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Carolina parakeet
Carolina parakeet
Carolina parakeet
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Carolina parakeet
Mounted specimen in the Naturalis Biodiversity Center

Extinct (1918)  (IUCN 3.1)[1]

Presumed Extinct (1918)  (NatureServe)[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Psittacidae
Tribe: Arini
Genus: †Conuropsis
Salvadori, 1891
Species:
†C. carolinensis
Binomial name
†Conuropsis carolinensis
Subspecies

C. c. carolinensis
C. c. ludovicianus

Synonyms

Psittacus carolinensis Linnaeus, 1758
Conurus carolinensis Lesson, 1831

The Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis), or Carolina conure, is an extinct species of small green neotropical parrot with a bright yellow head, reddish orange face, and pale beak that was native to the Eastern, Midwest, and Plains states of the United States. It was the only indigenous parrot within its range, and one of only three parrot species native to the United States. The others are the thick-billed parrot, now extirpated,[3] and the green parakeet, still present in Texas;[4] a fourth parrot species, the red-crowned amazon, is debated.[5][6][7]

The Carolina parakeet was called Maskowhinge in Powhatan , puzzi la née ("head of yellow") or pot pot chee by the Seminole and kelinky in Chickasaw.[8] Though formerly prevalent within its range, the bird had become rare by the middle of the 19th century. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was of the C. c. ludovicianus subspecies in 1910. The last known specimen, a male named Incas, perished in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918,[9][10] and the species was declared extinct in 1939.

The earliest reference to these parrots was in 1583 in Florida reported by Sir George Peckham in A True Report of the Late Discoveries of the Newfound Lands of expeditions conducted by English explorer Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who notes that explorers in North America "doe testifie that they have found in those countryes; ... parrots". They were first scientifically described in English naturalist Mark Catesby's two-volume Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands published in London in 1731 and 1743.

Carolina parakeets were probably poisonous – French-American naturalist and painter John J. Audubon noted that cats apparently died from eating them, and they are known to have eaten the toxic seeds of cockleburs.[11][12]

Taxonomy

[edit]
C. c. ludovicianus by John James Audubon

Carolinensis is a species of the genus Conuropsis, one of numerous genera of New World Neotropical parrots in family Psittacidae of true parrots.

The binomial Psittacus carolinensis was assigned by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae published in 1758. The species was given its own genus, Conuropsis, by Italian zoologist and ornithologist Tommaso Salvadori in 1891 in his Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum, volume 20. The name is derived from the Greek-ified conure ("parrot of the genus Conurus" an obsolete name of genus Aratinga) + -opsis ("likeness of") and Latinized Carolina (from Carolana, an English colonial province[Note 1][13]) + -ensis (of or "from a place"), therefore a bird "like a conure from Carolina".

Two subspecies are recognized: The Louisiana subspecies of the Carolina parakeet, C. c. ludovicianus,[Note 2] was slightly different in color from the nominate subspecies, being more bluish-green and generally of a somewhat subdued coloration, and became extinct in much the same way, but at a somewhat earlier date (early 1910s). The Appalachian Mountains separated these birds from the eastern C. c. carolinensis.[14]

Evolution

[edit]

According to a study of mitochondrial DNA recovered from museum specimens, their closest living relatives include some of the South American Aratinga parakeets: The Nanday parakeet, the sun conure, and the golden-capped parakeet. The authors note the bright yellow and orange plumage and blue wing feathers found in C. carolinensis are traits shared by another species, the jandaya parakeet (A. jandaya), that was not sampled in the study, but is generally thought to be closely related.[Note 3] To help resolve the divergence time, a whole genome of a preserved specimen has now been sequenced.[15][16][17] The Carolina parakeet colonized North America about 5.5 million years ago. This was well before North America and South America were joined by the formation of the Panama land bridge about 3.5 mya. Since the Carolina parakeets' more distant relations are geographically closer to its own historic range while its closest relatives are more geographically distant to it, these data are consistent with the generally accepted hypothesis that Central and North America were colonized at different times by distinct lineages of parrots – parrots that originally invaded South America from Antarctica some time after the breakup of Gondwana, where Neotropical parrots originated approximately 50 mya.

