Hubbry Logo
EfficacyEfficacyMain
Open search
Efficacy
Community hub
Efficacy
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Efficacy
Efficacy
Efficacy
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Look up efficacy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Efficacy is the ability to perform a task to a satisfactory or expected degree. The word comes from the same roots as effectiveness, and it has often been used synonymously, although in pharmacology a distinction is now often made between efficacy and effectiveness.[1]

The word efficacy is used in pharmacology and medicine to refer both to the maximum response achievable from a pharmaceutical drug in research settings,[2] and to the capacity for sufficient therapeutic effect or beneficial change in clinical settings.

Pharmacology

[edit]
Main article: Intrinsic activity

In pharmacology, efficacy (Emax) is the maximum response achievable from an applied or dosed agent, for instance, a small molecule drug.[2] Intrinsic activity is a relative term for a drug's efficacy relative to a drug with the highest observed efficacy.[3] It is a purely descriptive term that has little or no mechanistic interpretation.

In order for a drug to have an effect, it needs to bind to its target, and then to affect the function of this target. The target of a drug is commonly referred to as a receptor, but can in general be any chemically sensitive site on any molecule found in the body. The nature of such binding can be quantified by characterising how tightly these molecules, the drug and its receptor, interact: this is known as the affinity. Efficacy, on the other hand, is a measure of the action of a drug once binding has occurred. The maximum response, Emax, will be reduced if efficacy is sufficiently low.

The definition of efficacy has been object for discussion.[4] The only way in which absolute measures of efficacy have been obtained is by single ion channel analysis of ligand gated ion channels. It is still not possible to do this for G protein-linked receptors.

In the case of the glycine receptor and the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (muscle type), it has been proposed by Sivilotti et al. that opening of the ion channel involves two steps after agonist is bound. Firstly a conformation change to a higher affinity (but still shut) form, followed by the conformation change from shut to open.[5][6] It was found that partial agonism results from deficiency in the first step, and that the opening and shutting steps are essentially the same for both full and partial agonists. This has been confirmed and extended by Sine and colleagues (2009).[7] The implication of this work[6] is that efficacy has to be defined by at least two equilibrium constants (or, more generally, by four rate constants).

The combined influences of affinity and efficacy determine how effectively a drug will produce a biological effect, a property known as potency.

Medicine

[edit]

In medicine, efficacy is the capacity for beneficial change (or therapeutic effect) of a given intervention (for example a drug, medical device, surgical procedure, or a public health intervention).[8] Establishment of the efficacy of an intervention is often done relative to other available interventions, with which it will be compared.[9] Specifically, efficacy refers to "whether a drug demonstrates a health benefit over a placebo or other intervention when tested in an ideal situation, such as a tightly controlled clinical trial."[10] These studies focus on a primary parameter to be shown statistically different between placebo and intervention groups. Comparisons of this type are called 'explanatory' randomized controlled trials, whereas 'pragmatic' trials are used to establish the effectiveness of an intervention regarding also non-specific parameters.[citation needed]

Effectiveness refers to "how the drug works in a real-world situation",[11] and is "often lower than efficacy because of interactions with other medications or health conditions of the patient, sufficient dose or duration of use not prescribed by the physician or followed by the patient, or use for an off-label condition that had not been tested."[10][12]

Agriculture

[edit]

In agriculture and forestry, efficacy is used to describe whether a pesticide is effective in controlling a pest or disease.[13]

Theology

[edit]

Scripture

[edit]

