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Scissor-tailed kite
Scissor-tailed kite
Scissor-tailed kite
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Scissor-tailed kite
Flying in Far North Region, Cameroon
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Genus: Chelictinia
Lesson, 1843
Species:
C. riocourii
Binomial name
Chelictinia riocourii
(Temminck, 1821)
Synonyms
  • Elanoïdes riocouri Vieillot, 1823?
  • Falco riocour Temminck, 1824
  • Elanus riocouri Vigors, 1824
  • Nauclerus riocouri Vigors 1825
  • Nauclerus africanus Swainson, 1837
  • Chelidopteryx riocourii Kaup, 1845

The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii), also known commonly as the African swallow-tailed kite and the fork-tailed kite, is a bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. It is the only species placed in the genus Chelictinia. It is widespread in the northern tropics of Africa.

Taxonomy and systematics

[edit]

The scissor-tailed kite was illustrated in 1821 for a work by the Dutch zoologist Coenraad Temminck.[2] The hand-coloured plate formed part of livraison 15 of Temminck's work. The binomial name Falco riocourii was printed on the wrapper to the livraison, but not included on the plate itself. The text that accompanied the plate in the final bound volume was not published until December 1823,[3] after the species had been described and illustrated in 1822 by the French ornithologist Louis Pierre Vieillot.[4] The scissor-tailed kite was grouped with the Elanus kites or with the larger American swallow-tailed kite, but in 1843 the French naturalist René Lesson assigned it to a separate genus, Chelictinia.[5][6] The genus name Chelictinia is possibly derived from Greek χελιδών or χελιδονι (chelidon), meaning swallow,[7] with ικτινοσ (iktinos), meaning kite. The specific epithet riocourii honours the Count Rioucour, Antoine François du Bois "first president in the Royal Court of Nancy, and possessor of a beautiful collection of birds".[2][8] However, some sources refer to his son, Antoine Nicolas François, who was a contemporary of Vieillot.[9][10] The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.[11] A molecular phylogenetic study of the Accipitridae published in 2024 found that the scissor-tailed kite is sister to the kites in the genus Elanus.[12]

Description

[edit]

The scissor-tailed kite is a small, slim grey and white kite with a relatively weak bill, a broad head, long pointed wings and a deeply forked tail. The adults are generally pale grey above and white below, with a white forehead and a black patch around the eyes. In flight the dark greyish flight feathers contrast with the inner underwing edges, there is also an obvious black bar across the carpal. Juveniles are darker on the back with rufous edges to the feathers and creamier below. It has a distinctive almost tern like flight and frequently hovers into the wind like a kestrel. The red eyes of the adult are also a distinctive feature.[13]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The species inhabits the arid savannah of the Sahel region of Africa, occurring mainly in a band between 8° and 15° N that stretches from Senegal on the west coast to Sudan in the east. There are also populations breeding in Ethiopia and Kenya.[14]"

It is found in many countries, including: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Ivory Coast, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Togo, Uganda, and is also found in Yemen.[14]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]

When breeding the scissor-tailed kite feeds mainly on skinks and other lizards, as well as small snakes, rodents and arthropods. Usually hunts on the wing, occasionally pursuing insects flushed by grass fires. When termites emerge or locusts swarm, there may be gatherings of scissor-tailed kites. Loose flocks have been known to associate with cattle, flying immediately overhead and hawking any insects that they flush.[13]

They breed in loose colonies of up to 20 pairs, although will do so as single pairs, mainly from May to August but breeds in December to February in the west and March- June or August in Kenya. A small stick nest is built in an acacia or thorny bush at 2-8m from the ground. The nest is often sited close to the nest of a large raptor such as a secretary bird or a brown snake eagle, occasionally close to buildings.[13]

Status

[edit]

The species is vulnerable to degradation of the habitat and pesticides. However, populations seem to be locally common in spite of decline in some parts of the range.[1]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Scissor-tailed kite

