Accounts of Buddha's Visits

According to the Mahavamsa, a Sinhalese Buddhist composed in the 5th or 6th century CE by the monk Mahanama, visited the island of (modern ) on three occasions during his lifetime, approximately in the 6th–5th centuries BCE. These visits are described as prophetic acts to consecrate the land for the future establishment of , subduing local deities such as yakkhas (demons) and nagas (serpent beings) through miracles and sermons. The accounts emphasize the island's destined role in preserving the , though they lack corroboration from contemporary Indian sources or archaeological evidence predating the chronicles themselves. The first visit, dated traditionally to 528 BCE, occurred at Mahiyangana in the island's interior, where the Buddha quelled warring yakkhas with a miraculous storm and preached to them, converting many, including the naga king Maniakkhika. He is said to have enshrined his relics there, later commemorated by a . The second visit, around 523 BCE, took place at Nagadeepa in the north, intervening in a dispute between naga claimants Chulodara and Mahodara over a gem-throne; the Buddha awarded it to Maniakkhika and preached, fostering harmony among the island's supernatural inhabitants. These early visits established the 's spiritual authority over but did not directly involve . The third visit, traditionally in 519–520 BCE, is most relevant to the Atamasthana, as it extended to central locations including . Invited by Maniakkhika, the Buddha first traveled to on the southwest coast, subduing naga forces with a display of miraculous fire and water, then preached to assembled deities. From there, he proceeded to Samantakuta (), imprinting his footprint on the summit. Continuing eastward to Dighavapi, he meditated and predicted its future sanctity. Finally, he reached 's Mahameghavanarama garden (later Mahamevna Uyana), the heart of the Atamasthana precinct, where he meditated at the site destined for the sacred Bodhi tree. The Mahavamsa further describes him visiting or blessing locations corresponding to future Atamasthana sites, including the areas of the , Thuparama , and Sela , envisioning their roles as relic shrines and thus sanctifying the region for monastic development. This visit concluded with the Buddha settling 500 arhats on the island and prophesying its prominence in . These narratives, echoed in the earlier Dipavamsa chronicle (3rd–4th century CE), frame the Atamasthana not as direct footprints of the Buddha's physical presence in all cases but as prophesied holy grounds tied especially to the third visit's meditative and consecratory acts. The Mahavamsa's portrayal served to legitimize Anuradhapura's centrality in Sinhalese Buddhist kingship, intertwining mythic sanctity with later historical relic veneration under kings like Devanampiya Tissa (3rd century BCE). While the chronicle's hagiographic style reflects Theravada devotional priorities rather than empirical history—evident in the absence of Pali canonical references to such travels—the accounts have profoundly shaped Sri Lankan Buddhist cosmology and pilgrimage traditions.

Establishment and Development Under Sinhalese Kings

The establishment of the Atamasthana began with the introduction of Theravada Buddhism to Sri Lanka during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa (c. 250–210 BCE). In 288 BCE, Devanampiya Tissa planted a sapling of the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, a cutting from the sacred Bodhi tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment, in the Mahameghavana Garden in Anuradhapura. This act, facilitated by the missionary monk Mahinda (son of Emperor Ashoka), marked the first major Buddhist sacred site in the region. Concurrently, at Mahinda's request, Devanampiya Tissa constructed the Thuparamaya stupa to enshrine the Buddha's right collar-bone relic, establishing it as the earliest stupa in Sri Lanka. Subsequent development accelerated under King Dutugemunu (r. 161–137 BCE), who unified the island after defeating the Chola invader Elara. Dutugemunu erected the (Mahathupa) , completed around 140 BCE, to house relics including the Buddha's alms bowl and is considered one of the largest brick of its era. He also built the Mirisawetiya as for forgetting his royal scepter during a ceremonial bath and renovated the . Additionally, Dutugemunu constructed the (Brazen Palace), a nine-story monastic residence with 1,600 stone columns supporting a roof, serving as quarters for 2,000 monks at the Mahavihara. Later Sinhalese kings further expanded the Atamasthana. King Vattagamani Abhaya (r. 103–89 BCE and 89–77 BCE) founded the Abhayagiri Vihara complex, including its namesake , after his reconquest from Indian invaders, and built the Lankarama nearby. In the 4th century CE, King Mahasena (r. 334–361 CE) developed the Jetavanarama within the former Mahavihara grounds, originally the third tallest globally at completion. These royal initiatives, often chronicled in the Mahavamsa, transformed into a premier Buddhist center, with the eight sites collectively revered for enshrining relics and commemorating the Buddha's legendary visits.

Decline and Rediscovery

The decline of the Atamasthana commenced with the Chola invasion of in 993 AD, culminating in the city's sacking and the kingdom's effective end by 1017 CE, after which the capital shifted to . This loss of political centrality and royal patronage resulted in widespread neglect, with the sites succumbing to jungle overgrowth, structural decay from exposure, and occasional habitation by wildlife such as bears and leopards. By the , under King , many temples were already reported as overgrown with trees, and by the , the area had become largely deserted and isolated, leading to the disappearance of less durable structures like assembly halls and baths. Most of the eight sites fell into disrepair, though the and received limited upkeep from sparse local populations and monks. Partial restorations occurred sporadically in later periods, such as King Kirti Sri Rajasinghe's rebuilding of the protective wall around the between 1747 and 1782 AD to shield it from animals. By , however, only these two sites functioned as active temples amid the ruins. Earlier efforts by kings like in the and Parakramabahu VI in the had attempted to refurbish key stupas such as the , but these proved insufficient against ongoing environmental degradation and lack of sustained resources. The rediscovery and systematic revival began in the British colonial era, as the jungle-obscured ruins drew archaeological interest from the 1880s onward. Initial excavations were initiated in 1884 by S.M. Burrows, followed by the formal establishment of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon in 1890 under H.C.P. Bell, who conducted extensive clearances and digs at multiple Atamasthana sites, unearthing buried structures and artifacts. Restoration of the Ruwanwelisaya, for instance, was advanced in the late 19th century through efforts including those led by Ven. Naranwita Sumanasara around 1899. Coinciding with a Buddhist revival movement, colonial and early 20th-century initiatives granted lands to temples between 1903 and 1909, culminating in the official recognition of the eight sites in 1909 and transforming them into active pilgrimage centers.