In Protestant Theology (esp. in Lutheran but also in Calvinist doctrine) efficacy is an attribute of Scripture. The efficacy of Scripture means that it is united with the power of the Holy Spirit and with it, not only demands, but also creates the acceptance of its teaching[14][15][16] and that this teaching produces faith and obedience. Efficacy further means that Holy Scripture is not a dead letter, but rather, the power of the Holy Spirit is inherent in it[17][18][19] and that Scripture does not compel a mere intellectual assent to its doctrine, resting on logical argumentation, but rather it creates the living agreement of faith.[20][21] The Smalcald Articles affirm, "in those things which concern the spoken, outward Word, we must firmly hold that God grants His Spirit or grace to no one, except through or with the preceding outward Word."[22] The Formula of Concord teaches that when humans reject the calling of the Holy Spirit, it is not a result of the Word being less efficacious. Instead, contempt for the means of grace is the result of "the perverse will of man, which rejects or perverts the means and instrument of the Holy Ghost, which God offers him through the call, and resists the Holy Ghost, who wishes to be efficacious, and works through the Word..."[23]

Prayer

[edit]
Main article: Efficacy of prayer § The Holy Spirit and Christian teaching

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Efficacy

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Efficacy is the capacity of an intervention, treatment, or to achieve its intended or desired effect under ideal and controlled conditions. In scientific and medical contexts, it specifically measures how well a , , or produces a beneficial outcome when administered optimally, often in clinical trials with selected participants and standardized protocols. The term originates from the Latin efficacia, meaning "power" or "effectiveness," entering English in the early 16th century to denote the quality of producing results. Historically, efficacy has been a core concept in evaluating technologies and remedies, emphasizing not just whether something works but the extent to which it fulfills its purpose without external variables. In , efficacy is distinct from , which assesses performance in real-world settings where factors like patient adherence and diverse populations influence outcomes. For , efficacy is quantified as the percentage reduction in disease incidence among vaccinated individuals compared to unvaccinated controls in controlled studies. This metric guides regulatory approvals, such as those by the FDA. Beyond healthcare, efficacy applies to fields like , where self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations, influencing and . In and , it evaluates the performance of systems, such as the of light sources measured in lumens per watt. Overall, assessing efficacy ensures resources are directed toward reliable solutions, balancing potential benefits against risks in practical applications.

Fundamental Concepts

Definition

Efficacy refers to the capacity of an intervention, agent, or process to produce a desired or intended result under ideal or controlled conditions. This concept emphasizes the inherent potential of something to achieve its objective when external variables are minimized, distinguishing it from practical performance in variable real-world settings. The term originates from the Latin efficācia, meaning "" or "power to produce effects," and entered the in the 1520s through medical and philosophical writings. Early uses often highlighted the intrinsic power of remedies or arguments to yield outcomes, reflecting its roots in concepts of accomplishment and capability. Key attributes of efficacy include its focus on the theoretical or potential ability of an entity to function as intended, rather than accounting for real-world factors such as user compliance or environmental influences. It represents the "truth" of whether something works in principle, separate from considerations like safety profiles, economic costs, or overall utility in broader contexts.

