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True parrot
True parrot
True parrot
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True parrots
Blue-and-yellow macaws at Campo Grande, Brazil
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Superfamily: Psittacoidea
Illiger, 1811
Families

Psittacidae
Psittrichasiidae
Psittaculidae

The true parrots are about 350 species of hook-billed, mostly herbivorous birds forming the superfamily Psittacoidea, one of the three superfamilies in the biological order Psittaciformes (parrots).[Notes 1] True parrots are widespread, with species in Mexico, Central and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia, and eastwards across the Pacific Ocean as far as Polynesia. The true parrots include many of the familiar parrots including macaws, conures, lorikeets, eclectus, Amazon parrots, grey parrot, and budgerigar. Most true parrots are colourful and flighted, with a few notable exceptions.[Notes 2]

Overview

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True parrots have a beak with a characteristic curved shape, the jaw with a mobility slightly higher than where it connects with the skull, and a generally upright position. They also have a large cranial capacity and are one of the most intelligent bird groups. They are good fliers and skillful climbers on branches of trees.

Some species can imitate the human voice and other sounds, although they do not have vocal cords, instead possessing a vocal organ at the base of the trachea known as the syrinx.[1]

Like most parrots, the Psittacidae are primarily seed eaters. Some variation is seen in the diet of individual species, with fruits, nuts, leaves, and even insects and other animal prey being taken on occasion by some species.[2] The lorikeets are predominantly nectar feeders;[3] many other parrots drink nectar, as well.[4] Most Psittacidae are cavity-nesting birds which form monogamous pair bonds.

Evolution

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It is believed that the breakup of the final remnants of Gondwana, when South America drifted away from Antarctica and Australia at the end of the Eocene, kickstarted the separate radiations of psittacids in South America and psittaculids in Australasia.[5]

Distribution and habitat

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The true parrots are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, covering many different habitats, from the humid tropical forests to deserts in Australia, India, Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Central and South America, and two species, one extinct (the Carolina parakeet), formerly in the United States. However, the larger populations are native to Australasia, South America, and Central America.

Conservation status

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Many species are classified as threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (see IUCN Red List of birds), as well as national and nongovernmental organizations. Trade in birds and other wild animals is governed by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Nearly all parrots are listed on CITES appendices, trade limited or prohibited. Trapping wild parrots for the pet trade, hunting, habitat loss, and competition from invasive species have diminished wild populations, with parrots being subjected to more exploitation than any other group of birds.[6] Of the animals removed from the wild to be sold, very few survive during capture and transport, and those that do often die from poor conditions of captivity, poor diet, and stress. Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile charismatic species have also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems.[7]

About 18 species of parrots have gone extinct since 1500 (see List of extinct birds#Psittaciformes), nearly all in superfamily Psittacoidea.

Taxonomy

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Further information: Parrot § Taxonomy
Psittaciformes
Phylogeny and relationships of Psittacoidea[8]

The parrot family Psittacidae (along with the family Cacatuidae comprising the order Psittaciformes) was traditionally considered to contain two subfamilies, the Psittacinae (typical parrots and allies) and the Loriinae (lories and lorikeets).[9] However, the tree of the parrot family now has been reorganized under the superfamily Psittacoidea: family Psittacidae has been split into three families, tribes Strigopini and Nestorini split out and placed under superfamily Strigopoidea and a new monotypic superfamily Cacatuoidea created containing family Cacatuidae.[8]

The following classification is based on the most recent proposal, which in turn is based on all the relevant recent findings.[8][10][11][12][13][14][15]

Family Psittacidae, New World and African parrots

  • Subfamily Psittacinae: Two African genera, Psittacus and Poicephalus
  • Subfamily Arinae
    • Tribe Arini: 17 genera, and one extinct genus
    • Tribe Androglossini: seven genera
    • clade (proposed tribe Amoropsittacini) four genera
    • clade (proposed tribe Forpini) one genus
    • (other tribes) five genera

Family Psittrichasiidae, Indian Ocean island parrots

Family Psittaculidae, Asian and Australasian parrots, and lovebirds

Species lists

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References

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Further reading

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Notes

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

True parrot

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The true parrots, comprising the family Psittacidae, are a diverse clade of approximately 180 species of primarily Neotropical and Afrotropical birds distinguished by their robust, curved bills, zygodactyl feet, and often brilliant, multicolored plumage adapted for arboreal life in tropical forests. These birds belong to two main subfamilies: Arinae, which includes the New World parrots such as macaws (Ara), amazons (Amazona), and conures, and Psittacinae, encompassing African species like the grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) and various poicephalus parrots. Psittacidae species exhibit high intelligence relative to body size, with notable cognitive abilities including tool use in some cases and vocal mimicry, particularly pronounced in the African grey parrot, which can develop vocabularies exceeding 1,000 words. Many true parrots are predominantly herbivorous, feeding on , fruits, and nuts cracked open by their powerful beaks, though some incorporate ; their diet and behaviors contribute to in ecosystems. Long-lived and socially complex, they form monogamous pairs and live in flocks, with lifespans often exceeding 50 years in . However, numerous face severe threats from loss due to and illegal capture for the , leading to high rates of ; for instance, over half of psittacine are listed as threatened by the IUCN.

