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D-Wave Systems
D-Wave Systems
D-Wave Systems
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Photograph of the D-Wave 2X 1000 Qubit quantum annealing processor chip mounted and wire-bonded in its sample holder. This chip was introduced in 2015 and has 128,472 Josephson junctions.

Key Information

49°15′24″N 122°59′57″W / 49.256613°N 122.9990452°W / 49.256613; -122.9990452

D-Wave at the SC18 conference

D-Wave Quantum Inc. is a quantum computing company with locations in Palo Alto, California and Burnaby, British Columbia. D-Wave claims to be the world's first company to sell computers that exploit quantum effects in their operation.[2] D-Wave's early customers include Lockheed Martin, the University of Southern California, Google/NASA, and Los Alamos National Laboratory.

D-Wave does not implement a generic, universal quantum computer; instead, their computers implement specialized quantum annealing.[3]

History

[edit]

D-Wave was founded by Haig Farris, Geordie Rose, Bob Wiens, and Alexandre Zagoskin in 1999.[4] Farris taught a business course at the University of British Columbia (UBC), where Rose obtained his PhD, and Zagoskin was a postdoctoral fellow. The company name refers to their first qubit designs, which used d-wave superconductors. D-Wave operated from various locations in Vancouver, British Columbia, and laboratory spaces at UBC before moving to its current location in the neighboring suburb of Burnaby. D-Wave also has offices in Palo Alto, California and Vienna, California, USA.[citation needed]

D-Wave operated as an offshoot from UBC, while maintaining ties with the Department of Physics and Astronomy.[5] It funded academic research in quantum computing, thus building a collaborative network of research scientists. The company collaborated with several universities and institutions, including UBC, IPHT Jena, Université de Sherbrooke, University of Toronto, University of Twente, Chalmers University of Technology, University of Erlangen, and Jet Propulsion Laboratory. These partnerships were listed on D-Wave's website until 2005.[6][7] In June 2014, D-Wave announced a new quantum applications ecosystem with computational finance firm 1QB Information Technologies (1QBit) and cancer research group DNA-SEQ to focus on solving real-world problems with quantum hardware.[8]

On May 11, 2011, D-Wave announced D-Wave One, described as "the world's first commercially available quantum computer", operating on a 128-qubit chipset[9] using quantum annealing (a general method for finding the global minimum of a function by a process using quantum fluctuations)[10][11][12][13] to solve optimization problems. The D-Wave One was built on early prototypes such as D-Wave's Orion Quantum Computer. The prototype was a 16-qubit quantum annealing processor, demonstrated on February 13, 2007, at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California.[14] D-Wave demonstrated what they claimed to be a 28-qubit quantum annealing processor on November 12, 2007.[15] The chip was fabricated at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Microdevices Lab in Pasadena, California.[16]

In May 2013, a collaboration between NASA, Google, and the Universities Space Research Association (USRA) launched a Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab based on the D-Wave Two 512-qubit quantum computer that would be used for research into machine learning, among other fields of study.[17]

On February 17, 2014, D-Wave was featured on the cover of Time magazine.[18] In the accompanying article, Lev Grossman describes D-Wave's approach to quantum computing, the potential of the technology, and the enthusiasm of investors like Jeff Bezos, while acknowledging skepticism from some critics.[19]

On August 20, 2015, D-Wave announced[20] the general availability of the D-Wave 2X[21] system, a 1000-qubit+ quantum computer. This was followed by an announcement[22] on September 28, 2015, that it had been installed at the Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab at NASA Ames Research Center.

In January 2017, D-Wave released the D-Wave 2000Q, and an open-source repository containing software tools for quantum annealers. It contains Qbsolv,[23][24][25] which is open-source software that solves quadratic unconstrained binary optimization problems on both the company's quantum processors and classic hardware architectures.