Illustration by John James Audubon

The following cladogram shows the placement of the Carolina parakeet among its closest relatives, after a DNA study by Kirchman et al. (2012):[16]

Arini

Cyanopsitta spixii (Spix's macaw)

Orthopsittaca (red-bellied macaw)

Primolius (contains three species)

Ara

Ara macao (scarlet macaw)

Ara glaucogularis (blue-throated macaw)

Conuropsis carolinensis (Carolina parakeet)

Aratinga

Aratinga nenday (Nanday parakeet)

Aratinga solstitialis (sun conure)

Aratinga auricapillus (golden-capped parakeet)

A fossil parrot, designated Conuropsis fratercula, was described based on a single humerus from the Miocene Sheep Creek Formation (possibly late Hemingfordian, c. 16 mya, possibly later) of Snake River, Nebraska.[18] It was a smaller bird, three-quarters the size of the Carolina parakeet. "The present species is of peculiar interest as it represents the first known parrot-like bird to be described as a fossil from North America." (Wetmore 1926;[18] italics added) However, it is not completely certain that the species is correctly assigned to Conuropsis.[19]

Description

[edit]
Turnaround video of a C. c. carolinensis specimen at Naturalis Biodiversity Center

The Carolina parakeet was a small, green parrot very similar in size and coloration to the extant jenday parakeet and sun conure – the sun conure being its closest living relative.[20]

The majority of the parakeets' plumage was green with lighter green underparts, a bright yellow head and orange forehead and face extending to behind the eyes and upper cheeks (lores). The shoulders were yellow, continuing down the outer edge of the wings. The primary feathers were mostly green, but with yellow edges on the outer primaries. Thighs were green towards the top and yellow towards the feet. Male and female adults were identical in plumage, however males were slightly larger than females (sexually dimorphic only in size). Their legs and feet were light brown. They share the zygodactyl feet common to all the parrot family. Their eyes were ringed by white skin and their beaks were pale flesh colored. These birds weigh about 3.5 oz.,[Note 4] are 13 in. long, and have wingspans of 21–23 in.

Young Carolina parakeets differed slightly in coloration from adults. The face and entire body were green, with paler underparts. They lacked yellow or orange plumage on the face, wings, and thighs. Hatchlings were covered in mouse-gray down, until about 39–40 days old, when green wings and tails appeared. Fledglings had full adult plumage around 1 year of age.[21][22]Snyder & Russell (2002)

These birds were fairly long-lived, at least in captivity: A pair was kept at the Cincinnati Zoo for over 35 years.

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Photo of a live pet specimen, 1906

The Carolina parakeet had the northernmost range of any known parrot. It was found from southern New York and Wisconsin to Kentucky, Tennessee, and the Gulf of Mexico, from the Atlantic Seaboard to as far west as eastern Colorado. It lived in old-growth forests along rivers and in swamps.[23][24] Its range was described by early explorers thus: the 43rd parallel as the northern limit, the 26th as the most southern, the 73rd and 106th meridians as the eastern and western boundaries, respectively, the range included all or portions of at least 28 states.[Note 5] Its habitats were old-growth wetland forests along rivers and in swamps, especially in the Mississippi-Missouri drainage basin with large hollow trees including cypress and sycamore to use as roosting and nesting sites.

Only very rough estimates of the birds' former prevalence can be made, with an estimated range of 20,000 to 2.5 million km2, and population density of 0.5 to 2.0 parrots per km2, population estimates range from tens of thousands to a few million birds (though the densest populations occurred in Florida covering 170,000 km2, so hundreds of thousands of the birds may have been in that state alone).

The species may have appeared as a very rare vagrant in places as far north as southern Ontario in Canada. A few bones, including a pygostyle found at the Calvert Site in southern Ontario, came from the Carolina parakeet. The possibility remains open that this specimen was taken there for ceremonial purposes.[25]

Behavior and diet

[edit]
This live captive bird was photographed by Robert Wilson Shufeldt around 1900.

The bird lived in huge, noisy flocks of as many as 300 birds. It built its nest in a hollow tree, laying two to five[26] (most accounts say two) 1.6 in (4.1 cm) round white eggs. Reportedly, multiple female parakeets could deposit their eggs into one nest, similar to nesting behavior described in the monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus).[27]

It mostly ate the seeds of forest trees and shrubs, including those of cypress, hackberry, beech, sycamore, elm, pine, maple, oak, and other plants such as thistles and sandspurs (Cenchrus species). It ate fruits, including apples, grapes, and figs (often from orchards by the time of its decline), and flower buds, and occasionally, insects.[23][28] It was especially noted for its predilection for cockleburs (Xanthium strumarium),[12] a plant which contains a toxic glucoside,[29] and it was considered to be an agricultural pest of grain crops.[30]

Extinction

[edit]
Turnaround video of a C. c. ludovicianus specimen, Naturalis

The last captive Carolina parakeet, Incas, died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918, in the same cage as Martha, the last passenger pigeon, which died in 1914.[31] There are no scientific studies or surveys of this bird by American naturalists; most information about it is from anecdotal accounts and museum specimens, so details of its prevalence and decline are unverified or speculative.