Introduction

Definition and scope

The true parrots constitute the Psittacidae within the order Psittaciformes, encompassing the predominant group of parrot distinguished from cockatoos (family Cacatuidae) and the parrots (family Strigopidae). This is characterized by hooked bills adapted for cracking and nuts, zygodactyl feet for and grasping, and predominantly herbivorous diets focused on fruits, , and vegetation, though some incorporate or small vertebrates. Psittacidae exhibit a wide range of sizes, from small parrotlets under 10 cm in to large macaws exceeding 90 cm, with plumage often featuring vivid colors that serve functions in mate attraction and camouflage. The scope of Psittacidae includes approximately 333 species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions globally, with the highest diversity in the Neotropics (over 150 species in and ), followed by and . These birds inhabit diverse ecosystems such as rainforests, dry woodlands, mangroves, and savannas, but are absent from polar areas and show limited presence in temperate zones except through introduction. Many species are arboreal and social, forming flocks that enhance foraging efficiency and predator avoidance, though from has impacted numerous populations, with over 100 species classified as threatened by the IUCN as of 2023. In taxonomic terms, traditionally groups (subfamily Arinae) and Afrotropical parrots ( Psittacinae), though recent genetic studies have prompted proposals to separate forms into , potentially redefining boundaries without altering "true parrot" designation for non-cockatoo psittacoids. This family accounts for roughly 80% of all parrot , underscoring its central role in the of Psittaciformes, which originated in the around 59 million years ago.

Diversity and species richness

The true parrots, comprising the family Psittacidae, represent the most diverse group within the order Psittaciformes, with 315 species recognized across approximately 85 genera as of 2024. This accounts for roughly 80% of all parrot species, excluding cockatoos (Cacatuidae, 21 species) and the smaller New Zealand parrot families (Strigopidae and Nestoridae, totaling 6 species). Psittacidae species exhibit morphological uniformity in core traits like hooked bills and zygodactyl feet, yet display substantial variation in size, plumage coloration, and ecological adaptations, complicating taxonomic boundaries but underscoring adaptive radiations in specific lineages such as Pyrrhura conures and Amazona parrots. Geographically, Psittacidae species are , occurring in subtropical to tropical zones across the Neotropics (from southward), , , , , , , and Pacific islands, but absent from and extreme temperate regions. High endemism characterizes island populations, including Caribbean Psittacara parakeets, Madagascan Agapornis lovebirds, and Fijian Prosopeia parrots, reflecting historical isolation and events. hosts the Psittacinae subfamily (e.g., Psittacus greys and Poicephalus), while Australasia features Platycercinae broad-tailed parrots (38 species in 9 genera) adapted to eucalypt woodlands. Loriinae lories and lorikeets, with nectarivorous specializations, dominate Wallacean islands and . Species richness peaks in humid equatorial forests, with the supporting over 100 sympatric species, including diverse Arinae macaws and conures, driven by habitat heterogeneity, productivity, and historical climate stability. New Guinea exhibits comparable density, with rapid radiations in genera like (10 species). In contrast, arid Australian interiors and high-elevation Neotropical zones host fewer species, often with broader ranges and behavioral flexibility, such as ground-foraging in Platycercus rosellas. Phylogenetic analyses reveal uneven diversification, with Neotropical Arinae showing bursts within the last 7 million years, contributing to elevated richness in lowland rainforests.

Evolutionary history

Fossil record and origins

The fossil record of Psittaciformes, the avian order including true parrots (family Psittacidae), remains fragmentary, with most early specimens originating from deposits despite molecular favoring a southern Gondwanan cradle. The oldest potential parrot-like fossils belong to stem-group taxa such as Eozygodactylus americanus, a partial skeleton from the early Eocene (approximately 52–66 million years ago) in North America, tentatively placed near the base of Psittacopasserae (the clade uniting Psittaciformes and Passeriformes). More unambiguous early Psittaciformes appear in the early Eocene of Europe, including two new species described from the London Clay Formation (circa 55 million years ago), which exhibit zygodactylous feet and other parrot-like traits but lack the derived cranial features diagnostic of crown-group parrots. These Paleogene finds, such as Palaeopsittacus georgei and material from Germany's Messel Pit, suggest an initial radiation in Laurasian regions shortly after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, though their exact affinities remain contested due to preservation biases and morphological ambiguities. Crown-group Psittaciformes, encompassing modern families, emerge later, with the earliest confirmed from the . For Psittacidae specifically, true parrot fossils are rare prior to the Lower (approximately –23 million years ago), when sites yield remains assignable to this , including a partial from Siberia's representing an early crown Psittaciforme. These specimens indicate northward dispersal from southern origins, aligning with sparse Australasian finds like a Tertiary cockatoo relative from Queensland's Riversleigh site, but no pre- Psittacidae fossils have been unequivocally identified. The discrepancy between this northern-biased fossil distribution and phylogenomic estimates—placing Psittaciformes crown diversification at 20.6–35 million years ago, with Psittacidae arising around 27.5–30 million years ago in the Oligocene—highlights potential sampling gaps in southern continents or early high-latitude dispersals. Evolutionary origins of true parrots trace to a Gondwanan ancestor, likely in Australasia, where high modern diversity (e.g., in Arinae and Psittacinae subfamilies) and biogeographic patterns support initial diversification before vicariant splits and overwater colonizations. Molecular clock analyses calibrated with fossils estimate the Psittacoidea (including Psittacidae) split from other psittaciforms around 35.9 million years ago, with subsequent radiations into Africa (Psittacinae crown ~7.5 million years ago) and the Neotropics (Arinae ~27.1 million years ago), driven by tectonic events and eustatic changes rather than mass extinctions. This synthesis reconciles the incomplete fossil evidence with genomic data, underscoring that true parrots' adaptive traits—such as zygodactyly and specialized bills—evolved in southern refugia before Miocene expansions.