In 2018, D-Wave released the Leap quantum cloud service.[26]

In 2025, D-Wave announced the sale of an Advantage system to Forschungszentrum Jülich, a research center in Germany. The system is installed at Jülich Supercomputing Centre (JSC) at Forschungszentrum Jülich.[27] Scientists at JSC, working with collaborators from other institutions, published in Nature the results of research conducted on the Advantage system simulating the dynamics of false vacuum decay. This work demonstrates that quantum computers can be used to explore complex cosmological phenomena.[28]

Also in 2025, D-Wave published a paper in the journal Science describing a computational simulation of a magnetic material that was performed on a quantum computer dramatically faster than performing such a simulation on a traditional computer.[29] However, some physicists questioned these claims.[30]

Computer systems

[edit]
Photograph of a chip constructed by D-Wave Systems Inc., designed to operate as a 128-qubit superconducting adiabatic quantum optimization processor, mounted in a sample holder

The first commercially produced D-Wave processor was a programmable,[31] superconducting integrated circuit with up to 128 pair-wise coupled[32] superconducting flux qubits.[33][34][35] The 128-qubit processor was superseded by a 512-qubit processor in 2013.[36] The processor is designed to implement a special-purpose quantum annealing[10][11][12][13] as opposed to being operated as a universal gate-model quantum computer.

The underlying ideas for the D-Wave approach arose from experimental results in condensed matter physics, and particular work on quantum annealing in magnets performed by Gabriel Aeppli, Thomas Felix Rosenbaum, and collaborators,[37] who had been checking[38][39] the advantages,[40] proposed by Bikas K. Chakrabarti & collaborators, of quantum tunneling/fluctuations in the search for ground state(s) in spin glasses. These ideas were later recast in the language of quantum computation by MIT physicists Edward Farhi, Seth Lloyd, Terry Orlando, and Bill Kaminsky, whose publications in 2000[41] and 2004[42] provided both a theoretical model for quantum computation that fit with the earlier work in quantum magnetism (specifically the adiabatic quantum computing model and quantum annealing, its finite temperature variant), and a specific enablement of that idea using superconducting flux qubits which is a close cousin to the designs D-Wave produced. To understand the origins of much of the controversy around the D-Wave approach, it is important to note that the origins of the D-Wave approach to quantum computation arose not from the conventional quantum information field, but from experimental condensed matter physics.

Orion prototype

[edit]

On February 13, 2007, D-Wave demonstrated the Orion system, running three different applications at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California. This marked the first public demonstration of, supposedly, a quantum computer and associated service.[43]

The first application, an example of pattern matching, performed a search for a similar compound to a known drug within a database of molecules. The next application computed a seating arrangement for an event subject to compatibilities and incompatibilities between guests. The last involved solving a Sudoku puzzle.[44]

The processors at the heart of D-Wave's "Orion quantum computing system" are designed for use as hardware accelerator processors rather than general-purpose computer microprocessors. The system is designed to solve a particular NP-complete problem related to the two-dimensional Ising model in a magnetic field.[14] D-Wave terms the device as a 16-qubit superconducting adiabatic quantum computer processor.[45][46]

According to the company, a conventional front-end running an application that requires the solution of an NP-complete problem, such as pattern matching, passes the problem to the Orion system.

According to Geordie Rose, founder and Chief Technology Officer of D-Wave, NP-complete problems "are probably not exactly solvable, no matter how big, fast or advanced computers get"; the adiabatic quantum computer used by the Orion system is intended to quickly compute an approximate solution.[47]

2009 Google demonstration

[edit]

On December 8, 2009, at the Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS) conference, a Google research team led by Hartmut Neven used D-Wave's processor to train a binary image classifier.[48]

D-Wave One

[edit]

On May 11, 2011, D-Wave announced the D-Wave One, an integrated quantum computer system running on a 128-qubit processor. The processor used in the D-Wave One, performs a single mathematical operation, discrete optimization. Rainier uses quantum annealing to solve optimization problems. The D-Wave One was claimed to be the world's first commercially available quantum computer system.[49] Its price was quoted at approximately US$10,000,000.[2]

A research team led by Matthias Troyer and Daniel Lidar found that, while there is evidence of quantum annealing in D-Wave One, they saw no speed increase compared to classical computers. They implemented an optimized classical algorithm to solve the same particular problem as the D-Wave One.[50][51]

Lockheed Martin and D-Wave collaboration

[edit]