Religious and Cultural Significance

Centrality to Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka

The Atamasthana, comprising eight venerated sites in , form the foundational nucleus of Buddhism's establishment and perpetuation in Sri Lanka following its introduction in the 3rd century BCE by Arahat Mahinda, son of Emperor Ashoka. These locations, including stupas enshrining relics and the —a sapling from the original Bodhi tree under which the attained enlightenment—served as the epicenter for monastic communities that safeguarded the and orthodox doctrines against syncretic influences. Anuradhapura's monuments, integral to the Atamasthana, represent the most ancient and substantial architectural remnants of Buddhism, embodying its emphasis on relic veneration and stupa worship (chetiya). Under Sinhalese kings such as Devanampiya Tissa (r. circa 250–210 BCE) and Dutugemunu (r. 161–137 BCE), the sites were developed into grand complexes, with Dutugemunu's construction of the stupa in the 2nd century BCE symbolizing the triumph of orthodoxy over invading forces and heterodox sects. The Mahavihara monastery, encompassing several Atamasthana sites, functioned as the primary intellectual hub, where scholars like compiled key texts such as the in the 5th century CE, standardizing exegesis and facilitating its dissemination across . This preservation effort ensured Sri Lanka's role as a bastion of unmixed lineage, distinct from developments elsewhere. Even amid political decline after the CE, the Atamasthana sustained monastic continuity and pilgrimage traditions, with sites like —erected circa 250 BCE as Sri Lanka's first —continuing to anchor ritual practices and doctrinal purity. In contemporary , where constitutes the state-supported religion practiced by approximately 70% of the population, these sites remain vital for annual pilgrimages and ordinations, reinforcing communal adherence to discipline and sutta-based teachings. Their World Heritage status underscores their enduring centrality in embodying 's historical and spiritual continuity.

Pilgrimage and Ritual Practices

The Atamasthana sites in serve as a primary destination for Buddhists in , where devotees perform the Atamasthana Vandana, a ritual circuit encompassing homage at all eight locations to commemorate the Buddha's visits. This practice, rooted in ancient traditions, involves sequential visits often undertaken on foot or by vehicle, emphasizing spiritual purification and merit accumulation through veneration. Pilgrims typically adhere to modest dress codes, covering shoulders and knees, to maintain reverence at these sacred precincts. Common rituals across the sites include offering fresh flowers, lighting oil lamps, and reciting protective chants such as the pirith verses, which invoke blessings and safeguard against misfortune. At stupas like Ruwanwelisaya and Jetavanaramaya, devotees engage in padayatra—circumambulation in a clockwise direction—while prostrating and meditating to honor enshrined relics. The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, the oldest documented tree in the world, draws offerings of flowers, lamps, and agricultural first fruits from farmers seeking bountiful harvests. These practices extend to communal gatherings during lunar observances and festivals, amplifying participation; for instance, lighting at shrines traces back to King Dutugemunu's era in the 2nd century BCE. Monks conduct ceremonies in associated halls, such as those near , facilitating alms-giving and doctrinal recitations. The Atamasthana Vandana remains a vital link for contemporary Buddhists to historical sanctity, fostering personal devotion amid restored monuments.

Symbolic Role in Sinhalese Identity

The Atamasthana embody the historical and spiritual nucleus of Sinhalese identity, linking the ethnic group to an ancient Buddhist polity centered in from the 4th century BCE onward. Traditional chronicles attribute the sites' sanctity to the Buddha's legendary visits, but their construction and patronage by Sinhalese kings, beginning with Devanampiya Tissa's conversion under Ashoka's missionaries in 250 BCE, cemented as a unifying force distinguishing Sinhalese from South Indian invaders. These monuments, including stupas enshrining relics, symbolized royal piety and territorial sovereignty, fostering a of resilience against repeated Dravidian incursions that threatened orthodoxy. King Dutugemunu's erection of the circa 140 BCE, following his 161 BCE defeat of the Tamil ruler Elara, exemplifies this symbolism, portraying the victory as a restoration of Buddhist purity over heterodox influences and inspiring narratives of ethnic defense in Sinhalese lore. The Mahavamsa chronicle elevates such acts as dhammic imperatives, embedding the Atamasthana in a causal framework where kings' meritorious deeds preserved the Sasana (Buddhist dispensation) amid existential threats, thereby defining Sinhalese kingship as inherently protective of the . This historical reinforced ethnic cohesion, with the sites serving as enduring emblems of Sinhalese agency in maintaining doctrinal continuity against assimilation. During British colonial suppression of Buddhism in the 19th century, revivalists repurposed the Atamasthana to reclaim Sinhalese agency, with Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) advocating their restoration as part of a broader resurgence that tied national identity to ancient hydraulic-Buddhist achievements in Anuradhapura. Dharmapala's campaigns emphasized the sites' role in countering perceived cultural erosion, framing Sinhalese revival as a return to pre-colonial glory where Buddhism intertwined with ethnic self-determination. Post-independence, amid ethnic strife, the Atamasthana have sustained this symbolism, invoked in political rhetoric to assert Sinhalese primacy and the island's Buddhist destiny, as seen in preservation drives and pilgrimages that affirm cultural continuity.

The Eight Sacred Sites

Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi

The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi is a sacred Ficus religiosa (Bo tree) located in the Mahameghavana Gardens near the center of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, forming one of the eight canonical sites of the Atamasthana, which commemorate the Buddha's three visits to the island. According to the Mahavamsa, an ancient Sinhalese chronicle, a sapling from the right branch of the original Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya—under which Siddhartha Gautama attained enlightenment—was transported to Sri Lanka by the Buddhist nun Sangamitta, daughter of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa. The chronicle records the planting ceremony occurring in 288 BCE, marking the establishment of Theravada Buddhism on the island through royal patronage. This event is tied to the Buddha's third visit to , during which he is said to have meditated at the site now occupied by the tree, bestowing blessings on the location as recorded in traditional commentaries. The Mahavamsa details the sapling's journey by sea, guarded by royal escorts, and its ceremonial planting amid festivities involving the king and 32 chambers prepared for establishing the Bhikkhuni order. Empirical continuity of veneration is evidenced by inscriptions and archaeological layers at confirming Buddhist monastic presence from the 3rd century BCE onward, though the tree's exact age relies on textual tradition rather than dendrochronological analysis, which is impractical for fig species. The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi is maintained as a living relic, with its massive trunk supported by stone pillars and golden railings added over centuries, including protective walls constructed in the 12th century CE by King to safeguard it from invaders. Two dedicated monks from rival guardian fraternities (Malwatte and Asgiriya chapters) oversee its care, pruning branches and planting offsets to ensure propagation, a practice that has sustained descendant trees globally. It draws thousands of pilgrims annually for rituals such as circumambulation and offerings, underscoring its role in preserving Sinhalese orthodoxy amid historical threats like colonial .