Extensive accounts of the precolonial and early colonial have been given for prevalence of this bird. The existence of flocks of gregarious, very colorful and raucous parrots could hardly have gone unnoted by European explorers, as parrots were virtually unknown in seafaring European nations in the 16th and 17th centuries. Later accounts in the latter half of the 19th century onward noted the birds' sparseness and absence.[32]

Genetic evidence suggests that while populations had been in decline since the last glacial maximum, the lack of evidence of inbreeding suggests that the birds declined very quickly.[33]

The birds' range collapsed from east to west with settlement and clearing of the eastern and southern deciduous forests. John J. Audubon commented as early as 1832 on the decline of the birds. The bird was rarely reported outside Florida after 1860. The last reported sighting east of the Mississippi River (except Florida) was in 1878 in Kentucky. By the turn of the century, it was restricted to the swamps of central Florida. The last known wild specimen was killed in Okeechobee County, Florida, in 1904, and the last captive bird died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918. This was the male specimen, Incas, that died within a year of his mate, Lady Jane.[34] Additional reports of the bird were made in Okeechobee County, Florida, until the late 1920s, but these are not supported by specimens. However two sets of eggs purportedly taken from active nests in 1927 are in the collection of the Florida Museum of Natural History, and genetic testing could prove the species was still breeding at that time.[35][36] Not until 1939, however, did the American Ornithologists' Society declare the Carolina parakeet to be extinct. The IUCN has listed the species as extinct since 1920.

In 1937, three parakeets resembling this species were sighted and filmed in the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia. However, the American Ornithologists' Union analyzed the film and concluded that they had probably filmed feral parakeets.[37] A year later, in 1938, a flock of parakeets was apparently sighted by a group of experienced ornithologists in the swamps of the Santee River basin in South Carolina, but this sighting was doubted by most other ornithologists. The birds were never seen again after this sighting, and shortly after a portion of the area was destroyed to make way for power lines, making the species' continued existence unlikely.[38]

About 720 skins and 16 skeletons are housed in museums around the world,[39] and analyzable DNA has been extracted from them.[20]

Reasons for extinction

[edit]
Turnaround video of a mounted skeleton, Naturalis

The evidence is indicative that humans had at least a contributory role in the extinction of the Carolina parakeet, through a variety of means.[40] Chief was deforestation in the 18th and 19th centuries. Hunting played a significant role, both for decorative use of their colorful feathers, for example, adornment of women's hats, and for reduction of crop predation.[1] This was partially offset by the recognition of their value in controlling invasive cockleburs. Minor roles were played by capture for the pet trade and, as noted in Pacific Standard, by the introduction for crop pollination of European honeybees that competed for nest sites.[41]

A factor that exacerbated their decline to extinction was the flocking behavior that led them to return to the vicinity of dead and dying birds (such as birds downed by hunting), enabling wholesale slaughter.[40]

The final extinction of the species in the early years of the 20th century is somewhat of a mystery, as it happened so rapidly. Vigorous flocks with many juveniles and reproducing pairs were noted as late as 1896, and the birds were long-lived in captivity, but they had virtually disappeared by 1904. Sufficient nest sites remained intact, so deforestation was not the final cause. American ornithologist Noel F. Snyder[8] speculates that the most likely cause seems to be that the birds succumbed to poultry disease, although no recent or historical records exist of New World parrot populations being afflicted by domestic poultry diseases. The modern poultry scourge Newcastle disease was not detected until 1926 in Indonesia, and only a subacute form of it was reported in the United States in 1938. Genetic research on samples did not show any significant presence of bird viruses (though this does not solely rule out disease).[33]

See also

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  • Green parakeet, the other living U.S. parrot, found in southern Texas
  • Monk parakeet, a prevalent feral parrot in the United States, often incorrectly presumed to be native
  • Feral parrots, other non-native parrots in the United States

Notes

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Carolina parakeet

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) was a small, vibrant endemic to the eastern and , notable as the only native to temperate . Approximately 34 cm (13 in) in length with a wingspan of about 53–58 cm (21–23 in), it featured predominantly green plumage, a head and forehead, and an orange-yellow face marked by red-orange streaks behind the eyes. These birds inhabited bottomland hardwood forests, cypress swamps, sycamore woodlands, and riverine wetlands, ranging from southern New York and southward to the Gulf Coast and as far west as the . They nested in large colonies within hollow trees, often traveling in noisy flocks of hundreds to thousands that foraged on seeds (particularly cockleburs), fruits, berries, and occasionally crops like apples and grains, which led to conflicts with farmers. The Carolina parakeet underwent a rapid in the , driven by widespread for , overhunting for feathers used in women's millinery, and systematic killing as perceived pests, with a possible contribution from diseases transmitted from imported parrots. By the late 1800s, sightings were confined to , the last confirmed wild individual was shot in Okeechobee County in 1904, and the final captive specimen died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918, marking the species' extinction.