In November 2010,[52] Lockheed Martin signed a multi-year contract with D-Wave to realize the benefits based upon a quantum annealing processor applied to some of Lockheed's most challenging computation problems. The contract was later announced on May 25, 2011. The contract included the purchase of the D-Wave One quantum computer, maintenance, and associated professional services.[53]

Optimization problem-solving in protein structure determination

[edit]

In August 2012, a team of Harvard University researchers presented results of the largest protein-folding problem solved to date using a quantum computer. The researchers solved instances of a lattice protein folding model, known as the Miyazawa–Jernigan model, on a D-Wave One quantum computer.[54][55]

D-Wave Two

[edit]
Main article: D-Wave Two

In early 2012, D-Wave revealed a 512-qubit quantum computer,[56] which was launched as a production processor in 2013.[57]

In May 2013, Catherine McGeoch, a consultant for D-Wave, published the first comparison of the technology against regular top-end desktop computers running an optimization algorithm. Using a configuration with 439 qubits, the system performed 3,600 times as fast as CPLEX, the best algorithm on the conventional machine, solving problems with 100 or more variables in half a second compared with half an hour. The results are presented at the Computing Frontiers 2013 conference.[58]

In March 2013, several groups of researchers at the Adiabatic Quantum Computing workshop at the Institute of Physics in London, England, produced evidence, though only indirect, of quantum entanglement in the D-Wave chips.[59]

In May 2013, it was announced that a collaboration between NASA, Google, and the USRA launched a Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab at the NASA Advanced Supercomputing Division at Ames Research Center in California, using a 512-qubit D-Wave Two that would be used for research into machine learning, among other fields of study.[17][60]

D-Wave 2X and D-Wave 2000Q

[edit]
D-wave Computer in February 2017
D-Wave 2000 qubit processor wafer, 2018

On August 20, 2015, D-Wave released the general availability of their D-Wave 2X computer, with 1000 qubits in a Chimera graph architecture (although, due to magnetic offsets and manufacturing variability inherent in the superconductor circuit fabrication, fewer than 1152 qubits are functional and available for use; the exact number of qubits yielded will vary with each specific processor manufactured). This was accompanied by a report comparing speeds with high-end single-threaded CPUs.[61] Unlike previous reports, this one explicitly stated that the question of quantum speedup was not something they were trying to address, and focused on constant-factor performance gains over classical hardware. For general-purpose problems, a speedup of 15x was reported, but it is worth noting that these classical algorithms benefit efficiently from parallelization—so that the computer would be performing on par with, perhaps, 30 traditional high-end single-threaded cores.

The D-Wave 2X processor is based on a 2048-qubit chip with half of the qubits disabled; these were activated in the D-Wave 2000Q.[62][63]

Advantage

[edit]

In February 2019, D-Wave announced the next-generation system that would become the Advantage[64] and delivered that system in 2020. The Advantage architecture would increase the total number of qubits to 5760 and switch to the Pegasus graph topology, increasing the per-qubit connections to 15. D-Wave claimed the Advantage architecture provided a 10x speedup in time-to-solve over the 2000Q product offering. D-Wave claims that an incremental follow-up Advantage Performance Update provides a 2x speedup over Advantage and a 20x speedup over 2000Q, among other improvements.[65]

Advantage2

[edit]

In 2021, D-Wave announced the next-generation system that would become the Advantage2[66] with delivery expected in late 2024 or early 2025. The Advantage architecture was expected to increase the total number of qubits to over 7000 and switch to the Zephyr graph topology, increasing the per-qubit connections to 20.[66][67][68][69][70] As of July 17, 2025, the manufacturer claimed a "4,400+ qubit system" was generally available.[71][72]

Controversies and criticisms

[edit]