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) is a small, slender in the family , characterized by its pale gray upperparts, white underparts, and exceptionally long, deeply forked that gives it a scissor-like appearance in flight. Measuring 33–38 cm in length with a of 68–76 cm, it exhibits only in size, with females slightly larger than males, and juveniles distinguished by feather edges and a less pronounced fork. This monotypic is renowned for its graceful, tern-like aerial foraging, where it hovers and dives to capture prey, often in flocks. Endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, the scissor-tailed kite ranges from southern Mauritania and Senegal in the west, across the Sahel to Ethiopia and Somalia in the east, and south to northeastern Uganda and Kenya, primarily between 15°N and 8°N latitude. It favors arid steppe, scrub savanna, thornscrub, and grasslands, utilizing Acacia scrub for breeding and open grassy areas during non-breeding periods, with floodplain forests serving as critical sites for nesting and roosting. A full migrant, it undertakes seasonal movements tied to rainfall and insect availability, often forming large communal roosts of thousands of individuals. Its diet consists primarily of insects such as locusts, termites, and ants, as well as arachnids; during the breeding season, lizards, small snakes, and occasionally small rodents form a substantial part of the diet to meet increased nutritional demands. Breeding occurs seasonally, from May to August in , December to February in , and March to June in , with pairs constructing nests in thorny bushes or trees within colonies of up to 110 pairs. Females lay 2–3 eggs, and both parents share incubation and chick-rearing duties in these gregarious colonies. The species is listed as Vulnerable on the , with an estimated population of 30,000–67,000 mature individuals as of the 2021 assessment showing a decreasing trend of 30–49% over three generations, primarily due to habitat degradation from agriculture, overgrazing, woodcutting, pesticides, locust control, and . It is protected under Appendix II and CMS Appendix II, highlighting the need for targeted conservation in the to mitigate these threats.

Taxonomy and systematics

Classification and nomenclature

The scissor-tailed kite bears the scientific name Chelictinia riocourii (Vieillot, 1822), first described by French naturalist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1822 in La Galerie des Oiseaux. The description was based on specimens collected in , designated as the type locality, though specific details are not elaborated in the original publication beyond reference to these Senegalese birds. This species occupies the monotypic genus Chelictinia, established by French naturalist René Primevère Lesson in 1843 in L'Écho du Monde Savant to separate it taxonomically from related kites such as those in Elanus. The genus name derives from Greek roots suggesting a swallow-like form, reflecting the bird's graceful, forked-tail silhouette. Within the broader avian hierarchy, C. riocourii belongs to the family Accipitridae, which comprises hawks, eagles, and Old World vultures, and is placed in the subfamily Elaninae—the typical kites—characterized by small to medium-sized raptors with agile flight and insectivorous or rodent-based diets. The common English name "scissor-tailed kite" alludes to the species' distinctive deeply forked , which spreads like scissors during aerial maneuvers; other English vernaculars include African swallow-tailed kite and fork-tailed kite. Documented local names in African indigenous languages are scarce in ornithological records.

Evolutionary relationships

The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii), the sole in its monotypic genus, occupies a basal position within the subfamily of the family , as determined by molecular phylogenetic analyses. A 2024 study employing ultraconserved elements across 90% of Accipitridae resolved the scissor-tailed kite as the sister taxon to the genus Elanus (encompassing such as the black-shouldered kite Elanus axillaris and white-tailed kite Elanus leucurus), underscoring shared evolutionary traits like small size, pale , and adaptations for hovering flight in open landscapes. This relationship is corroborated by a 2020 molecular analysis using mitochondrial (Cyt b, COI) and nuclear (RAG-1) markers, which first sequenced C. riocourii and confirmed its placement within Elaninae, with divergence from Elanus estimated at 16.7–15.3 million years ago during the Middle Miocene; the broader Elaninae clade separated from other accipitrids around 21.3 million years ago in the Early Miocene. These findings highlight Elaninae's ancient, cosmopolite origins among diurnal raptors, with Chelictinia retaining primitive features like a specialized skull structure suited to insectivory. Morphological evidence further supports divergence from other African kite lineages, particularly in the deeply forked tail that expands during flight to aid precise aerial maneuvers for capturing insects and small prey, distinguishing it from less specialized forms like those in Milvus. This adaptation likely arose in response to expanding savanna ecosystems, enhancing foraging efficiency in windy, open environments. The fossil record offers no direct ancestors for the scissor-tailed kite, reflecting gaps typical for small raptors; however, Accipitridae fossils from the Miocene, including early elanine-like forms, indicate the family's radiation during this epoch, with adaptations to grassland habitats driving diversification of aerial predators. As a monotypic genus with a relatively restricted range across sub-Saharan Africa's Sahel and savannas, the species shows low intraspecific genetic variation, consistent with limited population structuring and historical bottlenecks inferred from its phylogeny.