Taxonomy

Classification and Etymology

The Carolina parakeet bears the binomial nomenclature Conuropsis carolinensis. It was first formally described by the Swedish naturalist in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae published in 1758, under the original name Psittacus carolinensis, placing it among the broad category of parrots known at the time. The species was subsequently moved to the genus Conurus by René Primevère Lesson in 1831. In 1891, Italian zoologist Tommaso Salvadori established the monotypic genus Conuropsis for the species in his Catalogue of the Birds in the , separating it from other parrots based on distinctive morphological traits. The etymology of Conuropsis derives from the Greek words "kōnos" (κόνος), meaning cone, and "opsis" (ὄψις), meaning appearance or likeness, alluding to the bird's long, wedge- or cone-shaped tail that resembles those of conure parrots. The specific epithet carolinensis is a Latinized form honoring the Carolina colonies in , where the species was first observed and collected by European naturalists. Historically, the Carolina parakeet was initially classified alongside South American conures in the genus Psittacus due to superficial similarities in and body form. Subsequent reclassifications in the 19th and 20th centuries recognized it as a distinct North American endemic, supported by detailed morphological analyses and later genetic studies revealing high divergence from South American congeners while confirming affinities with neotropical lineages. Within the family (true parrots), it is placed in the subfamily Arinae and tribe Arini, with its closest relatives among other neotropical parrots based on .

Subspecies

The Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) is divided into two recognized : the nominate C. c. carolinensis, which occupied eastern regions, and C. c. ludovicianus, found in western areas. These were distinguished primarily through examinations of specimens, revealing morphological variations in size, plumage coloration, and head markings. The eastern nominate subspecies, C. c. carolinensis, was characterized by its smaller body size, brighter head, and more vibrant overall , including vivid feathers with prominent and orange accents on the face and neck. In comparison, the western C. c. ludovicianus was larger, with paler body , a more subdued coloration throughout, an orange forehead, and reduced extent on the head. These differences, noted in measurements of , bill, and lengths from specimens, reflect adaptations possibly tied to their respective environments, though genetic analyses confirm minimal divergence at the level. Historically, C. c. carolinensis ranged across the , from the southeastern coastal plains and northward to the and as far as southern New York, favoring forested habitats east of the . The C. c. ludovicianus inhabited the Midwest and , extending from and westward to , , and , with little overlap between the two ranges as reconstructed from georeferenced sightings and specimen data. These distributions were mapped using historical records, highlighting the ' separation by geographic barriers like the Appalachians. Regarding extinction, C. c. ludovicianus disappeared earlier, with the last confirmed records from the late , while C. c. carolinensis persisted into the early , with the final wild sighting in 1904 and the last captive individual dying in 1918. A 2021 analysis of occurrence data, however, revised these timelines, indicating separate events approximately 30 years apart: C. c. ludovicianus around 1914 and C. c. carolinensis around 1944, both occurring after previous estimates and linked to habitat loss and pressures. This evidence derives from curated collections and contemporary accounts, underscoring the staggered decline of each .

Description

Physical Characteristics

The Carolina parakeet was a medium-sized measuring 30–34 cm in length, with a of approximately 53–58 cm and a body weight of approximately 100 g (males slightly larger than females). It possessed a slender build, characterized by a long, tapered that contributed to its agile flight and distinctive . The bird's was predominantly bright green on the body and wings, with lighter green underparts, while the head featured a bright and cheeks transitioning to an orange-red and face. The was pale flesh-colored, and adults displayed a white bare periophthalmic ring surrounding the dark eyes. was minimal, with males slightly larger than females in overall size but no consistent differences in plumage coloration or pattern. Juveniles exhibited duller overall , with a predominantly head showing reduced orange-red on the forehead and cheeks, gradually developing the brighter adult colors by their first breeding season. Key morphological adaptations included a strong, hooked adapted for cracking hard seeds and nuts, and zygodactyl feet—two toes forward and two backward—for effective perching and climbing in forested environments. Subspecies showed minor variations in color intensity, with the nominate C. c. carolinensis displaying more vibrant hues compared to the paler C. c. ludovicianus.