Phylogenetic relationships within Psittaciformes

The order Psittaciformes comprises approximately 410 extant and is monophyletic, with phylogenomic analyses confirming its position within the clade Psittacopassera alongside Passeriformes. The crown age of Psittaciformes is estimated at around 35–40 million years ago (Mya), with early diversification linked to radiations following the Cretaceous-Paleogene . Basal relationships divide the order into three superfamilies: Strigopoidea, to all other parrots (stem ~40 Mya, crown ~35 Mya); Cacatuoidea; and Psittacoidea, with the latter two diverging ~35.9 Mya. Strigopoidea includes two families: Nestoridae (kea Nestor notabilis and kākā N. meridionalis) and Strigopidae (kākāpō Strigops habroptilus), forming a basal Gondwanan clade restricted to New Zealand with no close living relatives outside the archipelago. Cacatuoidea consists solely of Cacatuidae (cockatoos), with a crown age of ~26.4 Mya and four subfamilies: Calyptorhynchinae (black cockatoos, e.g., Calyptorhynchus, Zanda), Nymphicinae (cockatiel Nymphicus hollandicus), Microglossinae (palm cockatoo Probosciger aterrimus), and Cacatuinae (corellas and white-black cockatoos, e.g., reinstated genus Licmetis for corellas, diverging 3.4–8.2 Mya from Cacatua at 2.3–5.8 Mya). These relationships reflect Australasian origins, with subsequent radiations. Psittacoidea, the most diverse superfamily (diversification ~30.2–31.1 Mya), encompasses multiple families beyond traditional Psittacidae. Psittrichasidae includes Psittrichasinae (Psittrichas, ) and Coracopseinae (Coracopsis, vasa parrots of and ), diverging ~30.4 Mya. Psittaculidae covers Old World and Australasian groups, with subfamilies such as Psittaculinae (e.g., Psittacula, Eclectus; Micropsittini stem ~27.6 Mya), Platycercinae (Australian parrots, e.g., Pezoporini with Pezoporus at ~23.8 Mya), Loriinae (lorikeets, e.g., Cyclopsittini ~19.3 Mya, with proposed Suavipsitta for paraphyletic Cyclopsitta elements), and Agapornithinae (lovebirds Agapornis, hanging parrots Loriculus, diverging ~23.1 Mya from Bolbopsittacus at ~24.4 Mya). Psittacidae sensu stricto, often termed "true parrots," includes (African parrots like Psittacus erithacus, split ~1.9 Mya; Poicephalus crown ~7.5 Mya) and Arinae (Neotropical, crown ~27.1 Mya), with tribes such as Arini (macaws Ara, Anodorhynchus ~3.7 Mya; conures with rapid Pyrrhura radiation ~7.1 Mya across three clades) and Androglossini ( Amazona). Phylogenomic data from nuclear loci have resolved prior uncertainties, such as reinstating genera (e.g., Cardeos for Pseudeos cardinalis) and identifying in rapid radiations, though some relationships (e.g., within Trichoglossus lorikeets, crown ~4.6 Mya) remain unresolved due to incomplete lineage sorting. These findings, derived from maximum likelihood trees calibrated with fossils, underscore convergent traits like psittacofulvin pigmentation across clades while rejecting morphology-based groupings superseded by genomic evidence.