Ruwanwelisaya

The Ruwanwelisaya, also known as Mahathupa or Swarnamali , is a prominent hemispherical in , , constructed by King between 161 and 137 BCE following his victory over the Tamil ruler Elara. Standing at approximately 103 meters (338 feet) in height with a diameter of 92 meters (300 feet), it ranks among the tallest ancient monuments globally and serves as a repository for , including portions of the right-hand , the bowl, and other sacred artifacts transported from . Its construction involved an estimated 93 million bricks and innovative techniques, such as layering crushed and bricks within a mixture for structural integrity, as described in ancient chronicles like the Mahavamsa, though archaeological evidence confirms the scale through restoration records from the 19th and 20th centuries. As one of the Atamasthana, the eight sacred sites of , holds particular reverence for enshrining relics linked to the Buddha's , symbolizing the triumph of Sinhalese Buddhist kingship and orthodoxy. King reportedly fulfilled a vow made before battle by building the , employing thousands of workers who quarried stone and prepared the foundation by excavating to a depth of about 3 meters and filling it with crushed rock for stability. Empirical assessments from British colonial-era surveys and later Sri Lankan restorations, including those by the Department of in the 1900s, verify the stupa's original design as a larger dome than surviving structures, with a exceeding 290 meters, though vandalism and natural decay reduced its height until partial reconstructions using original methods. The stupa's architectural form features a square relic chamber at its core, surrounded by concentric rows of stone pillars originally supporting a wooden roof for the circumambulatory path, remnants of which were uncovered in excavations revealing intricate carvings and elephant balustrades. Radiocarbon dating of associated artifacts aligns with the 2nd-century BCE chronology, corroborating chronicle accounts over more speculative interpretations that question the full scale due to the absence of contemporary inscriptions. Today, it remains a focal point for pilgrims performing circumambulation and offerings, underscoring its enduring role in preserving Buddhist relic veneration amid historical shifts in Sri Lankan governance.

Thuparamaya

Thuparamaya, located in , , is the earliest constructed in the country, built during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa (c. 250–210 BCE) shortly after the introduction of Buddhism by Arahat Mahinda around 250 BCE. According to the Mahavamsa chronicle, it was erected to enshrine the right collar-bone relic of , which tradition holds was presented by the deity Sakka and transported on the back of an elephant to the site. This relic veneration marked the establishment of stupa-building as a core practice in Sinhalese Buddhism, with Thuparamaya serving as the prototype for later dagobas. The original structure adopted a dhanyakara form, resembling a heap of paddy, and was encased within a vatadage—a circular relic house supported by four concentric rows of stone pillars (originally numbering 176, with 31 surviving today)—representing the oldest known example of this architectural type in . Subsequent monarchs, including Lanjatissa (119–109 BCE), Vasabha (65–109 CE), and (1153–1186 CE), expanded and repaired the , transforming it into a larger bell-shaped (ghantakara) form by the medieval period, though it endured plundering by Pandyans and Cholas. The site spans approximately 3.5 acres and includes associated monastic ruins, affirming through archaeological remains its role in early institutional development, though precise dating relies primarily on chronicle accounts rather than direct empirical methods like radiocarbon analysis. As one of the Atamasthana—the eight sacred sites of —Thuparamaya's significance derives from its foundational status in relic worship, linking it to the broader narrative of the Buddha's prophesied sanctity over the , as elaborated in texts. Modern restorations, notably in 1862, preserved its core while adapting to colonial-era techniques, ensuring its continued prominence in Buddhist .

Lovamahapaya

Lovamahapaya, also known as the Brazen Palace or Lohapasada, was originally constructed as an uposathagara, a chapter house for Buddhist monks, during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa (247–207 BCE) in , . A more elaborate version was built by King Dutugemunu (161–137 BCE), featuring a nine-story design that reached approximately 150 feet (46 meters) in height with each side measuring 400 feet (122 meters). The structure derived its name from the or plates that covered its roof, providing a gleaming appearance in ancient times. The building's architecture relied on 1,600 monolithic pillars, arranged in 40 rows of 40 pillars each, forming a vast open hall without internal walls to allow for monastic gatherings. These pillars, each about 5 feet (1.5 meters) high and square in cross-section, supported wooden floors and the multi-tiered roof, showcasing advanced engineering for load distribution in pre-modern . Historical chronicles indicate that the palace was destroyed by fire during the reign of Dutugemunu's brother, King Saddhatissa (137–119 BCE), and subsequently rebuilt, with further renovations occurring under later kings such as Vatta Gamani Abhaya (103–89 BCE) and others up to the CE. As one of the eight sacred sites of Atamasthana, symbolizes the royal patronage of under the Sinhalese kings, particularly Dutugemunu's efforts to unify the island and promote monastic institutions after defeating the Chola invaders. Its proximity to the Mahabodhi tree and stupa integrated it into the sacred precinct of , serving both ritual and administrative functions for the . Archaeological remains today consist primarily of the stone pillar bases, excavated and preserved within the , with no significant structural superstructures surviving due to repeated destructions and material reuse over centuries.

Abhayagiri Dagaba

![Abhayagiri Stupa in Anuradhapura]float-right The Abhayagiri Dagaba, central to the Abhayagiri Vihara monastic complex in , , was constructed in the 1st century BCE by King Vattagamani Abhaya (also known as Valagamba), who reigned intermittently from approximately 103 to 77 BCE. Following his reconquest of the island from Chola invaders, the king established the vihara as a gesture of gratitude to Mahatissa Thera, a who had sheltered him during exile, and to commemorate the site's role in preserving Buddhist scriptures amid wartime disruptions. The dagaba forms one of the Atamasthana, the eight sacred sites revered in tradition for their association with key royal patrons and Buddhist veneration practices. Architecturally, the exemplifies ancient Sri Lankan brick construction techniques, built entirely of unburnt bricks bound with thick plaster. Its original dimensions included a of approximately 350 at the base and a height of 122 , making it the second-largest stupa in after ; the current height stands at 75 due to spire damage and erosion. The surrounding salapatala maluwa platform measures 183 by 183 , supporting ritual . Excavations, including those referenced in 19th-century surveys, uncovered artifacts such as beads and shells but no significant relics, despite traditional accounts linking the site to Buddha's bodily remains or hair strands—claims unsupported by empirical findings. Historically, Abhayagiri Vihara emerged as a doctrinal rival to the orthodox Mahavihara, fostering a more eclectic Buddhist environment that incorporated elements by the 1st century CE, leading to schisms within the over scriptural interpretations and practices. This divergence, documented in chronicles like the Mahavamsa, reflected broader tensions between conservative adherence and adaptive influences from Indian traditions, with Abhayagiri gaining royal patronage under later kings. As part of the Atamasthana, the dagaba draws pilgrims for rituals emphasizing its symbolic role in Sinhalese Buddhist continuity, though modern archaeological efforts prioritize structural conservation over unsubstantiated relic narratives.