Vocalizations

The Carolina parakeet was renowned for its highly vocal nature, typical of psittacine birds, with flocks producing loud, unpleasant screams that could be heard from great distances, allowing observers to detect their presence long before sighting them. Historical accounts from the describe the species' voice as loud, harsh, and grating, often filling the air with a cacophony during flight or when approaching food sources. These vocalizations served primarily for flock coordination, enabling the birds to maintain contact while in dense vegetation or migrating in large groups. Alarm and distress calls were particularly notable, with wounded individuals emitting a mournful and piteous cry that drew nearby flock members to remain in the vicinity, heightening their vulnerability to predators or hunters—a observed and documented by early naturalists. Alexander Wilson noted in 1811 that the call of a caged could attract wild flocks, underscoring the communicative power of these sounds for social rallying. Paul Wilhelm, Duke of Württemberg, described flocks in as "screaming parrots" flying noisily overhead, highlighting the intensity of their aerial vocalizations. No audio recordings of the Carolina parakeet exist, as the species became extinct in 1918, leaving only written descriptions from 18th- and 19th-century observers like and Wilson to convey its acoustic profile. These accounts emphasize that the parakeet's calls were distinct from other North American birds, often described as shrill and repetitive, which facilitated identification in eyewitness reports amid varied regional avifauna. Captive individuals occasionally mimicked human words or environmental sounds, though this talent was not widespread.

Distribution and Habitat

Historical Range

The Carolina parakeet originally occupied much of the , with a core range from and the Ohio Valley southward to and the Gulf Coast. The eastern subspecies (C. c. carolinensis) was primarily distributed east of the and the , while the western subspecies (C. c. ludovicianus) occurred west of these barriers, extending to eastern and , with minimal overlap between the two and an overall range smaller than previously believed. Rare exist as far north as southern , the , and southern Ontario, and westward to . Within this range, the species achieved highest densities in the bottomland hardwood forests of the Valley, where large flocks were commonly reported along riverine corridors, while occurrences were more sporadic and localized in the and Atlantic coastal plains. By the early , escalating habitat loss from widespread and conversion to had prompted a marked contraction of the range, forcing surviving populations to retreat primarily to southern and southeastern refugia. Confirmed sightings in the Midwest ceased by the , with the final verified wild individuals noted in that decade, whereas unconfirmed reports lingered in through the 1920s. A 2017 study published in Ecology and Evolution, drawing on georeferenced specimen records from collections worldwide, refined historical mapping of the range and revealed a more extensive Midwest distribution than earlier accounts suggested for the western , while identifying some peripheral records as likely erroneous or vagrant outliers. The exhibited nomadic in massive flocks that roamed irregularly to track seasonal abundances of fruits, , and nuts, rather than following fixed migratory routes.

Habitat Preferences

The Carolina parakeet primarily inhabited mature bottomland hardwood forests, particularly those dominated by , , and in upland areas, as well as cypress swamps and sycamore woodlands along river valleys. These ecosystems provided the large, old-growth trees essential for nesting and roosting in natural cavities, with the birds showing a strong preference for undisturbed, environments in the Mississippi-Missouri and similar riverine systems. While their core range extended across the southeastern and , from subtropical lowlands in to temperate zones as far north as and the Ohio and west to the Mississippi and eastern , the parakeets were notably absent from dense coniferous forests. For , the utilized more open habitats such as woodlands, edges of prairies, and occasionally orchards or grasslands, where sources were accessible. They exhibited tolerance for a broad altitudinal gradient, occurring from in coastal plains to approximately 1,000 meters in the Appalachian foothills, adapting to varied climates without venturing into higher elevations. The parakeets depended heavily on mast-producing trees and plants, including nuts from Carya and from cockleburs (), which influenced their distribution toward areas with reliable nut crops in fall. Seasonal movements often brought flocks to agricultural margins during winter, seeking supplemental in disturbed landscapes adjacent to their preferred forests. Early observed the parakeets' affinity for pristine, old-growth forests, noting that the birds avoided heavily modified areas but increasingly raided crops in cleared lands, sparking conflicts with farmers who viewed them as pests. This preference for intact habitats underscored their vulnerability to landscape alterations, though the species persisted in remote swampy refugia into the early .

Behavior and Ecology

Social Structure and Behavior

The Carolina parakeet exhibited a highly gregarious social structure, traveling in large, noisy flocks that typically ranged from 100 to over 1,000 individuals, often subdivided into smaller family units for coordinated movement and protection. These flocks demonstrated a loose dominance hierarchy influenced by age and body size, which supported cooperative behaviors such as shared vigilance and resource access without rigid territorial conflicts. Daily routines revolved around in tree cavities at dawn and dusk, where birds gathered in dense clusters for rest and , transitioning to midday nomadic flights in search of resources across their range. Playful aerial displays, including synchronized wheeling and diving, were common during these movements, enhancing flock cohesion and allowing for social bonding through allopreening, where individuals groomed one another to strengthen pair and group ties. Interactions within flocks included predators like hawks, with the entire group converging to harass threats through vocal alarms and rapid dives, a defense strategy that underscored their cooperative nature. Historical observations, such as those by , vividly described these dynamics: flocks advanced in direct lines with wavering flight before rising en masse to wheel around potential sites, alighting simultaneously in a whirring mass, and departing in dense formations that produced a distinctive sound with their wings. This nomadic, resource-tracking lifestyle reflected their adaptability to seasonal changes, with flocks exhibiting tight during communal roosts in hollow trees.