Measurement and Assessment

Efficacy is assessed using methodologies tailored to the field, emphasizing rigorous control to isolate the intervention's effects from external influences. In biomedical contexts, controlled experiments form the foundation, employing techniques such as and blinding to minimize variability and factors. testing provides a highly controlled environment to evaluate inherent mechanisms under standardized conditions, often serving as a precursor to broader trials. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) represent the cornerstone for empirical validation in , randomly allocating participants to intervention and control groups to ensure baseline equivalence and enhance . Across fields, statistical frameworks enable precise quantification of efficacy. P-values indicate the likelihood that results arose from chance, typically set at a threshold of 0.05 for . Confidence intervals (CIs) offer a range within which the true effect likely lies, providing context for precision and reliability; for instance, a 95% CI captures the effect estimate with 95% . Effect sizes measure practical magnitude, with Cohen's d—defined as the standardized mean difference between groups—serving as a widely used metric; values of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 denote small, medium, and large effects, respectively. For binary outcomes in clinical trials, (RRR) is commonly used, calculated as 1 minus the (RR) of the adverse event in the treatment group compared to the control: RRR = 1 - (event rate in treatment / event rate in control). This expresses the proportional reduction in risk attributable to the intervention. In other domains, efficacy measurement varies. For example, in engineering, of light sources is quantified in lumens per watt (lm/W), measuring visible light output per unit of power consumed under standardized conditions. In psychology, is assessed via validated scales, such as the General Self-Efficacy Scale, which uses Likert-type items to score individuals' perceived capabilities on a 1-4 range, with higher totals indicating stronger self-efficacy. Challenges in arise from inherent complexities in isolating true effects. Bias control is paramount, as selection, performance, or detection can inflate or deflate apparent efficacy; and mitigate these, though imperfect implementation persists as a . Placebo effects pose a significant hurdle in biomedical studies, where participant expectations yield improvements indistinguishable from active interventions, necessitating double-blinding and active comparators in designs. Endpoint selection further complicates assessments: primary outcomes focus on core efficacy (e.g., symptom reduction), while secondary outcomes explore ancillary benefits but introduce multiplicity risks, requiring adjustments like to maintain validity. Historical milestones underscore the evolution of efficacy measurement, particularly in during the . Early foundations emerged with Ronald Fisher's principles in agricultural experiments during the 1920s, adapted to by the 1940s through trials like the Council's streptomycin study in 1948. The post-World War II (1947) and (1964) emphasized ethical controls, aligning with methodological rigor. A pivotal advancement was the Kefauver-Harris Amendment, which mandated substantial evidence of efficacy from adequate and well-controlled investigations for U.S. drug approvals, elevating RCTs as the standard and ensuring treatments demonstrated benefits outweighing risks.

Biomedical Applications

Pharmacology

In pharmacology, efficacy refers to the maximum biological response a can produce when interacting with its target, primarily through , which studies the biochemical and physiological effects of on the body. achieve efficacy via receptor binding, where the () occupies receptors to elicit a response, often modeled by dose-response curves that quantify the relationship between drug concentration and effect magnitude. These curves illustrate how efficacy plateaus at the maximum response (E_max) despite increasing concentrations, reflecting receptor saturation. A foundational equation in receptor theory for this relationship, assuming a simple hyperbolic dose-response (Hill coefficient n=1), is: E=Emax⁡⋅[D]EC50+[D]E = E_{\max} \cdot \frac{[D]}{EC_{50} + [D]} where EE is the observed effect, Emax⁡E_{\max} is the maximum efficacy, [D][D] is the drug concentration, and EC50EC_{50} is the concentration producing 50% of Emax⁡E_{\max}. Several factors influence pharmacological efficacy beyond basic receptor interactions. Intrinsic activity, first conceptualized by E.J. Ariëns, measures a drug's ability to activate a receptor after binding; full agonists exhibit high intrinsic activity (approaching 1), producing the maximum possible response, while partial agonists have lower intrinsic activity (e.g., 0.5 or less), yielding submaximal effects even at full receptor occupancy. Bioavailability, the fraction of administered drug reaching systemic circulation unchanged, directly impacts efficacy by determining the concentration available at target sites; low oral bioavailability due to poor absorption or first-pass metabolism necessitates higher doses to achieve therapeutic effects. Similarly, drug metabolism, primarily via hepatic enzymes like cytochrome P450, can reduce efficacy by converting active compounds to inactive metabolites, with variability influenced by genetic polymorphisms or enzyme induction/inhibition. A representative example of pharmacological efficacy is penicillin, a β-lactam antibiotic that inhibits bacterial synthesis under ideal laboratory conditions by binding irreversibly to , such as DD-transpeptidase, preventing cross-linking essential for wall integrity. This disruption leads to osmotic lysis and bacterial death, with high efficacy against susceptible Gram-positive strains like in controlled assays, where minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) as low as 0.03–0.12 μg/mL demonstrate potent inhibition. Regulatory aspects of pharmacological efficacy trace to the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which mandated pre-clinical demonstration of drug safety through animal models to assess pharmacological actions and toxicity before human testing, laying the groundwork for evaluating potential efficacy in non-clinical settings. The U.S. (FDA) requires pre-clinical data, including pharmacological profiles from at least two animal species (one , one non-), to predict efficacy mechanisms and support applications, ensuring drugs exhibit targeted effects without undue risk.