Despite its pioneering role in quantum annealing, D-Wave has faced criticism regarding the practical utility and commercial viability of its systems. In March 2025, D-Wave announced that it had achieved what it described as "quantum supremacy," reporting that its latest quantum annealer solved a specialized optimization problem faster than the world's most powerful classical supercomputers could replicate the result. The Wall Street Journal noted that while the experiment demonstrated a performance gap favoring D-Wave's hardware, skeptics argued the problem was carefully chosen to highlight the system's strengths and did not reflect general-purpose computational tasks.[30] Critics further observed that advances in classical algorithms might soon close this benchmark gap, suggesting that D-Wave's claimed supremacy may be limited to narrow, contrived applications rather than broad, real-world problems. In April 2025, independent investment research firm Kerrisdale Capital argued that D-Wave's market valuation was "disconnected from its stagnating revenue and lack of broad commercial adoption," highlighting concerns over significant share dilution and questioning the company's path to profitability.[73]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

D-Wave Systems

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D-Wave Quantum Inc., formerly known as D-Wave Systems, is a pioneering quantum computing company founded in 1999 in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada, by Haig Farris, Geordie Rose, Bob Wiens, and Alexandre Zagoskin, and it holds the distinction of being the world's first commercial supplier of quantum computers. The company specializes in quantum annealing technology, a quantum computing approach that leverages quantum effects to efficiently find low-energy states and solve complex optimization problems in fields such as manufacturing, logistics, pharmaceuticals, and financial services, outperforming classical methods for certain real-world applications. This specialized approach differs from universal gate-based quantum computing systems developed by companies such as IonQ and Rigetti. D-Wave's systems, including its flagship Advantage and Advantage2 quantum processors, are designed for practical use, with the company reporting over 200 million problems submitted to its platforms and achieving 99.9% uptime for its quantum computers. Since its inception, D-Wave has marked several key milestones, beginning with the 2011 launch and sale of the D-Wave One, the first commercially available quantum computer, to for approximately $10 million, followed by subsequent generations like the D-Wave Two in 2013 and the 2000Q in 2017, which expanded qubit counts and problem-solving capabilities. By 2020, D-Wave introduced the Advantage system with over 5,000 qubits, and in 2025, it demonstrated on a useful, real-world problem beyond the reach of classical supercomputers, solidifying its role in advancing practical quantum applications. The company now builds both annealing-based and gate-model quantum computers, alongside software like the Leap quantum cloud service and hybrid solvers that integrate quantum and classical computing for enhanced performance. With over 250 U.S. patents, more than 100 peer-reviewed publications, and a workforce of over 200 employees (about 20% with PhDs), D-Wave serves major clients including , , and government entities, focusing on delivering scalable, energy-efficient solutions for optimization, , and . In 2022, D-Wave went public as D-Wave Quantum Inc. (NYSE: QBTS) via a SPAC merger, emphasizing its transition from research pioneer to a commercially viable leader in the quantum ecosystem. As of January 29, 2026, the company had a market capitalization of approximately $8.59 billion. In January 2026, D-Wave announced an agreement to acquire Quantum Circuits, Inc., a developer of gate-model quantum technology known for delivering dual-rail qubits with built-in error correction, for $550 million consisting of $250 million in cash and $300 million in stock. This acquisition positions D-Wave as the only company with all three key technologies for scaled, error-corrected superconducting gate-model quantum computers, including high-fidelity dual-rail qubits, on-chip cryogenic control, and robust cryogenic platforms, with the combined entity aiming to bring gate-model quantum systems to market in 2026 while continuing development of annealing quantum computing. Following this acquisition, in January 2026, D-Wave demonstrated the first scalable on-chip cryogenic control of gate-model qubits, addressing a major wiring bottleneck in quantum scalability by integrating control electronics directly on the chip to preserve qubit coherence without extensive external wiring.

Overview

Founding and Leadership

D-Wave Systems, now known as D-Wave Quantum Inc. following a 2022 business combination, was founded in 1999 in , , , by Haig Farris, Geordie Rose, Bob Wiens, and Alexandre Zagoskin as a spin-off from the University of British Columbia's physics department. The company's initial focus was on developing quantum computers based on superconducting circuits to solve complex optimization problems. Geordie Rose, who holds a PhD in theoretical physics from the University of British Columbia, served as the company's first CEO from 1999 to 2003 and then as Chief Technology Officer until 2014, guiding its early technical direction. After Rose's departure, leadership transitioned through several executives, including Vern Brownell as CEO in the mid-2010s. In 2020, Dr. Alan Baratz was appointed CEO; Baratz, with a PhD in electrical engineering and computer science from MIT and extensive business experience at companies like Cisco and Avaya, has emphasized commercial scaling and hybrid quantum solutions. The current executive team includes key figures such as co-founder Eric Ladizinsky as Chief Scientist, overseeing scientific advancements in quantum hardware, and Trevor Lanting as Chief Development Officer, leading product innovation across hardware, software, and cloud services. This structure supports D-Wave's evolution from a research-oriented startup to a provider of commercial systems.