Diet and Foraging

The Carolina parakeet was primarily herbivorous, consuming a variety of seeds, fruits, nuts, and occasionally other plant materials. Its diet heavily featured seeds from plants such as cockleburs ( spp.), sunflowers, thistles, and grains, alongside fruits like apples, berries, grapes, figs, and mulberries, and nuts including acorns, nuts, and beechnuts. It also ate buds, flowers, and tree bark, particularly during winter months when other foods were scarce. Foraging occurred in large, noisy flocks of 200 to 1,000 individuals, often or by climbing trees and shrubs to access food. Birds would clip seeds and fruits directly with their strong beaks, sometimes tearing apart items like apples to reach the seeds inside, and hold larger pieces in their claws while feeding. These communal efforts allowed flocks to rapidly exploit food patches, depleting local resources quickly before moving on in their nomadic patterns. Seasonal shifts in diet reflected availability, with an emphasis on high-energy mast (nuts and ) like acorns and nuts in winter to sustain their active lifestyle, transitioning to abundant summer fruits and crops such as peaches and grains. This opportunistic feeding on agricultural fields and orchards often led to conflicts with farmers, who viewed the parakeets as pests and persecuted them accordingly. Nutritionally, the parakeet's preference for high-fat and nuts provided essential energy for its and migratory behaviors, while its reliance on toxic cocklebur seeds indicated specialized adaptations. Genomic analysis identified mutations in the SLC25A4 and SLC25A5 genes that likely enabled tolerance to carboxyatractyloside in cockleburs, contributing to the birds' to predators and reduced predation risk.

Reproduction and Breeding

Much of the information on reproduction comes from sparse historical records and attempts, with some details inferred from related parrots. The breeding season of the Carolina parakeet occurred primarily in spring, from to , triggered by the availability of abundant food resources like seeds and fruits that supported . Within large communal flocks, the birds formed monogamous pairs that mated once annually. Nesting took place in natural cavities within large dead snags or living trees, such as sycamores or beeches, with no evidence of constructed nests; the cavity floors were simply lined with wood chips or debris for basic cushioning. Pairs laid clutches of 2-3 (sometimes up to 5) white eggs, based primarily on historical and captive records. The incubated the eggs for approximately 23 days, while the remained nearby to guard the nest site and provision the with food. The chicks were altricial, hatching helpless and dependent on parents for feeding and protection. Chicks fledged after approximately 18-19 days, with flock members occasionally providing communal assistance in rearing young through vigilance against predators. Breeding success was reportedly high in undisturbed forest habitats, aided by synchronized colonial nesting that enhanced group defense.

Extinction

Timeline of Decline

The Carolina parakeet was historically abundant across its range in eastern , with large flocks often numbering in the hundreds to thousands of individuals, as documented by early naturalists such as in the early . European records of the species date back to the 1530s, with descriptions appearing in accounts from explorers like those accompanying Hernando de Soto's expedition, noting vibrant green parrots in vast numbers amid the continent's forests. The species thrived in expansive woodlands from the Midwest to the Southeast. By the early 1800s, noticeable declines began, particularly in the Midwest, where rapid for fragmented habitats and reduced suitable areas for the western , Conuropsis carolinensis ludovicianus. Naturalists like observed in 1832 that populations were already waning compared to earlier abundances, with flocks becoming smaller and less frequent in regions like and . The ludovicianus , adapted to more open Midwestern prairies and riverine forests, saw its last confirmed sightings around the 1850s, though a 2021 analysis of museum specimens and historical records revised this to potential persistence until about 1914. From 1860 to 1900, eastern populations of the nominate , C. c. carolinensis, became increasingly fragmented, confined to isolated pockets in the Southeast, including Florida's swamps. Bounties were offered in states like during the 1880s to control perceived agricultural pests, further pressuring remaining groups. By the , the species had become rare across its range. In the early 1900s, sightings grew sporadic, with reports from Florida's Everglades and isolated woodlands, but no large flocks remained. The last confirmed wild sighting occurred around 1910, likely of the ludovicianus . The final captive individual, a male named Incas acquired by the in 1885, died on February 21, 1918, marking the end of the known population. Following 1918, unconfirmed reports persisted, including flocks observed in Florida's Okeechobee region during the , though lacking specimens or photographs. The 2021 study further revised timelines, suggesting the eastern may have survived until approximately 1944 based on re-evaluated specimen dates and , challenging earlier narratives. A 2025 update to georeferenced sighting and specimen data added 131 new records and 81 additional georeferenced ones, confirming occurrences up to 1944 and refining historical distributions without altering confirmed dates.