Description

Physical morphology

The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) is a small raptor measuring 33–38 in length with a wingspan of 68–76 . Adults typically weigh around 110 g. Its overall build is slim and lightweight, conferring a tern-like in flight essential for aerial pursuits. Key structural adaptations include long, pointed wings that facilitate precise maneuvers, though they are relatively shorter than the and do not extend to its tip. The is a prominent feature, deeply forked with elongate outer feathers, providing enhanced steering and balance during rapid turns. The head is broad, accommodating large eyes for acute vision, while the bill is small, relatively weak, and hooked at the tip for grasping prey. A small black facial patch frames the eyes, contrasting with the bird's predominantly grey upperparts and white underparts. The legs are short and yellow, with reticulated scales on the feet, and end in sharp black talons adapted for seizing small prey. is minimal, with females marginally larger than males.

Plumage and variations

The adult scissor-tailed kite displays pale grey upperparts and uniformly white underparts, accented by a white forehead and a small black mask around the eyes. Small black patches are present on the shoulders, visible in flight, while the primaries and are dark grey to black, contrasting sharply with the white inner underwing and a prominent black bar across the carpal joint. The elongate, deeply forked tail features black tips, contributing to its agile, tern-like aerial maneuvers. Juvenile plumage is distinct, with darker grey-brown upperparts featuring buff-rufous or edges on the feathers of the back, mantle, scapulars, and crown, creating a scaled or barred effect. The underparts appear creamier white than in adults, often with a dark breastband, and the tail is notably shorter and less deeply forked. Shorter wings do not extend to the tail tip, and the underwing lacks the full black carpal patch of adults, while the iris is initially rather than . Molt in the scissor-tailed kite involves juveniles undergoing a partial post-juvenile molt 3–6 months after fledging, primarily replacing body feathers, head feathers, and upper-wing coverts to transition toward adult-like appearance, though remiges and some underwing features remain juvenile. Full adult is attained via the first complete molt around 12 months of age, with some individuals breeding before completing this process. Adults exhibit no documented geographic variation across their range from to , and is minimal or absent, with the sexes alike in coloration though females are slightly larger overall.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic distribution

The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) occupies a core range in the zone of , primarily within a narrow band spanning latitudes 8° to 15° N, from southern and in the west to in the east; this distribution also extends southward into , northern , and northeast , as well as to southern . The species is present in approximately 23 African nations, including , , , , , , and , along with , , , Côte d'Ivoire, , , , , , , , , , , , and . While the overall range has remained relatively stable historically, populations have contracted in western portions due to and associated habitat degradation in the , with documented declines including an 84% reduction in unprotected West African areas from 1969 to 2004 and 40–50% in between 1973 and 2000. Vagrant records occur outside the core range, notably in and . Global population estimates for mature individuals stand at –67,000, based on assessments from 2021, with no significant updates reported as of 2025; a 2024 study estimated a 48% population decline across regions, supporting the ongoing decreasing trend. The is considered nomadic, complicating precise counts, though large roosts (e.g., 36,000 birds in in 2008) indicate local abundance in suitable areas.