Medicine

In medicine, efficacy denotes the capacity of therapeutic interventions to achieve desired health outcomes under controlled, optimal conditions, primarily evaluated through clinical trials that measure improvements in symptoms, function, or survival rates compared to standard care or . Phase III trials are pivotal in this process, involving large-scale, randomized, controlled studies to confirm efficacy in diverse populations before regulatory approval. For example, the Phase III trial of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine (BNT162b2) reported 95% efficacy in preventing laboratory-confirmed cases starting 28 days after the first dose, based on 170 confirmed infections among over 43,000 participants. Similarly, Moderna's mRNA-1273 demonstrated 94.1% efficacy against symptomatic in its Phase III trial, with no severe cases in the vaccinated group. Efficacy varies across medical contexts, with controlled studies providing benchmarks for success. In surgical interventions, such as total knee arthroplasty for , clinical trials show that 90-95% of implants remain functional after 10 years, with significant relief and improved mobility in over 85% of patients. For psychotherapy, (CBT) for yields response rates of about 48%, defined as a 50% or greater reduction in depressive symptoms, outperforming control conditions in meta-analyses of randomized trials. In diagnostics, efficacy is gauged by the test's impact on clinical outcomes; mammography screening, for instance, reduces mortality by approximately 20% in women aged 40-74, as evidenced by randomized controlled trials involving over 600,000 participants. Evidence hierarchies prioritize meta-analyses and systematic reviews to synthesize trial data and grade efficacy robustly. The Cochrane Collaboration employs the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and ) , classifying as high, moderate, low, or very low based on factors like risk of , inconsistency, and precision, ensuring reliable assessments for clinical decision-making. Historically, medical efficacy evaluation has shifted from reliance on anecdotal reports and expert opinion to , formalized in the early 1990s through rigorous trial methodologies. This transition was catalyzed by the 1993 establishment of the Cochrane Collaboration, which pioneered international systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials to combat inefficiencies in healthcare and promote interventions supported by high-quality evidence.

Agricultural Applications

Crop Production

In crop production, efficacy refers to the effectiveness of agricultural inputs and practices in maximizing yields under controlled field conditions, often measured relative to resource inputs and baseline performance. This involves optimizing nutrient delivery, water management, genetic traits, and experimental validation to enhance productivity while minimizing waste. Key metrics focus on resource use efficiency, such as yield per unit of input, to quantify improvements in staple crops like wheat, rice, and maize. Fertilizer efficacy is critically assessed through uptake , particularly nitrogen use (NUE), calculated as grain yield divided by applied (in kg/kg), which indicates how effectively crops convert into harvestable biomass. Typical NUE values range from 20-50 kg/kg in cereals, highlighting opportunities for improvement via precise application and crop genetics. During the of the 1960s, high-yielding semidwarf hybrids, such as those for and , dramatically boosted yields by 100-200% in regions like and through better responsiveness to fertilizers, enabling global cereal production to more than double between 1961 and 2000. Irrigation and practices, such as , enhance efficacy in water-scarce areas by delivering directly to , reducing and runoff. use efficiency, measured as yield per unit of applied (kg/m³), exemplifies this; for , drip systems achieve 1-2 kg/m³, compared to 0.5-1 kg/m³ under traditional methods, allowing up to 30-50% savings while maintaining or increasing yields. These systems integrate with soil amendments like mulching to further optimize moisture retention and nutrient availability. In breeding and , efficacy is evident in like Bt corn, introduced in 1996, which incorporates genes for insect resistance, yielding 20-30% higher outputs in ideal conditions by reducing pest damage without additional pesticides. This trait has contributed to cumulative U.S. corn yield gains of 5-25% over non-GM counterparts since adoption, demonstrating sustained genetic enhancements in production systems. Agronomic assessment of these inputs relies on field trials using randomized complete block designs, where treatments are allocated randomly within blocks to account for soil heterogeneity, enabling precise measurement of efficacy against unamended baselines. This design, used in over 95% of agronomic experiments, minimizes variability and supports on yield responses, as seen in trials evaluating rates or schedules.