Causes of Extinction

The extinction of the Carolina parakeet was driven primarily by anthropogenic factors, with playing a central role through extensive of old-growth forests that served as critical nesting and roosting sites. By the late , for and timber had cleared vast swaths of the bird's preferred bottomland hardwood forests across the , eliminating large sycamore and trees essential for cavity nesting. This loss fragmented populations and exposed remaining flocks to increased vulnerability, as the parakeets relied on mature woodlands for shelter and foraging. Direct human accelerated the decline, as the birds were systematically hunted as agricultural pests and for commercial purposes. Farmers viewed large flocks as threats to and crops, leading to widespread slaughter; historical accounts document vast numbers of parakeets killed in the through mass shootings that targeted roosting sites. Additionally, the species' vibrant green and yellow made it desirable for the millinery trade, with feathers harvested for women's hats, further incentivizing hunters and collectors. These killings were often opportunistic and intensified after 1800, contributing to a rapid population crash without allowing recovery. Disease emerged as a potential contributing factor, particularly susceptibility to introduced pathogens from European parrots and poultry, such as those causing psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci). While direct evidence linking specific outbreaks to the parakeet's demise is limited, the introduction of non-native birds via the pet and aviculture trades likely exposed wild populations to novel infections, exacerbating mortality in already stressed flocks. A 2019 genomic study of museum specimens confirmed no genetic bottleneck or inbreeding depression, ruling out chronic disease or gradual decline as primary drivers and instead pointing to acute human-induced pressures. Secondary factors compounded these threats, including competition from invasive species like European honeybees (Apis mellifera), which occupied tree cavities needed for nesting after logging reduced natural hollows. The parakeet's highly social structure also amplified losses, as surviving flock members would congregate around injured or dead individuals, drawing attention and enabling hunters to kill dozens or hundreds at once from a single site. The synergistic interplay of these pressures—habitat loss isolating groups, relentless decimating numbers, and opportunistic factors like and —resulted in a sudden population collapse rather than a protracted decline, as evidenced by the absence of genomic signatures of long-term demographic reduction. This rapid underscores how multiple human-mediated stressors can interact to eliminate even abundant within decades.

Legacy and Research

Cultural and Historical Significance

The Carolina parakeet was first documented in European accounts during the late , with explorer Thomas Hariot describing parrots in the in his 1588 report A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of , noting their vibrant plumage and noisy flocks amid the region's woodlands. Later naturalists, including Mark Catesby in his 1731 of Carolina, , and the Bahama Islands, provided detailed illustrations and observations of the bird's and , establishing it as a symbol of the American . By the , John James Audubon's iconic depiction in (plate 26, circa 1827) portrayed a flock of seven birds perched on a branch, capturing their vivid heads and orange faces while lamenting their perceived abundance, which would soon prove illusory. These early representations in art and exploration literature framed the parakeet as an emblem of untamed North American , influencing perceptions of the continent's natural riches. In Native American cultures, the Carolina parakeet held practical and symbolic value; tribes such as the referred to it as "puzzi la nee" or "head of yellow," and it was occasionally hunted for , with its considered a despite the bird's occasional toxicity from dietary toxins. During the , the bird's economic role expanded through the pet , where live captures—often in the hundreds annually from alone—supplied urban markets, though many perished in transit due to stress and disease. Its bright s were also coveted for women's fashion, adorning hats and garments in the millinery industry; this demand contributed to widespread slaughter, with entire flocks targeted until the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty Act imposed bans on commercial feather , though too late to save the species. Post-extinction, the Carolina parakeet has become a poignant symbol of early American , inspiring memorials such as the bronze sculptures in the Smithsonian's Once There Were Billions exhibit (2014), which features life-sized flocks alongside other vanished birds to highlight human impact on . The houses numerous preserved specimens, including mounts from the early 20th century, serving as enduring reminders of the species' former range. Its legacy extends to and , where it represents ecological regret; for instance, Laurel Roth Hope's Biodiversity Reclamation Suit: Carolina Parakeet (2009) uses the bird's image in to advocate for environmental restoration, while Ron Rash's "A Single Green Feather" (2024) weaves its into narratives of Southern loss and memory. The parakeet's disappearance galvanized early conservation awareness, influencing figures like and the formation of protective societies in the early 1900s.