Mission and Core Focus

D-Wave Quantum Inc.'s core mission is to deliver powerful, commercial, and trusted solutions that solve real-world problems, with a primary emphasis on building capable of addressing complex optimization challenges more efficiently than classical computers. The company targets practical applications in fields such as optimization for and scheduling, for enhanced decision-making, and for and molecular simulations. This focus stems from a commitment to unlocking quantum value today, enabling businesses to achieve tangible benefits through quantum-enhanced computations rather than awaiting fully mature universal quantum technologies. Unlike gate-model quantum computing, which aims for universal computation across a broad range of algorithms, D-Wave prioritizes as a specialized approach optimized for finding low-energy states in problems. This differentiation allows D-Wave's systems to tackle specific, computationally intensive use cases—such as workforce scheduling or —where annealing provides advantages in speed and scalability over classical methods, while gate-model systems face greater challenges in error correction and coherence at scale. By concentrating on annealing, D-Wave positions itself as a leader in delivering enterprise-ready quantum tools for immediate industrial impact, as evidenced by over 200 million problems solved across customer applications. D-Wave's business model supports this mission through a multifaceted delivery approach, including on-premises quantum processors for dedicated installations, cloud access via the Leap quantum cloud service for scalable, pay-as-you-go usage, and hybrid solvers that integrate with classical computing resources to handle larger-scale problems. The Leap service, for instance, provides real-time access to D-Wave's annealing processors with 99.9% uptime, facilitating applications in AI-driven optimization like TV commercial placement that reaches millions of viewers. Hybrid solvers extend this capability by decomposing complex tasks into quantum-solvable subsets, enhancing performance in simulations without requiring full quantum universality. To promote accessibility, D-Wave has developed the open-source SDK, a suite of Python tools that enables developers to formulate and integrate problems into existing applications with minimal quantum expertise. Available on with extensive documentation, examples, and libraries, Ocean translates user problems—such as graph-based optimizations—into binary quadratic models suitable for D-Wave's processors, supporting both quantum and classical backends. This emphasis on developer-friendly tools fosters a growing , allowing for commercial uses in optimization and AI without the need for specialized hardware knowledge.

History

Early Development (1999–2010)

D-Wave Systems was founded in 1999 in , , , with an initial focus on developing superconducting quantum bits (qubits) as the building blocks for hardware. From 1999 to 2003, the company invested in foundational research on superconducting qubits, including explorations of Josephson junctions involving d-wave superconductors to enable quantum coherence in computational elements. This early R&D phase was supported by seed funding from private investors and Canadian venture sources, laying the groundwork for practical architectures. In 2007, D-Wave unveiled the Orion prototype, marking the debut of the first commercially developed quantum computer featuring 16 superconducting s designed for optimization problems via . The system, demonstrated at the in , showcased applications such as database searches and molecular modeling, highlighting its potential for real-world problem-solving despite operating at near-absolute zero temperatures. However, the announcement drew significant skepticism from the regarding the prototype's scalability to larger qubit counts and the achievement of sufficient quantum coherence times to perform meaningful computations beyond classical simulations. A pivotal moment for public validation came in 2009 through a collaboration with , where researchers demonstrated the Orion system's capabilities at the Neural Information Processing Systems conference in . The live presentation included solving a Sudoku puzzle as an illustrative example of mapping problems onto the quantum annealer, underscoring its utility for optimization tasks like image recognition. This event helped address some early doubts by providing of the hardware's operation on practical problems, though debates persisted on its quantum nature and broader applicability. By 2010, amid ongoing challenges with coherence and scaling, D-Wave announced plans to develop a 128- system, signaling a shift toward more ambitious prototypes capable of tackling complex optimization landscapes. This roadmap reflected incremental progress in qubit fabrication and control, positioning the company for future commercial viability despite persistent technical hurdles.