Jetavanaramaya

The is a colossal brick in , , erected by King Mahasena between 276 and 303 CE as part of his patronage of the Abhayagiri monastic sect. Constructed on the grounds of the partially demolished Mahavihara, the originally reached a height of 122 meters (400 feet), positioning it as the third tallest man-made structure worldwide upon completion, behind only the and the . Its base spans 176 meters per side, with four 9-meter-wide flights of stairs ascending to a central shrine chamber. Engineering feats underscore its construction, involving roughly 93.3 million baked bricks, marking it as the largest brick monument by volume in antiquity. The structure's hemispherical dome, square base, and toroidal rings reflect evolved Sinhalese architecture, designed to enshrine sacred relics purportedly including the Buddha's right-hand bone. Mahasena's initiative followed his shift from Mahavada orthodoxy to influences under advisor , though subsequent rulers like his son Sirimeghavanna restored Mahavihara ties, integrating into broader veneration. As one of the Atamasthana, the eight sacred sites of , Jetavanaramaya holds enduring ritual importance for pilgrims seeking merit through and offerings, symbolizing resilience amid sectarian monastic rivalries. Chola invasions in the 10th-11th centuries damaged the upper portions, reducing its height to 71 meters by medieval remodeling, while surrounding complexes yielded artifacts like inscriptions and sculpture fragments during 19th-20th century excavations by British archaeologists. Conservation under Sri Lanka's Department of Archaeology has stabilized the core since the 1950s, preserving it within the UNESCO-listed Ancient City of buffer zone.

Mirisaveti Stupa

![Mirisaveti Stupa in Anuradhapura]float-right The Mirisaveti Stupa, also known as Mirisawetiya Dagaba, is a hemispherical dome-shaped structure built by King between 161 and 137 BCE in , . It marks the site where the king, after defeating the Tamil ruler Elara and unifying the island, placed relics of in his royal scepter before bathing in the nearby Tissa Wewa reservoir. Upon emerging, forgot the scepter containing the relics, prompting him to construct the as atonement for his negligence; the name "Mirisaveti" derives from the Sinhalese word for chili ("miris"), symbolizing the sharp remorse he felt. As the first stupa erected by Dutugamunu, it predates larger monuments like the and originally served as a subordinate structure within the Mahavihara monastic complex, emphasizing its role in early Buddhist patronage under the king's reign. The stupa enshrines the forgotten scepter with relics, contributing to its sanctity as a repository of venerated objects central to relic worship practices. Current dimensions stand at approximately 59 meters in height and 43 meters in diameter at the base, reflecting partial restorations that have preserved its core form despite historical decay and renovations by subsequent rulers. Within the Atamasthana, the eight sacred sites of , Mirisaveti holds significance as a testament to Dutugamunu's military and religious legacy, linking Sinhalese Buddhist identity to the 2nd-century BCE revival of orthodoxy against foreign influences. Archaeological evidence from the site aligns with Mahavamsa chronicles, confirming brick construction typical of Anuradhapura stupas, though debates persist on exact relic contents due to reliance on textual accounts over direct excavation yields. Pilgrims visit for its purported blessings, maintaining its role in contemporary Sri Lankan Buddhist rituals tied to historical kingship and doctrinal purity.

Lankarama

The Lankarama , situated in the ancient city of , , was constructed in the 1st century BCE by King Valagamba (also known as Vattagamini ) following his recapture of the capital from Indian invaders in 89 BCE. This structure, originally named Silasobbha Khandaka Cetiya, served as a mound enshrining Buddhist relics and exemplifies early Sinhalese patronage of amid political instability. As one of the eight venerated Atamasthana sites, it holds ritual significance for pilgrims commemorating the Buddha's dispensation in the region. Measuring approximately 14 meters in diameter at its base, the features a circular spanning 406 meters, enclosed by remnants of stone pillars that once supported a vatadage—a roofed image house typical of architecture. Archaeological evidence indicates the original form included concentric rows of pillars, likely for housing images or monastic functions, though much was lost to time and invasions. The construction employed brick masonry with , consistent with contemporaneous dagobas like , reflecting advancements in load-bearing techniques derived from Indian influences adapted locally. Historical chronicles attribute its erection to Valagamba's vow fulfilled upon regaining power, symbolizing royal legitimacy through Buddhist merit-making after a 14-year during which briefly dominated under Tamil rule. Subsequent restorations, possibly under King in the CE, aimed to revive its prominence amid Polonnaruwa's ascendancy, though the site largely remained in ruin by the medieval period. Today, the preserved core stands as a testament to enduring Sinhalese Buddhist continuity, with minimal modern interventions focused on stabilization rather than reconstruction to maintain authenticity.

Archaeological and Architectural Analysis

Key Architectural Features and Construction Techniques

The stupas of the Atamasthana, such as , , Abhayagiri, , Mirisaveti, and Lankarama, are characterized by massive hemispherical domes built as solid structures, representing the largest pre-modern monuments known. These domes, often reaching heights of 50 to 120 meters in their original form, enclose relic chambers at the core, with bricks laid in concentric layers using minimal mortar joints for structural integrity. Burnt clay bricks, typically measuring around 45-50 cm in length and possessing compressive strengths exceeding 8 MPa, formed the primary material, composed of 50-60% and 35-45% clay for . Construction techniques emphasized precise bonding and , with bricks often slathered in a thin "butter clay" —made from clay, tree resin, and sweetened water—for before evolving to dolomitic lime-sand-clay mortars in ratios like 1:4 or 1:5. Foundations were engineered on rock bases or layered with crushed stones, trampled by for compaction, and special impermeable barriers including iron networks, sheets, and silver plating in elite cases like to prevent water ingress. Outer surfaces received thick lime-concrete plaster coatings, up to 25 cm, mixed with sand, clay, and aggregates for and a smooth finish, periodically renewed to maintain structural stability. Stone elements, quarried from local gneissic rocks via chiseling, wedging, and splitting along natural fractures, supplemented brickwork in bases, platforms, and decorative features; granitic gneiss pillars and slabs supported elevated terraces and entrances, while imported appeared in ornamental balustrades and moonstones from the 6th century CE onward. exemplifies early innovations with its bell-shaped profile and vatadage—a circular stone-pillar enclosure housing the —featuring pillars and paved compounds for . Lovamahapaya, diverging from forms, utilized 1,600 closely spaced pillars arranged in 40 rows of 40, each roughly hewn from local , to elevate a multi-storied wooden originally roofed in plates, spanning 120 meters per side and rising nine stories to approximately 46 meters. This pillar grid, embedded in walls for lateral support, facilitated expansive open interiors for monastic functions, with likely involving on-site dressing of stones transported via low-tech methods like sledges over earthen ramps.