Habitat requirements

The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) primarily inhabits open arid s and grasslands across the zone of , favoring areas with scattered acacias or thorny bushes that provide suitable nesting opportunities while maintaining expansive views for hunting. These habitats consist of arid , scrub , semi-desert shrublands, and subtropical dry grasslands, where the bird avoids dense forests and montane regions that limit aerial maneuverability. During the breeding season, it prefers Acacia-dominated scrub for nest placement, shifting to more open grassy expanses in the non-breeding period. The species occurs at elevations from to 500 m, typically in flat or gently undulating terrain that supports low-level soaring and precise prey detection. Nest sites are constructed in isolated thorny bushes or low trees, such as Acacia seyal or Mitragyna inermis, at heights of 2–8 m above ground, often in loose colonies of up to 110 pairs within small areas of suitable . Proximity to seasonal or intermittent freshwater sources, including forests and lakes, is essential, as these areas concentrate prey and provide roosting cover, particularly in West African populations. Habitat degradation poses significant risks to the scissor-tailed kite, with by and fragmenting open savannas and reducing available hunting grounds. Woodcutting for fuel and construction further diminishes scattered tree cover critical for nesting, while conversion of floodplains to farmland disrupts access to water-dependent prey resources. These pressures contribute to population declines, though detailed conservation responses are addressed elsewhere.

Behavior and ecology

Foraging and diet

The scissor-tailed kite forages primarily through aerial , soaring and hovering buoyantly over open grasslands before descending to capture prey in mid-air or on the ground. It often quarters low over the terrain in a systematic search , occasionally in loose flocks to exploit concentrations of prey such as emerging grasshoppers or those disturbed by grass fires. The bird's elongated forked tail serves as a for precise steering during pursuits, enhancing its agility in chases akin to that of a . Its diet comprises mainly insects and arachnids year-round, with orthopterans such as locusts and grasshoppers forming a substantial portion—up to 55% at non-breeding roosts—alongside solifugids (43%) and other arthropods including , , beetles, odonates, hemipterans, lepidopterans, and hymenopterans. Vertebrates, including skinks and other , small snakes, and occasionally , are also consumed, comprising 30–54% of prey items by number during breeding but less frequently outside this period. Reptiles dominate the nestling diet by (>50%) in the breeding season, while insects predominate numerically overall, reflecting a seasonal shift toward more arthropods in the non-breeding period. Prey consists of small vertebrates and large arthropods, typically captured mid-flight or from the ground surface.

Breeding biology

The breeding season of the scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) typically spans May to September in the core , aligning with the rainy season when prey abundance peaks. Regional variations occur, with breeding from December to February in during the and March to June (or August onward) in . Pairs form loose colonies of 2–20 nests, though larger aggregations up to 110 nests have been recorded in exceptional sites like 's Kousmar islet; in , colonies average 7 pairs. Nests consist of small sticks (30–40 cm in diameter), often lined with grass or finer material, and are placed in or thorny trees at heights of 2–8 m, frequently near nests of larger raptors such as tawny eagles for protective benefits against predators. Clutches average 2–3 eggs, with means of 2.1 in (n=29) and 2.5 in (n=32, maximum 4 recorded). Both parents share incubation duties, with the female taking the greater share while provisioned by the male; the period lasts 27–31 days. Nestlings after 32–35 days (n=3), though full independence may extend beyond 40 days. Parental care is biparental, with both sexes feeding nestlings, though males deliver more provisions post-hatching as the female focuses on brooding early on. During breeding, the diet shifts toward higher protein sources for nestling growth, emphasizing (30–54% of diet) over (27–49%), with grasshoppers prominent. Breeding success varies, with Mayfield estimates of 4% in and 17% in , attributed to predation and fluctuating food availability, though communal defense against diurnal threats is observed.