Expansion and Milestones (2011–2026)

In 2011, D-Wave Systems marked a pivotal shift toward commercialization by selling its first quantum computer, the D-Wave One system, to Corporation for an estimated $10 million. This transaction, announced in May, represented the inaugural commercial deployment of a processor and established D-Wave as the pioneer in bringing quantum hardware to enterprise users. The sale underscored the company's transition from research prototypes to market-ready solutions, enabling early applications in optimization problems for defense and sectors. From 2013 to 2015, D-Wave accelerated its technical advancements and strategic alliances. In May 2013, the company unveiled the D-Wave Two, a 512-qubit system that doubled the processing capacity of its predecessor and expanded connectivity for more complex problem-solving. This release facilitated broader adoption in research environments. By September 2015, D-Wave forged a multi-year partnership with Google, NASA, and the Universities Space Research Association (USRA) to establish the Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab at NASA's Ames Research Center. The collaboration installed a D-Wave 2X system with over 1,000 qubits, focusing on advancing quantum-enhanced machine learning and artificial intelligence applications. These developments solidified D-Wave's role in collaborative quantum research ecosystems. In January 2017, D-Wave launched the 2000Q system, featuring more than 2,000 s and improved performance for large-scale optimization tasks, priced at approximately $15 million per unit. This milestone doubled the qubit count from prior generations and targeted industrial applications, with initial shipments to customers including institutions. The system's enhanced coherence times and error reduction capabilities represented a significant step in scaling technology for practical use. The year 2020 brought further innovation with the introduction of the Advantage system in , boasting over 5,000 s and the new graph topology that increased qubit connectivity to 15-way, enabling solutions to previously intractable optimization problems. Accessible via the Leap quantum cloud service, this platform emphasized business-oriented deployments, with early users reporting up to 1,000 times faster performance on select hybrid quantum-classical workflows compared to classical methods. The launch highlighted D-Wave's focus on energy-efficient computing for fields like and materials design. In 2023 and 2024, D-Wave expanded its Leap service to support advanced AI and integrations, including new hybrid solvers and service level agreements for production-grade applications. This growth facilitated real-time access to quantum resources for over 40 countries, driving a 120% increase in annual bookings to exceed $23 million by fiscal year 2024. In 2025, D-Wave achieved several landmark accomplishments. In March, the company claimed the first demonstration of on a practical problem by simulating magnetic material properties using its Advantage2 prototype, completing the task in minutes—a computation estimated to take nearly a million years on the world's fastest . This peer-reviewed result, published in a scientific journal, highlighted annealing quantum computing's edge in simulations. Also in March, D-Wave announced a partnership with , deploying a hybrid quantum application to optimize vehicle manufacturing sequencing for the Ford Transit line. In May, D-Wave announced general availability of the Advantage2 , its most advanced processor with over 4,400 qubits, 20-way connectivity via the Zephyr , and improved coherence for enhanced problem-solving scale. Later in the year, D-Wave signed a €10 million agreement with Swiss Quantum Technology SA to provide 50% capacity on an Advantage2 in , supporting Italy's national quantum research initiatives over a five-year term. In November, D-Wave and completed a proof-of-concept demonstrating quantum-enhanced efficiency in chemical production scheduling. Financially, the third quarter reported of $3.7 million, reflecting 100% year-over-year growth driven by increased subscriptions and deployments. On January 6, 2026, D-Wave announced the demonstration of the first scalable on-chip cryogenic control of gate-model qubits, addressing a major wiring bottleneck in the development of scalable quantum computers. This breakthrough utilized a multichip package that integrates a high-coherence fluxonium qubit chip with a multilayer control chip, employing multiplexed digital-to-analog converters to control tens of thousands of qubits and couplers with approximately 200 bias wires. The technology preserves qubit fidelity and coherence while significantly reducing the need for external wiring, enabling the construction of larger processors with a smaller cryogenic footprint and overcoming challenges associated with massive wiring demands in gate-model architectures. In January 2026, D-Wave announced an agreement to acquire Quantum Circuits, Inc. (QCI), a developer of gate-model quantum technology known for dual-rail qubits with built-in error correction, for $550 million consisting of $250 million in cash and $300 million in D-Wave common stock. The acquisition positions D-Wave as the only company with all three key technologies for scaled, error-corrected superconducting gate-model quantum computers, including high-fidelity dual-rail qubits, on-chip cryogenic control, and robust cryogenic platforms. The combined entity aims to bring gate-model quantum systems to market in 2026 while continuing development of annealing quantum computing.