Pest Management

In pest management, efficacy quantifies the success of interventions aimed at suppressing agricultural pests and diseases in controlled or field environments, emphasizing targeted reductions in population density while minimizing ecological disruption. Within (IPM) programs, efficacy metrics guide by evaluating the relative impact of treatments against untreated controls, promoting sustainable practices that integrate chemical, biological, and cultural methods. Pesticide efficacy is typically measured using Abbott's formula, which corrects for natural mortality or density fluctuations in controls: E=(1−TC)×100%E = \left(1 - \frac{T}{C}\right) \times 100\% where EE is the percent efficacy, TT is the proportion of pests surviving (or ) in the treated plot, and CC is the proportion in the untreated control. This approach, standard in IPM since its formalization in 1925, ensures accurate assessment of treatment effects in and field trials. For example, insecticides, introduced in the 1990s, have shown 90-98% control of populations in laboratory bioassays, demonstrating high initial efficacy against sucking pests like the cotton (Aphis gossypii) through systemic action that disrupts neural transmission. Biological controls enhance IPM by leveraging natural enemies, with efficacy often exceeding 50% population reduction in enclosed systems like greenhouses. Predators such as ladybugs ( spp.) have achieved up to 70% reductions in densities over multi-week trials, attributed to their voracious feeding on immature stages and ability to establish in protected environments; for instance, successive weekly declines of 70% were observed in cucumber aphid infestations when releasing . These outcomes highlight the role of releases in achieving targeted suppression without chemical residues, though success depends on predator-prey ratios and environmental conditions. Resistance management addresses the erosion of efficacy over time, as repeated exposure selects for tolerant pest populations, reducing treatment effectiveness by factors like genetic and migration. A seminal historical case is the emergence of DDT resistance in houseflies (Musca domestica) as early as 1946, just years after its widespread adoption in the , which prompted shifts toward diversified IPM strategies to delay such adaptations. Regulatory frameworks ensure pesticide efficacy claims are substantiated through rigorous testing, originating with the 1947 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), which mandates registration based on performance data. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) enforces these via Series 810 Product Performance Test Guidelines, requiring replicated trials to demonstrate statistically significant under realistic conditions, including metrics like percent reduction and duration of effect, before approving labels.

Theological Applications

Scripture

In religious texts, efficacy often manifests through divine commands and narratives that demonstrate the performative power of sacred words to effect change in the created order. In the , the creation account in Genesis 1 exemplifies this, where God's spoken word repeatedly brings reality into being, as in "," resulting in immediate fulfillment without intermediary agents, underscoring the inherent efficacy of divine utterance to create ex nihilo. Similarly, the parting of the in Exodus 14 portrays God's intervention as a divinely efficacious act, where , at divine command, stretches out his hand, causing the waters to divide and enabling the ' escape from Egyptian pursuit, thereby affirming God's sovereign power over natural forces for deliverance. Theological interpretations within emphasize scripture's authoritative and performative nature, particularly in Protestant traditions. The doctrine of , central to the 16th-century and articulated by figures like , posits that scripture alone possesses inherent efficacy, empowered by the , to convict, regenerate, and guide believers toward salvation and obedience without reliance on ecclesiastical traditions. This view highlights scripture's self-authenticating power, as seen in its ability to pierce the heart and produce transformative faith, drawing from passages like 4:12 that describe the word as living and active. In comparative religious contexts, similar concepts of scriptural efficacy appear across traditions. In , the Quran's surahs, such as (113) and An-Nas (114), are recited as protective invocations against evil, with prophetic traditions affirming their efficacy in warding off harm, envy, and spiritual affliction when uttered with , thereby serving as a shield through divine preservation. Likewise, in , Vedic texts like the contain hymns known as mantras, chanted in rituals to invoke deities and seek benefits such as prosperity, health, and protection, connecting the reciter to divine forces through intentional devotion. Scholarly analysis in the , through higher criticism, debated the historical efficacy of such scriptural events, questioning their literal occurrence versus symbolic or mythological interpretations. Pioneered by scholars like , this approach examined the documentary sources of biblical texts, often concluding that narratives like miracles reflected later theological constructs rather than verifiable history, challenging traditional views of divine intervention while prompting defenses of scripture's inspirational authority over empirical .