Modern Scientific Studies

Modern scientific studies on the Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) have advanced understanding of its and through genomic, ecological, and chemical analyses of preserved specimens. In , researchers sequenced the complete from a museum skin specimen, revealing relatively low compared to other parrots but no signs of or a prolonged prior to . This analysis indicated a sudden demographic collapse, consistent with anthropogenic pressures rather than gradual genetic decline, and identified genomic adaptations for metabolizing toxic compounds in cocklebur seeds (), a key dietary staple. Ecological research has refined knowledge of the species' historical distribution and dynamics. A 2017 study utilized geographic information systems (GIS) to map the Carolina parakeet's range based on georeferenced historical sightings and specimens, correcting earlier overestimations by excluding and revealing a more restricted core in bottomland forests across the eastern and . Building on this, a 2021 analysis in International examined timelines for the two recognized , estimating that the western subspecies (C. c. ludovicianus) disappeared around 1914 and the eastern nominate subspecies (C. c. carolinensis) in the late 1930s or mid-1940s—a timeline that contrasts with confirmed sightings ending in 1918 but may incorporate unconfirmed reports—highlighting regionally varying drivers of decline. A February 2025 update to the georeferenced of historical sightings and specimens (1564–1944) further refines these distribution models. Insights into predator-prey interactions have emerged from dietary and biochemical studies. Research by the World Parrot Trust suggests that the Carolina parakeet's consumption of toxic cocklebur seeds may have rendered its flesh and potentially its feathers distasteful or unpalatable to predators, providing a mechanism that could have influenced its ecological role. This , supported by the 2019 genomic findings, underscores how specialized may have buffered the species against natural predation but offered no protection from human hunting. Specimen-based analyses have further clarified and . DNA extracted from museum skins has confirmed the Carolina parakeet's placement as a distinct within the Neotropical parrots ( Arini), with phylogenetic divergence from South American relatives occurring around 5.5 million years ago. Although stable isotope studies on bones remain limited due to scarce skeletal remains, analyses of feather and tissue chemistry from preserved specimens corroborate a diet dominated by seeds, fruits, and toxic plants, aligning with historical accounts of opportunistic in forested riparian zones. Ongoing research as of 2025 includes ecological modeling to identify habitat restoration analogs, leveraging updated georeferenced datasets of historical occurrences to simulate potential reintroduction sites under current climate conditions. These models emphasize bottomland hardwood forests as critical for analogous species conservation, informing broader efforts to restore ecosystems once occupied by the Carolina parakeet.

De-Extinction Prospects

The Carolina parakeet has been identified as a leading candidate for efforts due to its relatively recent extinction in the early , the availability of well-preserved specimens yielding viable DNA, and the potential to restore its ecological role in eastern North American forests, such as seed dispersal for certain . A 2018 analysis by researchers at the highlighted the species as one of the top priorities for revival among recently extinct birds, emphasizing its and the feasibility of genetic recovery from museum samples. This status is further supported by a 2017 that positioned the parakeet as an ideal target for , given the completeness of historical distribution data and the absence of prolonged population bottlenecks that could complicate genomic reconstruction. Advancements in have made conceptually viable for the Carolina parakeet, primarily through and techniques. In , scientists successfully sequenced the complete of the from toe-pad samples of specimens, providing a high-quality reference for identifying key genetic traits, such as adaptations to a toxic diet including cockleburs. Proposed methods include using CRISPR-Cas9 to edit the genome of closely related living parrots, like the sun conure (Aratinga solstitialis), to incorporate Carolina parakeet-specific sequences, followed by surrogate parenting in eggs of those relatives to produce hybrid offspring that approximate the extinct bird's traits. This approach draws on the 2019 genomic data as a foundational blueprint, though it would result in proxies rather than identical recreations. Current projects remain exploratory rather than operational, with discussions led by experts like Kevin Burgio in 2025 presentations emphasizing the parakeet's potential while noting the absence of dedicated funding or programs comparable to those for mammoths or by companies like . Academic interest persists, but no active initiatives have advanced to creation or breeding trials as of late 2025. Challenges include ethical debates over reintroducing a into altered ecosystems potentially lacking suitable habitat due to ongoing , technical issues like ensuring proper behavioral development without imprinting on surrogates, and the high costs that could divert resources from conserving endangered parrots like the . Prospects for successful de-extinction are considered low in the near term, with experts estimating that technological maturation and population establishment could take until the 2040s or beyond, if pursued. Even then, the focus may shift toward applying lessons from these efforts to bolster in threatened species, rather than full revival, to maximize conservation impact.

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