Major Excavations and Empirical Findings

Archaeological excavations at the Atamasthana sites in began systematically in the late 19th and early 20th centuries under H.C.P. Bell, the first Archaeological Commissioner of Ceylon (1890–1912), who focused on uncovering foundations, relics, and structural layers at key stupas including and . Bell's work revealed massive brick constructions and vatadage enclosures at , confirming its status as Sri Lanka's earliest stupa dating to the 3rd century BCE, with findings of relic chambers containing bone fragments attributed to . At , excavations exposed the stupa's hemispherical dome and surrounding stone balustrades, alongside stratigraphic evidence of multiple restoration phases from the 2nd century BCE onward, including coral and limestone mortar in the core. Post-independence efforts by the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology and the Central Cultural Fund intensified excavations, particularly prior to conservation, yielding empirical data on techniques and chronology. At , digs in the 1980s and 1990s documented a solid platform over 3 meters thick and uncovered a colossal seated image constructed from interlocking bricks within the , measuring approximately 8 meters in height and dating to the 3rd century CE via associated inscriptions and analysis of bricks. These findings affirmed the site's original height of 122 meters and its role as a , with core samples showing reinforcements for resistance. Excavations at Abhayagiri Vihara from 1981 to 1982 exposed monastic complexes with evidence of later , including decapitated statues and shattered relics from the 10th–12th centuries CE, alongside earlier layers revealing Roman and Indian trade goods like rouletted ware , indicating cosmopolitan influences from the 1st century BCE. At , stratigraphic probes identified remnants of over 1,600 stone columns supporting a nine-story wooden palace, with brick foundations and drainage systems dated to the 2nd century BCE through Brahmi inscriptions. Findings at Mirisaveti and Lankarama stupas included relic deposits and vatadage pillars, while excavations around the sacred tree uncovered 2nd-century BCE ritual platforms and irrigation channels, supporting chronologies from organic remains via . Overall, these digs have verified multi-phase builds using lime-surkhi mortar and massive bricks (up to 0.7m x 0.4m), with no evidence contradicting historical attributions to kings like Dutugemunu and Mahasena, though some relic claims rely on chronicles requiring cross-verification with physical artifacts.

Debates on Dating and Authenticity

Scholars rely on the Mahāvaṃsa, a 5th- to 6th-century AD chronicle, for the traditional dating of the Atamasthana, which attributes foundational constructions to Anuradhapura kings between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC: Thūpārāma to Devanampiya Tissa (c. 250–210 BC), Ruwanweli Seya to Duṭu Gemunu (c. 161–137 BC), Abhayagiri to Vaṭṭagāmaṇī Abhaya (c. 89–77 BC), Mirisaveti to Duṭu Gemunu, and Lankārāma to Vaṭṭagāmaṇī Abhaya, while later attributing Jetavanārāma to Mahāsena (c. 334–361 AD). This text, composed centuries after the events by monks of the Mahāvihāra tradition, emphasizes Theravāda orthodoxy and royal patronage, prompting debates over its historical accuracy; critics argue it conflates timelines, exaggerates achievements for dynastic legitimacy, and marginalizes rival sects like the Abhayagiri fraternity, which adopted Mahāyāna elements. Archaeological methods provide empirical corroboration with adjustments. Thermoluminescence (TL) dating of bricks from Sri Lankan sites, including Anuradhapura-area stupas, yields ages consistent with Mahāvaṃsa attributions, such as 2nd-century BC for early phases of Ruwanweli Seya and Thūpārāma. Radiocarbon analysis of charcoal and pottery from Anuradhapura excavations revises early settlement to c. 900 BC but confirms monumental stupa construction from the 3rd century BC onward, aligning with post-Aśokan Buddhist dissemination; associated Brahmi-inscribed potsherds dated 600–500 BC via C14 indicate script use but predate the Atamasthana's relic-focused architecture. Stratigraphic evidence from Department of Archaeology digs reveals multi-phase builds—e.g., Jetavanārāma's core over earlier structures, dated to the 3rd century AD via artifacts—suggesting chronicles capture broad eras but not precise single-foundings, with expansions under later kings like Parākramabāhu I (12th century AD) complicating attributions. Authenticity debates center on relics and structural integrity. Claims of Buddha relics—e.g., a clavicle in Thūpārāma, forehead relic in Ruwanweli Seya—derive solely from Mahāvaṃsa traditions without contemporary inscriptions or provenance, leading skeptics to classify them as devotional constructs akin to widespread relic cults, unverifiable archaeologically and potentially fabricated to sacralize sites post-3rd century BC. The Mahāvihāra bias in sources further questions narratives downplaying Abhayagiri's "heretical" innovations, though excavations affirm its ancient vihāra foundations. Structurally, core authenticity is upheld by brick analyses and relic chambers uncovered in Thūpārāma (oldest intact dagoba) and others, but outer casings reflect medieval encasements and 19th–20th-century restorations; for instance, Ruwanweli Seya's sand terrace (velimaluwa) is debated as an original access feature per stratigraphic continuity versus later additions, with evidence favoring partial ancient origins amid colonial-era rebuilds. Overall, while physical monuments are verifiably ancient, hagiographic elements in dating and relic lore invite caution against uncritical acceptance of chronicle-centric views.