Taxonomy and systematics

Historical classification

The genus Psittacus, encompassing all known parrots at the time, was established by in the published on , , placing them within the class Aves without a distinct ordinal separation. Linnaeus described 11 under Psittacus, including P. erithacus (African grey parrot) and P. moluccensis (a moluccan cockatoo, now in a separate family), based primarily on external morphology and limited specimens available from European collections and trade. By the early , as ornithological expanded, the order Psittaciformes (or Psittaci) was formalized by in 1811, grouping parrots separately from other birds based on shared traits like zygodactyl feet and strong bills. then erected the Psittacidae in 1815 to classify non-cockatoo parrots, them provisionally from the emerging recognition of cockatoos (later Cacatuidae) via crest absence and bill morphology, though boundaries remained fluid. Throughout the , classifications proliferated genera—over 100 by —driven by collections and explorers like John , who in works such as (–) emphasized variation and geographic distribution for splitting taxa, yet retained a monophyletic Psittacidae for true parrots excluding cockatoos. Anatomical studies advanced the framework; Alfred Henry Garrod's in Proceedings of the Zoological used visceral traits, such as caecal presence or absence, to delineate subgroups, placing core true parrots (e.g., African and Neotropical forms) in a primary division while noting inconsistencies in lory-like forms. These morphology-based systems often reflected collector biases and incomplete fossil or distributional data, leading to unstable synonymy, with subfamilies like Psittacinae emerging for "typical" parrots characterized by rounded tails and robust bills. Into the early 20th century, systematists like Tommaso Salvadori and Ernst Hartert refined subfamilial divisions within Psittacidae using osteology and soft anatomy, recognizing Arinae for New World parrots and Psittacinae for Old World/African forms by 1914, though all non-cockatoo parrots stayed unified under Psittacidae until mid-century proposals for broader ordinal superfamilies. This era's taxonomy prioritized adaptive convergences over phylogeny, resulting in polyphyletic groupings later upended by molecular evidence.

Modern revisions and genetic insights

Molecular phylogenetic analyses since the early 2000s have overturned traditional morphology-based classifications within Psittacidae, demonstrating that several long-recognized tribes and genera, such as Cyclopsittacini, Platycercini, Psittaculini, and Psittacinae, are polyphyletic or paraphyletic. A 2008 multilocus study using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences confirmed the monophyly of subfamilies Loriinae (lorikeets) and Arini (Neotropical parrots excluding macaws and allies) while highlighting the need for revisions to accommodate nested clades, such as Loriinae within a broader Psittacidae framework originating in the Cretaceous from a Gondwanan ancestor. Advancements in phylogenomics, leveraging over 1 million genomic sites across nearly complete species sampling (384 of approximately 397 parrot species, covering 96% of Psittacidae diversity), have enabled precise resolution of intra-family relationships and divergence timings as of 2024. This data-driven synthesis recognizes 106 genera in Psittacidae, reinstating taxa like Licmetis (split from s.l., diverging 2.3–8.2 million years ago) and Clarkona (from Psephotus), and erecting new tribes including Brotogerini (for Brotogeris and Myiopsitta, separated from Androglossini) and Neophemini (for Neophema and Neopsephotus). Subfamily Arinae diversification commenced in the early (30.2–31.1 million years ago), with rapid radiations evident in genera like Pyrrhura (crown age ~7.1 million years ago) and Psittacara (~15 species, 0.6–6.7 million years ago). In Loriinae, genetic support generic splits such as Pseudeos fuscata and Cardeos (diverging 6.1 million years ago) and elevation of Trichoglossus sumatranus to Tanygnathus everetti within Psittaculini. African Psittacinae shows stability, with Psittacus erithacus and P. timneh confirmed as distinct splitting ~1.9 million years ago, though broader Psittacinae remains para- relative to other clades. These revisions resolve debates over polyphyletic assemblages like Aratinga (now partitioned into Aratinga, Eupsittula with 5 species, and Psittacara) and Bolborhynchus (redrawn limits in Amoropsittacini), prioritizing monophyletic groupings that reflect genetic divergence over superficial morphological similarities.

Subfamilies and genera

The family Psittacidae, comprising true parrots, is currently classified into two subfamilies based on molecular phylogenetic analyses: the Afrotropical and the Neotropical Arinae. This division reflects the deep divergence between African lineages and radiations, with species showing closer genetic affinity to Arinae than to Old World parrot groups now placed in the separate family . Subfamily Psittacinae contains approximately 10 species across two genera: Psittacus (grey parrots, including P. erithacus and P. timneh) and Poicephalus (nine species of smaller African parrots, such as the Senegal parrot Poicephalus senegalus). These genera are characterized by robust bills and predominantly green or grey plumage adapted to forested African habitats. Subfamily Arinae encompasses roughly 157 species in over 30 genera, subdivided into tribes including Arini (long-tailed parrots like macaws) and Androglossini (short-tailed forms like Amazon parrots). Key genera in Arini include Ara (14 species of large macaws, e.g., scarlet macaw Ara macao), Anodorhynchus (three hyacinth-like macaws), Primolius, and conure groups such as Pyrrhura (about 30 species) and Aratinga. In Androglossini, prominent genera are Amazona (about 30 Amazon parrot species), Pionus (seven species), and Deroptyus (red-fan parrot). This subfamily dominates Neotropical parrot diversity, with genera varying in size from small parakeets like Brotogeris to large macaws exceeding 90 cm in length. Recent taxonomic revisions, informed by genomic data as of 2024, have refined generic boundaries within Arinae, reinstating some older names and elevating certain lineages, though subfamily remains .