Technology

Principles of Quantum Annealing

Quantum annealing is a computational method designed to solve optimization problems by finding the global minimum of a complex energy landscape. It achieves this by evolving a quantum mechanical system from an initial superposition state through a controlled process that leverages quantum effects to explore the solution space efficiently. Unlike classical optimization techniques, quantum annealing exploits the principles of quantum mechanics to navigate rugged energy landscapes, potentially avoiding suboptimal local minima. This approach was first proposed as a quantum analog to simulated annealing, introducing quantum fluctuations to enhance convergence to the ground state. The core of quantum annealing lies in its Hamiltonian formulation, where the total Hamiltonian H(t)H(t) of the system is given by H(t)=A(t)HD+B(t)HPH(t) = A(t) H_D + B(t) H_P, with HPH_P representing the problem Hamiltonian that encodes the optimization objective, and HDH_D as the driver Hamiltonian that introduces quantum fluctuations, typically a transverse magnetic field term HD=−∑iσixH_D = -\sum_i \sigma_i^x. Here, A(t)A(t) and B(t)B(t) are time-dependent coefficients that schedule the evolution: starting with A(0)A(0) large and B(0)B(0) small to initialize the system in a superposition of all states, and gradually decreasing A(t)A(t) while increasing B(t)B(t) over time tt to a final value at t=Tt = T, where the system ideally reaches the ground state of HPH_P. This adiabatic evolution relies on the quantum adiabatic theorem, ensuring that if the evolution is sufficiently slow, the system remains in the instantaneous ground state, transitioning from quantum-dominated dynamics to classical minimization. In comparison to classical annealing, which relies on thermal fluctuations to probabilistically escape local energy minima with rates governed by the Boltzmann factor e−ΔE/kTe^{-\Delta E / kT}, quantum annealing uses quantum tunneling to overcome barriers, with tunneling probabilities scaling as e−(ΔE)2/Γe^{-(\Delta E)^2 / \Gamma}, where Γ\Gamma relates to the transverse field strength. This quantum effect can provide an exponential speedup in certain glassy systems by allowing the to tunnel through rather than climb over energy barriers, making it particularly suitable for tackling NP-hard optimization problems such as those formulated in the . The mathematical basis for quantum annealing is rooted in the , a canonical representation for binary optimization problems, where the energy function is E=−∑i<jJijσiσj−∑ihiσiE = -\sum_{i<j} J_{ij} \sigma_i \sigma_j - \sum_i h_i \sigma_i, with σi=±1\sigma_i = \pm 1, couplings JijJ_{ij} defining interactions between , and local fields hih_i biasing individual . The goal is to minimize this energy by finding the optimal spin configuration, which maps directly to diverse combinatorial problems like graph partitioning or . embeds this into a , enabling the quantum evolution to sample low-energy states effectively. Despite its strengths, quantum annealing has inherent limitations, as it is primarily optimized for finding ground states in specific classes of problems and does not support universal operations like arbitrary gate decompositions or error-corrected qubits. Its efficacy depends on maintaining adiabaticity throughout the evolution, which can be disrupted by quantum phase transitions, particularly discontinuous ones that scale exponentially with system size, necessitating careful schedule design to mitigate. D-Wave's implementation of quantum annealing is specialized for solving complex optimization problems, such as those in logistics and machine learning, by leveraging quantum tunneling to explore solution spaces more efficiently than classical methods for certain NP-hard tasks. This approach differs from universal gate-based quantum computing systems developed by companies like IonQ and Rigetti, which use precise quantum gates to perform a broader range of algorithms, including quantum simulation and factoring, offering greater versatility but facing challenges in scalability and error correction for general-purpose computation. Thus, while powerful for optimization, it is not a general-purpose paradigm.