Preservation Efforts and Challenges

UNESCO World Heritage Status

The Sacred City of Anuradhapura, encompassing the Atamasthana—the eight venerated sites including the , , , , Abhayagiri Dagaba, Jetavanaramaya, Mirisaveti Stupa, and Lankarama—was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1982 as site number 200. This designation recognizes the ancient urban complex as the political and religious from the BCE to the CE, centered around a sapling of the Buddha's Bodhi tree transplanted in the 3rd century BCE by , daughter of Emperor . The site's inscription satisfies criteria (ii), (iii), and (vi): it exemplifies the interchange of human values in architecture, monumental arts, and town-planning across South and ; provides direct evidence of the unique Sinhalese civilization through its enduring Buddhist traditions; and maintains tangible associations with universal Buddhist beliefs, exemplified by the Atamasthana monuments that commemorate the Buddha's legendary visits to the island. Key structures like the Abhayagiri (over 100 meters tall at its peak) and Jetavanarama (Sri Lanka's largest , originally 122 meters high) underscore these qualities, alongside advanced hydraulic systems supporting and monastic life. Integrity is preserved through the retention of original forms amid overgrowth, with authenticity affirmed by archaeological continuity from ancient chronicles and excavations, despite partial collapses and 19th-20th century restorations using traditional materials. Management falls under Sri Lanka's Department of Archaeology, with monitoring for threats like and ; no major delisting risks have been noted as of 2023, though periodic state-of-conservation reports address maintenance needs.

Historical and Modern Restoration Projects

Historical restorations of the Atamasthana sites were primarily undertaken by Sinhalese kings to repair damages from invasions, erosion, and natural disasters, ensuring the continuity of Buddhist worship. For instance, the stupa, originally constructed by King Dutugemunu between 161 and 137 BCE, underwent multiple renovations by subsequent rulers, including King Saddhatissa who completed initial works, King Aggabodhi I who added a stone chattya, King Dhatusena (459–477 CE) who gifted another chattya, and up to King Nissanka Malla (1187–1196 CE) who maintained its structure. Similarly, King (1153–1186 CE) conducted extensive repairs across Anuradhapura's stupas, including elements of the Atamasthana, as part of broader efforts to revive the Mahavihara tradition following periods of decline. In the , restoration efforts gained momentum in the late amid a Buddhist revival movement. The Ruwanwelisaya's major refurbishment began in 1893 under Venerable Naranvita Sumanasara Thera, who established the Ratnamali Chaityawardhana Society; this culminated in 1940 with the installation of a pinnacle featuring a Seinbu crystal donated by Burmese Buddhists, spanning approximately 67 years from initial surveys in 1873. Post-independence, the Central Cultural Fund (CCF), established in 1980, spearheaded systematic projects under the UNESCO-Sri Lanka Cultural Triangle initiative, focusing on archaeological accuracy and structural stabilization. Notable CCF-led restorations include the Abhayagiri , initiated in 1997 as a UNESCO project and completed after 18 years at a cost of Rs. 519.5 million, restoring it to 345 feet in height and opening it for public veneration in 2015. For , conservation and research commenced in 1981 under the same -CCF framework, involving excavations and partial reconstruction, though full restoration to its ancient 400-foot height has not been pursued to preserve archaeological integrity. These efforts emphasize from excavations over speculative rebuilding, addressing challenges like brick deterioration while maintaining the sites' authenticity as World Heritage elements.

Contemporary Threats and Conservation Strategies

Contemporary threats to the Atamasthana sites in primarily stem from , which has intensified of the ancient brick stupas through extreme rainfall, rising , and accelerated overgrowth that undermines structural integrity. Urban expansion in the surrounding North Central Province encroaches on buffer zones, while uncontrolled contributes to physical wear on monuments, , and litter accumulation, exacerbating deterioration of exposed relics. around sacred sites, including unauthorized vending, further risks and mechanical damage to stupas and sculptures. Conservation strategies emphasize integrated management frameworks, as highlighted in UNESCO's April 2025 International Expert Conference on the Sacred City of , which advocates for sustainable approaches combining legal zoning, community involvement, and technological monitoring to mitigate urban pressures and climate risks. The Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology enforces the Antiquities Ordinance of 1998 to regulate development in core and buffer zones, with ongoing efforts to delineate these areas more precisely following earlier recommendations. Recent initiatives promote eco-tourism models to balance visitor access with site protection, including visitor limits, pathway reinforcements, and vegetation control using traditional methods to preserve authenticity. International collaboration supports these measures, with UNESCO providing technical assistance for risk assessments and adaptive strategies against environmental threats, while national visions prioritize long-term preservation through education and research funding. Monitoring programs track rates and atmospheric impacts, informing targeted interventions like lime-based mortar repairs to counteract humidity-induced decay.

Broader Impact and Legacy

Influence on Regional Buddhist Traditions

The Atamasthana sites in functioned as foundational hubs for monastic communities, particularly through associations with the Mahavihara, Abhayagiri Vihara, and Vihara complexes, which housed thousands of monks and preserved canonical texts alongside commentaries. These viharas emphasized discipline and doctrinal orthodoxy, influencing regional practices by exporting scriptural traditions and relic ; for instance, the Mahavihara's 5th-century commentaries by , such as the , became authoritative in Southeast Asian exegesis. Sri Lankan missions from Anuradhapura-derived lineages played a pivotal role in revival across , beginning in the when Burmese King Kyanzittha (r. 1084–1112) invited monks from the island to reform the in Pagan, establishing a purified line that integrated Sri Lankan and architectural elements like hemispherical stupas modeled after . In , King Ramkhamhaeng (r. 1279–1298) of Sukhothai sought Sri Lankan bhikkhus for upasampada ordinations, fostering a tradition that emphasized forest monasticism akin to Anuradhapura's ascetic lineages, while 14th-century Thai royalty planted saplings from the , embedding Anuradhapura's bodhi worship in royal ceremonies. Abhayagiri and Jetavana viharas, linked to Atamasthana stupas, facilitated doctrinal exchanges via trade routes, introducing Mahayana-influenced hybrids that monks carried to and by the 12th–13th centuries, evident in shared of guardian deities and enclosures. This transmission reinforced causal emphasis on karma and impermanence in regional ethics, countering localized animist , though adaptations occurred; for example, Burmese and Thai designs evolved from prototypes but incorporated bell-shaped chatras by the 15th century. Pilgrimage to Atamasthana sustained these ties, with Southeast Asian monks visiting for higher until the , perpetuating Anuradhapura's model of state-sponsored monastic .