Physical characteristics

Anatomy and morphology

True parrots (Psittacidae) possess a compact body with a short , rounded head, and relatively short , varying in from under 10 in pygmy parrots to over 100 in large macaws, optimized for maneuverability in forested environments. Their skeletal morphology includes a robust skull with specific morphometric features, such as a broad cranium and elongated rostrum, shared with other Psittaciformes but distinct in proportions across genera. The , a defining feature, comprises a , curved upper () hinged at the base for independent movement against the lower (), enabling precise manipulation and crushing of food items like seeds and nuts. Covered by a keratinized rhamphotheca, the 's internal includes a bony core reinforced for mechanical stress, with sensory papillae at the tip for tactile feedback during foraging. Feet in true parrots are zygodactyl, featuring four toes per foot with digits 2 and 3 oriented anteriorly and digits 1 and 4 posteriorly, providing a vice-like grip for , perching, and handling objects; this arrangement is supported by powerful musculature, as observed in species like the monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus). Wings are short and rounded, with musculature adapted for rapid, agile flight rather than long-distance soaring, including well-developed pectoral and muscles in such as the African grey parrot ( ). The syrinx, responsible for vocalization, features complex intrinsic musculature unique to Psittaciformes, enabling and diverse calls despite a single sound source.

Plumage, coloration, and sexual dimorphism

True parrots exhibit highly vibrant coloration primarily derived from psittacofulvins, a unique class of polyene pigments synthesized endogenously by the birds, producing shades of , orange, . These pigments are deposited in both the barbs and barbules of feathers, contributing to their structural integrity and resistance to bacterial degradation. Unlike carotenoids in other avian , psittacofulvins are not diet-dependent and offer enhanced photostability, protecting feathers from photo-oxidation and microbial attack. Blue and green hues in parrot plumage often result from the interaction of psittacofulvins with feather nanostructures that scatter short-wavelength , creating structural colors through and . This allows for a of colors, with reds and yellows absorbing specific wavelengths via pigmentary mechanisms, while blues arise from and arrangements in the feather barbules. Plumage patterns vary widely across Psittacidae genera, from the monochromatic greens of Amazon parrots to the multicolored displays of macaws, serving functions in , signaling, and recognition. Sexual dimorphism in plumage is minimal or absent in most true parrot species, with males and females appearing visually identical, necessitating molecular or endoscopic sexing for determination. Notable exceptions include the parrot (Eclectus roratus), where males display predominantly emerald plumage with red accents, while females exhibit bright red heads, , and blue tail feathers, a trait so pronounced that early observers mistook them for separate . Subtle dimorphism occurs in some , such as the monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), with females showing slightly duller crown and wing coloration. This rarity of dimorphism contrasts with more pronounced differences in size or in monomorphic .

Distribution and habitats

Global range

True parrots of the family occupy a native range spanning tropical and subtropical zones across , , the , , (including , , and numerous Pacific islands), and the Neotropics from to southern . This distribution reflects their to warm climates, with like the (Ara macao) in Central and South America and the (Poicephalus senegalus) in exemplifying regional occupancy. The family exhibits no native presence in Europe, temperate North America (north of Mexico), northern Asia, or Antarctica, though marginal extensions into southern Texas occur for a few Neotropical species such as the green parakeet (Psittacara holochlora). Highest species diversity centers in the Neotropics, particularly the Amazon Basin, followed by Australasia, where broad-tailed parrots and lorikeets predominate. Introduced populations, stemming from pet trade escapes, have established feral groups beyond native ranges, including in the United States (e.g., monk parakeet Myiopsitta monachus in urban areas), Europe, and parts of Asia, but these do not alter the core native global extent.

Habitat types and adaptations

True parrots (Psittacidae) predominantly occupy tropical and subtropical habitats worldwide, with a strong preference for forested environments including moist rainforests, dry deciduous forests, and gallery woodlands along watercourses. Many species, particularly in the Neotropics and Afrotropics, thrive in these closed-canopy systems where abundant fruit and seed resources support their frugivorous and granivorous diets. Some taxa extend into more open landscapes such as savannas, scrublands, and woodland mosaics, especially in Australia and Africa, where they exploit seasonal resources in patchy vegetation. Mangroves and coastal forests also host certain species, providing saline-tolerant foraging opportunities. Ecological adaptations to these diverse habitats include arboreal nesting in tree cavities, which offers protection from ground predators prevalent in forested understories, and strong flight capabilities enabling dispersal across fragmented landscapes. In open savanna habitats, flocking behavior enhances vigilance against aerial and terrestrial threats, while opportunistic foraging allows shifts between canopy fruits in forests and ground seeds in grasslands. Morphological traits like zygodactyl feet facilitate climbing and manipulation in vertical forest strata, and behavioral flexibility, such as nomadism in resource-variable woodlands, promotes resilience to seasonal droughts or fires common in drier habitats. These traits underscore the family's evolutionary success in exploiting structurally complex, resource-rich environments despite varying disturbance regimes.