Prayer

In Christian doctrine, the efficacy of intercessory is emphasized as a powerful spiritual mechanism, particularly through the teaching in James 5:16 that "the effectual fervent of a man availeth much," highlighting its role in achieving and communal restoration when offered with and . This view underscores faith-based expectations that such prayers invoke divine intervention for personal and collective , fostering outcomes like unity and moral renewal within congregations. In , the daily ritual is regarded as highly efficacious for spiritual purification, performed five times a day to cleanse the soul of sins, enhance God-consciousness, and cultivate ethical discipline as a pillar of . Across other faiths, prayer practices exhibit varied efficacies tied to enlightenment and covenantal bonds. In , hybrid forms of and , such as devotional recitations invoking bodhisattvas, are seen as efficacious pathways to enlightenment by generating positive karma, fostering , and aligning the mind with through aspirational verses. Similarly, in , tefillah is understood as rooted in covenantal relationship, where 's power stems from communal and the shared of divine , enabling participants to influence outcomes through heartfelt rooted in historical and relational fidelity to . Empirical investigations into 's efficacy have yielded mixed results, often blending faith-based and scientific lenses. A seminal study by Randolph Byrd examined intercessory prayer for 393 cardiac patients in a , finding that prayed-for individuals experienced fewer complications and required less medical intervention, suggesting marginal therapeutic benefits from distant prayer to the ; however, the study faced critiques for methodological flaws, including non-blinded assessments and potential selection biases. from religious communities frequently reports communal outcomes, such as heightened spiritual resilience and social cohesion following group prayer sessions. Historical events illustrate claims of prayer's societal efficacy in religious revivals. During the Argentine revival, following the Falklands War defeat that shattered national pride and sparked widespread spiritual seeking, sustained intercessory prayers by youth groups and churches led to explosive church growth, with attendance surging from hundreds to tens of thousands and contributing to broader societal shifts toward moral renewal and reduced . These developments, marked by increased evangelistic fervor and community transformation, were attributed to the fervent prayers that preceded and sustained the movement.