Role in Sri Lankan History and Nationalism

The Atamasthana formed the spiritual core of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, which served as Sri Lanka's capital from approximately 377 BCE to 1017 CE, embodying the early Sinhalese adoption and patronage of Theravada Buddhism following its introduction in the BCE by Arahat Mahinda during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa. constructed and expanded these sites to legitimize their rule as dhammarajas, protectors of the ; for instance, Dutugemunu (r. 161–137 BCE) erected the stupa, Mirisaveti stupa, and assembly hall after defeating the Chola invader Elara, enshrining Buddha relics to symbolize victory and piety as chronicled in the Mahavamsa. These monuments, verified through archaeological evidence of and inscriptions dating to the 2nd century BCE, reinforced centralized authority and hydraulic innovations that sustained a population of over 100,000 in the ancient city. During the British colonial period (1815–1948), the Atamasthana symbolized resistance to cultural erosion, with (1864–1933) campaigning for their restoration through the to revive Sinhalese Buddhist identity amid Protestant missionary pressures and Hindu influences from . Dharmapala's efforts linked the sites to a of indigenous resilience, drawing pilgrims and fostering early nationalist sentiments by emphasizing as the cradle of Sinhalese civilization, a view echoed in 19th- and early 20th-century Buddhist revivalist literature. In post-independence Sri Lanka, the Atamasthana have anchored Sinhala-Buddhist nationalism, portraying Anuradhapura as the "pure centre" of the nation's historical and religious continuity, particularly in political rhetoric justifying policies favoring the Sinhalese majority (about 75% of the population as of 2012). Article 9 of the 1978 Constitution mandates the state to give Buddhism the "foremost place" and protect the Buddha Sasana, implicitly elevating sites like the Atamasthana as national symbols during ethnic conflicts (1983–2009), where they were invoked to assert the island's perennial Buddhist character against separatist claims. Academic analyses highlight how these sacred places sustain ethno-religious narratives, though their veneration has occasionally intensified inter-communal tensions by prioritizing Sinhalese heritage over pluralistic interpretations of history.

Recent Developments and Scholarly Research

In the 2010s, the Hinterland Project, led by archaeologists Robin Coningham and Prishanta Gunawardhana, employed systematic settlement surveys, test excavations, and geoarchaeological analysis across 100 square kilometers surrounding , revealing evidence of continuous low-density and hydraulic use from the protohistoric period through the medieval era, which challenges earlier models positing a sharp decline after the CE. The project's findings, published in 2013, documented over 50 settlement sites with ceramics, husks, and water management features like bunds and canals, indicating sustained and contradicting narratives of environmental collapse derived from textual sources alone. Subsequent scholarship has integrated these data with broader networks, identifying imported artifacts such as Hellenistic-Roman cut glass and Parthian glazed pottery in Anuradhapura's early urban layers (circa BCE to CE), underscoring the city's role as a cosmopolitan hub rather than an isolated . A 2023 review of long-distance connections emphasized how such , recovered from stratified contexts at sites including those within the Atamasthana precincts, reflect direct maritime exchanges with the Mediterranean and , supported by and comparative typology. At specific Atamasthana sites, recent analyses include a 2025 study of the Abhayagiri Vihara , a stone artifact in the monastic refectory interpreted through geometric and ethnographic methods as a tool for timing midday meals in adherence to disciplinary codes, with inscriptions and alignments confirming its 1st-century BCE origins and practical astronomical function. Excavations at Jetavanarama have yielded inscribed gold plates containing sutra excerpts in , deposited in relic chambers and dated paleographically to the 3rd-4th centuries CE, evidencing syncretic Buddhist practices amid dominance, though their precise discovery context remains tied to mid-20th-century works rather than new digs. These findings, cross-verified with epigraphic databases, highlight interpretive debates on sectarian pluralism without relying on hagiographic chronicles.