Behavior and ecology

Diet and foraging strategies

True parrots (Psittacidae) exhibit a primarily granivorous and frugivorous diet, consisting mainly of seeds, fruits, nuts, flowers, buds, and bark, with opportunistic consumption of insects, nectar, and small vertebrates in some species. Dietary composition varies seasonally and by habitat, with species like those in neotropical forests shifting intake based on fruiting and seeding phenology; for instance, in Costa Rican psittacine communities, preferred items change markedly between wet and dry seasons due to resource availability. Flexible opportunism allows adaptation to abundant, high-energy resources, optimizing intake in patchy environments. Foraging strategies leverage morphological adaptations, including powerful, hooked bills for cracking hard-shelled seeds and nuts, and zygodactyl feet for precise manipulation and holding of food items, enabling behaviors such as climbing, suspension, and processing in mid-air. Gregarious flock foraging predominates, facilitating social information transfer on food locations, reduced individual vigilance against predators, and collective exploitation of ephemeral patches, as observed in species like the orange-fronted parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis), where flocks target fruits (42.3% of diet), seeds (29.3%), and flowers (28.4%). This approach enhances efficiency in resource-scarce or modified landscapes, though it can intensify pressure on specific plants. In captivity, replicating wild foraging—such as through extended search times and manipulation—mitigates behavioral issues like boredom, as psittacids naturally allocate substantial daily time to these activities for nutritional and psychological benefits.

Reproduction and life cycle

True parrots (Psittacinae) typically form long-term monogamous pair bonds, with mating displays involving mutual preening, vocalizations, and aerial chases by the male to attract or reinforce the pair. Breeding seasons vary by species and region but often align with periods of food abundance, such as the dry season in tropical habitats, enabling pairs to nest once or twice annually. For instance, African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) breed primarily during the dry season, laying clutches from late April to late May in regions like Cameroon. Nesting occurs in natural tree cavities, cliffs, or occasionally burrows, with pairs excavating or enlarging sites using their beaks and feet; artificial nests are rarely used in the wild. Females lay 2–6 white eggs per , averaging 3–5 in many species, with incubation lasting 18–30 days, primarily performed by the female while the male provides food. Eggs hatch asynchronously over 1–3 days, producing altricial chicks covered in sparse down that require brooding and regurgitation-fed meals of crop contents rich in , fruits, and . Nestlings remain dependent for 4–12 weeks before fledging, depending on species size; smaller parrots like rose-ringed parakeets (Psittacula krameri) fledge in about 6–7 weeks, while larger ones such as princess parrots (Polytelis alexandrae) take 5–6 weeks but continue receiving parental care for months post-fledging. Breeding success varies, with factors like predation and food scarcity leading to fledging rates of 1–2 chicks per nest in some populations, such as 1.65 per nest for burrowing parrots (Cyanoliseus patagonus). Sexual maturity is reached at 2–6 years, earlier in smaller species, enabling reproductive lifespans of decades in the wild. Wild lifespans average 10–50 years, influenced by predation, habitat loss, and disease, though captives can exceed 70 years in species like macaws due to veterinary care and . Post-fledging dispersal involves juveniles forming loose flocks before , completing the cycle as they seek territories akin to their parents'.

Social behavior and intelligence

True parrots () exhibit highly gregarious social structures, typically and roosting in flocks that range from small family groups to large aggregations of of individuals, facilitating cooperative vigilance against predators and . Pair bonds form through displays and mutual , often persisting for years or even decades across breeding and non-breeding seasons, with bonded pairs remaining in close proximity even within larger flocks. These bonds contribute to prosocial behaviors, as observed in African grey parrots ( ), where individuals proactively provide to familiar companions, with the likelihood of assistance increasing based on the duration and quality of prior social relationships. Social play, including object manipulation and affiliative interactions, is prevalent and correlates with relative brain size in psittacids, supporting the development of complex social dynamics. Cognitively, psittacids demonstrate advanced problem-solving and physical reasoning abilities comparable to corvids and some , excelling in tasks requiring , such as using tools to access food rewards. For instance, macaws (Ara spp.) innovate tool-use behaviors, including borderline tool applications like raking objects with sticks, in experimental settings. African grey parrots display referential vocal learning, associating labels with objects and concepts, and perform numerical tasks at levels exceeding those of young children, including zero-like concepts and ordinality. While tool use is documented in a minority of species—estimated at 11-17% based on phylogenetic modeling—psittacids broadly show self-control in delayed gratification tests and social cognition, though the latter remains underexplored relative to physical domains. These traits likely evolved in response to unpredictable tropical environments demanding flexible and social cooperation.