Vocalizations and social behavior

The scissor-tailed kite exhibits a limited vocal repertoire that is most frequent during the breeding season. Its calls include rapid chittering and rasping notes given in flight, whistled calls such as a series of "pee-pee" or "veet" sounds, and feeble mewing when perched. These vocalizations often occur during aerial interactions, such as chases between individuals, and contribute to communication within breeding colonies. Outside the breeding period, scissor-tailed kites are typically solitary or occur in pairs, though they form large communal roosts numbering in the thousands, with records of up to 36,000 individuals (2008, ) and over 14,000 as of June 2025 (), particularly in tall dead trees or brushy areas. During breeding, they adopt a more social structure, nesting in loose colonies averaging 7–20 pairs, with exceptional records of up to 110 pairs in a 2.8 km² area in . Pairs maintain monogamous bonds for the season, with the handling most incubation and chick-feeding duties while provisioned by the . Courtship involves aerial displays, including mutual soaring, chases, and tail-spreading to advertise the distinctive forked tail. Around nests, birds are territorial within a radius of approximately 1–2 km, showing intraspecific aggression and communal defense against intruders like crows, where multiple individuals (4–7) position themselves at colony edges to mob threats. Scissor-tailed kites often associate with larger raptors, such as tawny eagles or snake-eagles, nesting nearby for anti-predator benefits, and exhibit minimal interspecific aggression.

Migration patterns

The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) is an intra-African migrant, undertaking seasonal movements within sub-Saharan savannas that do not involve trans-Saharan crossings. In western Africa, populations exhibit partial migration, with birds from northern areas such as relocating southward to Sudanian savannas between and during the , while some remain resident in favorable habitats. These movements are overland, traversing open grasslands and covering distances of up to approximately 1,000 km depending on local conditions. Breeding migrations occur northward to the zone, synchronized with the onset of seasonal rains typically from February to May, enabling access to abundant insect prey for nesting. Post-breeding, adults return south following the chicks' fledging around August, with the full cycle reflecting a response to the inter-tropical convergence zone's shift. Juveniles, after fledging, often disperse more widely than adults, exploring variable routes influenced by localized food availability before joining non-breeding aggregations. Migration patterns are primarily driven by rainfall patterns and prey abundance, particularly swarms of grasshoppers and locusts that peak with wet seasons. The extent of annual movements varies, with some years showing reduced distances due to irregular precipitation, as noted in population monitoring since the early 2000s; recent assessments confirm this variability is exacerbated by broader climatic shifts affecting Sahelian ecosystems. Small resident populations persist in eastern Africa, such as northern , where local conditions allow year-round occupancy without full migration.

Conservation

Population status

The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) is classified as Vulnerable on the , a status assigned in 2021. This classification is based on criteria A2ace+3ce+4ace, indicating suspected population reductions of 30–49% over three generations (approximately 11.6 years) due to ongoing habitat degradation. The global population is estimated at 30,000–67,000 mature individuals, with the overall trend decreasing across its range in . In western Africa, populations have shown steeper declines, with a 47% reduction over three generations and up to 84% in unprotected areas of countries like , , and based on roadside surveys from 1969–2004 and 2007–2010. In contrast, some central African sites, such as northern , have exhibited localized increases of up to 24% in recent monitoring, while eastern populations in remain rare with only sporadic sightings. A 2024 analysis of road transect surveys confirmed a 48% decline over three generations in for this species, highlighting its growing dependence on protected areas. Comprehensive surveys remain limited outside . Monitoring is primarily conducted through BirdLife International-coordinated roadside transect surveys, which highlight the species' nomadic behavior and the need for expanded efforts to track roosts and breeding colonies.

Threats

The primary threats to the scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) stem from anthropogenic activities that degrade its breeding and foraging habitats in the of . Agricultural expansion, including cultivation of arid savannas for crops, has led to significant and loss of open grasslands essential for hunting insects. by livestock and wood harvesting for fuel further exacerbate this degradation, reducing the availability of suitable nesting sites in floodplain forests and scattered trees. These pressures are particularly acute in unprotected areas, where roadside surveys documented an 84% population decline between 1969 and 2004. Pesticide use poses a direct toxicological , as the relies heavily on arthropods that bioaccumulate agricultural chemicals. Intensive control programs since the 1970s, employing broad-spectrum insecticides, have contributed to widespread declines across by contaminating prey and causing sublethal effects on reproduction and survival. The scissor-tailed kite's insectivorous diet amplifies its vulnerability, with ongoing applications in the threatening breeding colonies through reduced prey abundance and direct poisoning. Environmental changes, including driven by climate variability, compound these impacts by altering rainfall patterns and intensifying habitat aridity in the . While collisions with power lines and illegal trade appear minimal based on available assessments, the cumulative effects of habitat loss and pesticides are driving declines estimated at 30–49% over three generations (approximately 11.6 years). This disruption particularly affects and breeding sites, hindering recovery in fragmented landscapes.