References

  1. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/efficacy
  2. https://toolkit.ncats.nih.gov/glossary/efficacy/
  3. https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/what-difference-between-efficacy-and-effectiveness
  4. https://healthjournalism.org/glossary-terms/effectiveness-vs-efficacy/
  5. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/efficacy
  6. https://www.oed.com/dictionary/efficacy_n
  7. https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk3/1978/7805/780504.PDF
  8. https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaphcm/international-archives-of-public-health-and-community-medicine-iaphcm-4-035.php
  9. https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-Does-Efficacy-Mean.aspx
  10. https://www.med.upenn.edu/hbhe4/part3-ch8-key-constructs.shtml
  11. https://highways.dot.gov/safety/other/visibility/fhwa-lighting-handbook-august-2012/glossary-terms
  12. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/efficacy
  13. https://www.etymonline.com/word/efficacy
  14. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/efficacy
  15. https://australianprescriber.tg.org.au/articles/efficacy-effectiveness-efficiency.html
  16. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045025/
  17. https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aogs.13309
  18. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5133225/
  19. https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/cohens-d/
  20. https://www.bmj.com/content/360/bmj.j564
  21. https://positivepsychology.com/self-efficacy-scale/
  22. https://www.fda.gov/media/162416/download
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2900312/
  24. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2451865419302480
  25. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8108842/
  26. https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/fda-history/milestones-us-food-and-drug-law
  27. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507791/
  28. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6188923/
  29. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557852/
  30. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9413241/
  31. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/investigational-new-drug-ind-application/drug-development-and-review-definitions
  32. https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/changes-science-law-and-regulatory-authorities/part-ii-1938-food-drug-cosmetic-act
  33. https://www.pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer-and-biontech-conclude-phase-3-study-covid-19-vaccine
  34. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2035389
  35. https://orthop.washington.edu/patient-care/articles/knee/total-knee-replacement-a-patients-guide.html
  36. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3748969/
  37. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13335
  38. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953622003793
  39. https://www.cochrane.org/learn/courses-and-resources/cochrane-methodology/grade
  40. https://www.cochrane.org/about-us/our-story
  41. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2023.1121073/full
  42. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1356&context=agronomyfacpub
  43. https://www.yara.co.uk/grow-the-future/efficient-farming/nitrogen-use-efficiency/
  44. https://www.britannica.com/event/green-revolution
  45. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3666715/
  46. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/agronomy/articles/10.3389/fagro.2024.1490423/full
  47. https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/14/6/956
  48. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Irrigation-water-use-efficiency-of-Maize-under-Surface-and-Drip-Irrigation_tbl3_340417229
  49. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK424544/
  50. https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2023/05/12/does-gmo-corn-increase-crop-yields-more-than-20-years-of-data-confirm-it-does-and-provides-substantial-health-and-safety-benefits/
  51. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016706107001140
  52. https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/agronj14.0232
  53. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.4c06628
  54. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41348-024-00968-0
  55. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338558209_More_Effective_Selective_and_Safe_Neonicotinoid_Efficacy_of_Selected_Neonicotinoids_on_Cotton_Aphid_Aphis_gossypii_Homoptera_Aphididae_and_Their_impact_on_Natural_Predators
  56. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392532990_Field_Efficacy_and_residues_of_Pyrethroid_Neonicotinoid_and_Anti-Feeding_Insecticides_versus_Aphids_in_Egyptian_Sugar_Beet
  57. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5492052/
  58. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2080
  59. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028102-100-unnatural-selection-the-arms-race-against-pests/
  60. https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ddt-brief-history-and-status
  61. https://www.epa.gov/test-guidelines-pesticides-and-toxic-substances/series-810-product-performance-test-guidelines
  62. https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/federal-insecticide-fungicide-and-rodenticide-act-fifra-and-federal-facilities
  63. https://enduringword.com/bible-commentary/genesis-1/
  64. https://www.gotquestions.org/parting-Red-Sea.html
  65. https://johnharmstrong.com/the-supreme-authority-of-scripture/
  66. https://www.helwyssocietyforum.com/the-spirit-and-the-sufficiency-of-scripture/
  67. https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/duas-for-relief-and-protection
  68. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rigveda
  69. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04491c.htm
  70. https://www.gotquestions.org/fervent-prayer.html
  71. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/16/11/1347
  72. https://buddhaweekly.com/what-is-buddhist-prayer-a-wish-an-activity-an-aspiration-an-act-of-love-a-form-of-meditation/
  73. https://www.exploringjudaism.org/every-day/prayer/understanding-prayer/tfillah-prayer-a-mitzvah-to-take-a-time-out/
  74. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3393937/
  75. https://thestandard.org.uk/content/the-blog/item/the-awesome-argentina-revival
  76. https://romans1015.com/1984-argentine-revival/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.