Conservation and threats

Major threats to populations

Habitat destruction, primarily from deforestation associated with agricultural expansion, logging, and urbanization, constitutes the most pervasive threat to true parrot (Psittacidae) populations worldwide. In Neotropical regions, where a substantial portion of parrot diversity resides, agriculture impacts 72% of assessed populations, often fragmenting forests and reducing nesting sites critical for cavity-dependent species. Global analyses indicate that habitat loss synergizes with other pressures, elevating extinction risks for forest-reliant parrots, with accelerating deforestation in tropical hotspots like the Amazon contributing to range contractions and population declines in species such as the blue-throated macaw (Ara glaucogularis). Illegal capture for the international ranks as a leading direct anthropogenic threat, particularly for long-lived, high-value vulnerable to overexploitation. Over 90% of parrot are regulated under appendices due to documented risks, with illegal harvesting in source like and African nations losses estimated in the hundreds of thousands for popular taxa such as African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Online platforms have facilitated a surge in illicit sales since 2020, including during the , exacerbating declines in wild populations already stressed by habitat fragmentation. These threats compound through causal interactions: degraded habitats concentrate parrots into accessible remnants, heightening poaching efficiency and reducing reproductive success via nest predation and food scarcity. As of IUCN assessments, approximately 28% of the 398 extant parrot species face extinction risk, a proportion exceeding that of comparable avian orders, underscoring the urgency of addressing root drivers like land-use conversion over symptomatic interventions. Climate variability further intensifies vulnerabilities for montane and island endemics, as seen in thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha), where altered precipitation patterns compound logging-induced habitat loss to limit populations below 2,000 individuals.

IUCN Red List assessments

The , with assessments for birds coordinated by , evaluates all in the family, which encompasses approximately 350-400 of true parrots. As of May 2024, roughly one in three parrot across the order Psittaciformes—predominantly —are classified in threatened categories (Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered), indicating elevated risk compared to other bird groups. This proportion stems from empirical on population declines, habitat loss, and pressures, though assessments for some remain due to limited field . Notable examples include the grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), assessed as Endangered owing to extensive poaching for the pet trade and habitat degradation in Central and , with annual harvests exceeding sustainable levels. Similarly, the (Ara militaris) is Endangered across its Neotropical range, driven by and illegal capture. Critically Endangered species, such as certain Amazon parrots like the red-faced parrot (Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops), face imminent threats from small population sizes (estimated 1,200-1,600 individuals) and ongoing in Andean cloud forests. Recent updates, including the 2024-2025 Red List revisions, document continued declines in several species, with no major up-listings to lower threat levels reported for the family. The IUCN SSC Wild Parrot Specialist Group supports these assessments by compiling trade and population , emphasizing causal factors like international over speculative influences. Overall, while many widespread species remain Least Concern, the family's aggregate risk profile underscores the need for verified, range-specific monitoring to refine future categorizations.

Conservation measures and outcomes

Conservation measures for true parrots (family Psittacidae) primarily involve international trade regulations under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), with most species listed on Appendix I (prohibiting commercial trade) or Appendix II (requiring permits and non-detriment findings). These listings have documented over 16 million live individuals traded globally from 1975 to 2017, with shifts toward captive-bred specimens, though illegal trade persists and impacts wild populations. Captive breeding programs, often supported by the World Parrot Trust (WPT) and the IUCN Species Survival Commission's Wild Parrot Specialist Group, aim to bolster populations through reintroductions, with protocols emphasizing predation control, habitat suitability assessment, and post-release monitoring. Additional efforts include habitat protection via protected areas, nest guarding to deter poaching, and community-based initiatives in regions like Latin America and Central America to reduce illegal capture. Outcomes of these measures are mixed, with successes in specific reintroduction projects but ongoing declines across the family. For instance, the Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata) reintroduction program has expanded the captive population to serve as a sustainable source for wild releases, contributing to gradual recovery from near-extinction. Similarly, the (Cyanopsitta spixii) reintroduction in since 2022 has been described as one of the most successful for parrots, with bred individuals released into restored habitats, though long-term viability depends on addressing and . The (Ara glaucogularis) in has benefited from comprehensive programs including artificial nests and anti-poaching patrols, leading to increased nesting success and stabilization. However, a review of psittacine reintroductions identifies common success factors like supplementary feeding but notes variable efficacy, with only about 50% of efforts achieving augmentation due to challenges such as disease and dispersal failures. Broadly, while CITES has curbed some overexploitation—evidenced by reduced wild-sourced exports for Appendix I species—populations of approximately half of Psittacidae species continue to decline from habitat loss and residual illegal trade, with 28% classified as threatened on the IUCN Red List. WPT-funded projects have supported over 37 species across 22 countries, preventing extinctions in targeted cases, but systemic threats like deforestation in the Neotropics limit family-wide recovery. Enhanced enforcement and sustainable captive breeding could improve outcomes, though commercial breeding risks disease transmission to wild stocks if not rigorously managed.