References

  1. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/atamasthana/
  2. https://lakpura.com/pages/atamasthana
  3. https://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/simplified-version/the-visit-of-the-thatagatha/
  4. https://lakpura.com/pages/jaya-sri-maha-bodhi
  5. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/thuparamaya/
  6. https://www.historyhit.com/locations/the-ruwanwelisaya-dagoba/
  7. https://www.nekhor.org/thuparama-lankaramaya
  8. https://traveltriangle.com/blog/thuparamaya/
  9. https://pushpitha.livejournal.com/577561.html
  10. https://www.timeout.com/sri-lanka/attractions/the-significance-of-the-atamasthana
  11. https://factum.lk/regional-geopolitics/the-fall-of-anuradhapura-and-the-lessons-of-history/
  12. https://factsanddetails.com/south-asia/Srilanka/History_Srilanka/entry-7937.html
  13. http://ir.lib.ruh.ac.lk/bitstream/handle/iruor/92/AP-6496-77.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  14. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Prishanta-Gunawardhana/publication/344450413_Archaeological_Authenticity_of_Sand_Terrace_Velimaluwa_at_the_Great_Stupa_Mahathupa_-_Sri_Lanka/links/5f76ec23458515b7cf605bc1/Archaeological-Authenticity-of-Sand-Terrace-Velimaluwa-at-the-Great-Stupa-Mahathupa-Sri-Lanka.pdf
  15. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/200/
  16. https://whc.unesco.org/document/163318
  17. http://beautyofsrilanka2015.blogspot.com/p/srimaha-bodya-jayasri-maha-bodhi.html
  18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344450413_Archaeological_Authenticity_of_Sand_Terrace_Velimaluwa_at_the_Great_Stupa_Mahathupa_-_Sri_Lanka
  19. https://www.circleceylon.com/destination-item/anuradhapura-sri-lanka/
  20. https://ceylontoday.lk/2024/04/20/anuradhapura-the-city-of-anuradha-part-ix/
  21. https://floatstheboat.wordpress.com/2024/07/06/sri-lanka-anuradhapura-day-5-the-sacred-city/
  22. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/547499-SRI-LANKA-2023-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf
  23. https://www.elanka.com.au/atamasthana-vandana-a-sacred-journey-through-the-heart-of-anuradhapura-by-nadeeka-elanka/
  24. https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/kariyawasam/wheel402.html
  25. https://journeeton.com/sri-lanka/anuradhapura-8-sacred-sites-atamasthana/
  26. https://srilankanavigator.com/ruwanwelisaya-stupa-anuradhapura/
  27. https://www.usthadian.com/jaya-sri-maha-bodhi-icon-of-sri-lankas-ancient-buddhist-legacy/
  28. https://www.nekhor.org/sites-of-sri-lanka
  29. https://www.britannica.com/place/Anuradhapura-Sri-Lanka
  30. https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2019/11/21/the-era-emerged-from-ruwanwelisaya-aftermath-of-presidential-election-in-sri-lanka/
  31. http://www.humanrights.asia/news/forwarded-news/AHRC-FAT-001-2017/
  32. https://www.sundaytimes.lk/060917/Plus/pls4.html
  33. https://lankaweb.com/news/items/2022/03/03/sri-lankas-ancient-hydraulic-civilisation-and-birth-of-sinhala-buddhist-nationalism%25EF%25BF%25BC/
  34. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/12063312231210152
  35. https://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/19-coming-bodhi-tree/
  36. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/sri-maha-bodhi-the-sacred-bo-tree/
  37. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/ruwanveli-maha-seya/
  38. https://www.srilanka.travel/ruwanweli-seya
  39. https://ruwanweliseya.lk/History.html
  40. https://www.sundaytimes.lk/250511/plus/other-stupas-maybe-grander-but-thuparamaya-stands-tall-597305.html
  41. https://www.lankapradeepa.com/2018/12/lovamahapaya.html
  42. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/lovamahapaya/
  43. https://www.amusingplanet.com/2015/06/the-1600-stone-pillars-of-lovamahapaya.html
  44. https://www.historyhit.com/locations/the-brazen-palace/
  45. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/abayagiri-stupa/
  46. https://www.historyhit.com/locations/the-abhayagiri-dagoba/
  47. https://lakpura.com/pages/jetavanaramaya
  48. https://www.historyhit.com/locations/the-jetavanarama-dagoba/
  49. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000393992
  50. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/mirisavatiya-dagaba/
  51. https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1530/sri-lanka/anuradhapura/mirisawetiya-stupa
  52. https://exploreslk.com/mirisawetiya-stupa/
  53. https://www.nekhor.org/mirisawetiya-ruwanweli-maha-seya-thuparama-lankaramaya
  54. https://www.pledgeholidays.com/mirisaveti-stupa-dagaba
  55. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/lankaramaya/
  56. https://www.trulysrilanka.com/attractions/lankarama-dagoba/
  57. https://storyofsrilanka.com/lankarama.php
  58. https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1875/sri-lanka/anuradhapura/lankaramaya-stupa
  59. https://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/system/files/documents/vol-3-2573-2586-ranaweera.pdf
  60. https://www.lonelyplanet.com/sri-lanka/the-ancient-cities/anuradhapura/attractions/lankarama-dagoba/a/poi-sig/1429879/357449
  61. https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/fub188/11383/1/Dissertation_Wagalawatta_2016.pdf
  62. https://archetype.co.uk/our-titles/h-c-p-bell/
  63. https://www.sundaytimes.lk/070902/FunDay/heritage.html
  64. https://archaeology.gov.lk/index.php/about/sections/excavations
  65. http://ir.kdu.ac.lk/bitstream/handle/345/4216/2002-2003-125-133.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  66. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0277379194900817
  67. https://books.google.com/books/about/Abhayagiri_Vih%25C4%2581ra_Project_Anuradhapura.html?id=CCluAAAAMAAJ
  68. https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/OutputFile/1647793
  69. https://pure.uhi.ac.uk/files/3091364/Strickland_Thesis_2011.pdf
  70. https://ruwanweliseya.lk/AncientRecords.html
  71. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0277379194900817
  72. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23163052
  73. https://archaeology.gov.lk/media/attachments/2022/09/07/ac27updated.pdf
  74. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-archaeological-journal/article/passage-to-india-anuradhapura-and-the-early-use-of-the-brahmi-script/DAAA2514FB08E1DDE3FAFF2171AB097B
  75. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273293666_Luminescence_dating_of_brick_stupas_An_application_to_the_hinterland_of_Anuradhapura_Sri_Lanka
  76. https://academic.oup.com/book/36949/chapter/322244477
  77. https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/2273/
  78. https://www.ruwanweliseya.lk/Restoration%20work.html
  79. http://www.news.lk/news/politics/item/8935-president-offers-first-pooja-for-renovated-abhayagiriya-stupa
  80. https://watermelonscrib.wordpress.com/2011/08/15/jathavanaramaya/
  81. https://ccf.gov.lk/web/
  82. https://www.frontpagejournal.com/art-culture/reclaiming-heritage/
  83. https://anuramanatunga.lk/images/c/R202507.pdf
  84. https://www.southasiafoundation.org/SAF-News/Article-53091-Mme-France-Attends-UNESCO-s-Landmark-Anuradhapura-Heritage-Conference-Engages-with-Sri-Lankan-PM-H-E-Dr-Harini-Amarasuriya.htm
  85. https://trivalent.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/tjata.v1i1.28
  86. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342945155_Commercialization_of_Ancient_Buddhist_Sites_in_Sri_Lanka_Causes_and_Consequences
  87. https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/2767
  88. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/international-expert-conference-integrated-and-sustainable-approach-safeguarding-world-heritage
  89. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/eco-tourism-sustainable-path-preserving-sri-lankas-dr-dharshana-ybvhc
  90. https://www.news.lk/current-affairs/unescos-initiative-to-protect-the-sacred-city-of-anuradhapura-a-world-heritage-site-is-commendable
  91. https://lankanewsweb.net/archives/71679/prime-minister-stresses-global-significance-of-anuradhapuras-preservation/
  92. https://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/srilanka.html
  93. https://www.lankaweb.com/news/items/2020/04/13/medieval-sri-lanka-and-theravada-buddhism-in-southeast-asia-pt-1/
  94. https://www.sundaytimes.lk/100620/Plus/plus_16.html
  95. https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8854/2761
  96. https://www.urbandharma.org/udharma14/srilankahistory.html
  97. http://explosl.blogspot.com/2018/09/srimath-anagarika-dharmapala-person-who.html
  98. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/12063312231210152
  99. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Sri_Lanka_2010
  100. https://academic.oup.com/past/article-abstract/197/1/111/1445131
  101. https://www.barpublishing.com/book/anuradhapura-2/
  102. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37244834_The_state_of_theocracy_Defining_an_early_medieval_hinterland_in_Sri_Lanka
  103. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372152547_Recent_Developments_in_the_Archaeology_of_Long-Distance_Connections_Across_the_Ancient_Indian_Ocean
  104. https://www.academia.edu/122123562/An_Investigation_of_the_Sundial_at_Abhayagiri_Monastery_in_Anuradhapura_Sri_Lanka
  105. https://amazinglanka.com/wp/jethavanaramaya/
  106. https://www.lankapradeepa.com/2018/09/jetavanarama-gold-plates-colombo-museum.html
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.