Conservation efforts

The scissor-tailed kite (Chelictinia riocourii) benefits from international protections under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix II, which regulates trade to prevent overexploitation, and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) Appendix II, which promotes cooperative conservation measures across range states. It is also included in Category 2 of the CMS Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MoU), which coordinates actions to maintain favorable conservation status through habitat safeguards and threat mitigation. The occurs in reserves and other protected areas, such as national parks in , where approximately 66% population declines have been observed over three generations—less severe than the 84% declines in unprotected areas—indicating that site protections help buffer against habitat degradation. Efforts in these areas focus on minimizing disturbances at key roost and breeding sites, such as l'Île de Kousmar in , to support communal roosting behaviors essential for the species. Pesticide regulation is addressed through CMS frameworks and the Raptors MoU, which advocate for reduced use of harmful chemicals in locust control programs across , as the scissor-tailed kite is highly vulnerable to from these applications. Habitat restoration initiatives emphasize rehabilitating floodplain forests and semi-arid grasslands degraded by and , with proposals for alternative pest management to lessen reliance on broad-spectrum . BirdLife International leads monitoring programs to track population trends beyond , where most surveys have occurred, including assessments of breeding success and habitat use to inform targeted interventions. Key recommendations include expanding protections for grasslands and semi-arid zones, installing artificial nests and roosts to offset habitat loss, and fostering international collaboration under CMS to address transboundary threats like pesticide drift. Community education on the ecological benefits of raptors, such as natural , is promoted through Raptors MoU activities to reduce persecution and support sustainable land practices. Successes include stabilized or slower declines in protected Sahel sites, where regulated grazing and site management have maintained viable populations compared to unprotected regions, as evidenced by long-term survey data.

References

  1. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/sctkit1/cur/introduction
  2. https://ebird.org/species/sctkit1
  3. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/scissor-tailed-kite-chelictinia-riocourii
  4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270086564_Breeding_Biology_and_Diet_of_the_African_Swallow-Tailed_Kite_Chelictinia_riocourii_in_Senegal_and_Cameroon
  5. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=22832FF4C1180B06
  6. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/109466#page/401/mode/1up
  7. https://doi.org/10.25226/bboc.v142i1.2022.a4
  8. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/12/9/327
  9. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blae028
  10. https://animalia.bio/scissor-tailed-kite
  11. https://animals.fandom.com/wiki/Scissor-tailed_Kite
  12. https://planetofbirds.com/accipitriformes-accipitridae-scissor-tailed-kite-chelictinia-riocourii/
  13. https://www.facebook.com/BirdLifeInternational/posts/introducing-the-scissor-tailed-kite-found-from-mauritania-and-senegal-across-to-/1256722483151844/
  14. https://app.birda.org/species-guide/8095/Scissor-tailed_Kite
  15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282857234_Chick_development_growth_and_post-juvenile_moult_of_the_African_Swallow-tailed_Kite_Chelictinia_riocourii_in_Senegal_and_Cameroon
  16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02214-0
  17. https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-raptor-research/volume-47/issue-1/JRR-12-36.1/Breeding-Biology-and-Diet-of-the-African-Swallow-Tailed-Kite/10.3356/JRR-12-36.1.full
  18. https://macaulaylibrary.org/audio/140363361
  19. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-12-36.1
  20. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/sctkit1/cur/breeding
  21. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.sctkit1.01
  22. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22695042/198901327
  23. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02236-0
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283820201_The_huge_roosting_site_of_lesser_kestrel_falco_naumanni_and_scissor-tailed_kite_chelictinia_riocourii_two_insectivorous_raptors_on_kousmar_Island_KaolackSenegal
  25. https://raptors.cms.int/species/chelictinia-riocourii
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