Human interactions

Pet trade and domestication

True parrots of the Psittacidae constitute a significant portion of the international pet , with over 16 million live individuals from 321 CITES-listed reported as traded between and , primarily for use as companion animals. This has historically relied heavily on wild-sourced specimens, with approximately 12 million live wild-caught parrots registered in international since the 1975 of the Convention on in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Overexploitation for the pet market has contributed to population declines and even wild extinctions, such as that of the Spix's macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii), underscoring the 's role in biodiversity threats. CITES regulates parrot trade through Appendices I and II listings for most Psittacidae species, prohibiting commercial trade in Appendix I taxa (e.g., many macaws and cockatoos) and requiring permits for Appendix II species to ensure sustainability. Despite these measures, illegal capture persists, with estimates of 65,000 to 78,500 s poached annually for the pet trade, of which over 75% perish en route to markets, exacerbating mortality rates. Domestic poaching for pets drives declines in about 70% of parrot populations in affected regions, often fueled by and high profits in the pet industry. Parrots in Psittacidae have not undergone true domestication, defined by generations of selective breeding for behavioral and physiological adaptations to captivity, unlike dogs or cats; most captive individuals remain only one or two generations removed from wild ancestors, retaining strong instinctual behaviors incompatible with pet life. Captive breeding programs have expanded, with international trade in captive-bred parrots rising from about 60,000 annually in earlier decades to substantially higher volumes by the 2020s, but this often fails to displace demand for wild-caught birds and may incentivize laundering of illegally sourced specimens. Wild parrots serve as preferred breeding stock due to genetic vigor, and hand-rearing of young produces tamer individuals sought by owners, yet overall welfare issues persist, including inadequate housing leading to stress and shortened lifespans. Conservation analyses indicate that commercial captive breeding's potential to alleviate pressure on wild populations varies by species and market dynamics, with limited evidence of net reductions in wild harvesting for heavily traded taxa.

Invasive populations and ecological impacts

The monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), native to , has established invasive populations in at least 19 outside its range, primarily through escapes and releases from the starting in the mid-20th century. In , feral populations were first detected in the United States in the , with significant growth in (estimated at over individuals by ) and smaller colonies in states like , New York, and . European introductions occurred similarly, with breeding populations exceeding 50,000 in by and established groups in the , , and , often thriving in urban and suburban habitats due to their adaptability to human-altered environments. In Asia and Africa, smaller but expanding colonies exist in places like Japan, Israel, and , facilitated by international shipping of pets. Ecologically, invasive monk parakeets exhibit mixed impacts, with for and nesting resources posing risks to native avifauna, though of widespread displacement remains . They consume , fruits, and grains, potentially overlapping with native granivores and frugivores; in , dietary studies show up to % overlap with like the (Cardinalis cardinalis), but no significant population declines in natives have been causally linked. Their unique communal stick nests, which can multiple pairs and persist for years, sometimes facilitate other by providing —nine , including invasive sparrows and native cavity-nesters, have been recorded as tenants in , suggesting a facilitative that may extend to invaded ranges. However, aggressive defense of these nests can exclude competitors, and in urban settings, large colonies (up to 200 birds per nest structure) alter local bird community dynamics by dominating artificial sites like utility poles. Negative effects include indirect biodiversity threats through infrastructure damage and potential disease transmission, though these are more socioeconomic than purely ecological. Nests built on power lines cause frequent outages—over 100 incidents annually in some U.S. cities like Chicago—disrupting habitats reliant on stable urban ecosystems, while fecal accumulation under roosts raises pathogen risks for wildlife. In agricultural fringes, they damage crops like corn and citrus, with losses estimated at $500,000 yearly in parts of their native range, and similar patterns in invaded areas like Argentina's pampas, though U.S. studies report minimal verified crop impacts. Overall, while modeled risks predict moderate threats to endemic species in vulnerable ecosystems (e.g., island avifauna), long-term monitoring indicates variable outcomes, with no extinctions attributed solely to monk parakeets as of 2023. Management efforts, including trapping and culling, have reduced densities in high-risk areas like Florida, but populations persist due to high reproductive rates (2-4 clutches per year, 5-8 eggs each).

Cultural and economic roles

True parrots have featured prominently in human cultures across , often symbolizing , , and divine favor to their vocal and vibrant . In ancient Rome, wealthy elites kept parrots in ornate cages crafted from precious metals and , viewing them as status symbols and diplomatic gifts exchanged among nobility. Similarly, in ancient , parrots represented luxury and intellectual curiosity, with their speech imitation inspiring awe and integration into elite households. In Hindu mythology, the parrot serves as the vahana (vehicle) of Kama, the god of love, embodying themes of affection, romance, and fidelity; this association extends to Indian folk art, where parrots depict love and spiritual devotion in traditional motifs. In medieval European literature and religious art, parrots symbolized the soul's purity or the Virgin Mary's virtues, appearing in poetry and paintings as emblems of speech and exotic rarity, often gifted between monarchs to signify prestige. Indigenous Amazonian tribes regard certain macaw species—true parrots—as sacred messengers of communication and song, attributing shamanistic powers to their mimicry in rituals. Economically, true parrots contribute to local economies through and , attracting birdwatchers to habitats in regions like and , where guided tours generate revenue for communities via entry fees and lodging. Historically, their rarity fueled luxury networks predating modern pet markets, with live birds or feathers serving as high-value commodities in ancient and medieval exchanges across and the . Beyond these, parrots hold negligible direct economic utility in agriculture or industry, as their ecological roles in primarily benefit rather than human production.

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