D-Wave's Implementation and Innovations

D-Wave Systems employs superconducting flux qubits, which consist of niobium loops interrupted by Josephson junctions, to realize quantum annealing hardware. These flux qubits operate by trapping magnetic flux in a superconducting loop, with the state determined by the flux direction relative to the junctions. For tunable coupling between qubits, D-Wave utilizes compound Josephson junction rf-SQUIDs as couplers, enabling adjustable mutual inductance with minimal crosstalk. This design allows for sign- and magnitude-tunable interactions, essential for embedding complex optimization problems into the quantum processor. The fabrication of D-Wave's quantum processors involves niobium-based superconducting materials patterned on substrates to form the loops and junctions. These chips are housed in dilution refrigerators that achieve operating temperatures below 20 millikelvin (mK), approximately 200 times colder than , to suppress noise and enable coherent quantum behavior. The cryogenic environment, maintained by a mixture of and , ensures the processors function in the quantum regime required for annealing. Over time, D-Wave has advanced the connectivity topology of its processors to improve problem-solving efficiency. Early systems adopted the Chimera graph, featuring unit cells of eight s with each connected to six others, facilitating minor embedding of optimization problems. Subsequent innovations introduced the topology in the Advantage series, increasing connectivity to 15 nearest neighbors per through additional coupler types, which allows for denser mapping of larger and more complex graphs without excessive overhead. This evolution enhances the processor's ability to handle real-world applications by reducing the resources needed for problem representation. To address limitations in large-scale problems directly on the quantum processor, D-Wave developed a hybrid approach that integrates the quantum annealer with classical CPUs. The qbsolv solver decomposes (QUBO) problems into subproblems solvable on the quantum hardware, then recombines solutions using classical heuristics like on the CPU. This partitioning strategy enables tackling problems beyond the native connectivity constraints of the processor, improving scalability for industrial applications. In 2025, D-Wave introduced developer tools to expand into quantum AI, including an open-source toolkit that integrates annealing processors with frameworks like . This toolkit allows developers to incorporate quantum sampling into AI model training pipelines, such as for optimization in hyperparameters or generative models, marking a milestone in hybrid quantum-classical AI workflows. Accompanying demos illustrate practical implementations, fostering broader adoption in research and industry. On November 10, 2025, D-Wave announced plans to showcase advanced hybrid quantum technologies at the SC25 supercomputing conference (November 16–21, 2025, in , ), emphasizing integration with (HPC), energy-efficient performance, and applications in accelerating AI and HPC workflows.

Quantum Systems

Early Prototypes (Orion and D-Wave One)

D-Wave's earliest quantum annealing prototype, Orion, was demonstrated in February 2007 as a 16-qubit superconducting processor designed to tackle small-scale optimization problems through adiabatic evolution. The system employed a Chimera graph topology, featuring a sparse connectivity pattern with each qubit coupled to up to eight neighbors, which facilitated embedding of simple Ising models representative of optimization tasks. During its public unveiling at the Computerworld conference, Orion successfully solved instances of small optimization problems, including a demonstration of protein folding by mapping the energy minimization of a simple polypeptide chain onto its qubit array, leveraging quantum tunneling to explore conformational states more efficiently than classical exhaustive search for those scales. Building on Orion's foundation, D-Wave One represented a significant scale-up, released in 2011 as the company's first commercially available quantum annealer with 128 superconducting flux s arranged in the Chimera topology. This system marked the inaugural sale of a quantum computer to for approximately $10 million, primarily to support of complex software systems through optimization routines that identified minimal error configurations in large codebases. In performance benchmarks, D-Wave One demonstrated capability in solving small instances of NP-complete problems, such as —where it identified near-optimal sets of vertices to cover graph edges—and other Ising-formulated challenges, achieving success probabilities competitive with classical heuristics for problem sizes up to the qubit limit. The qubits exhibited coherence times on the order of 100 nanoseconds, constraining annealing schedules to microseconds while enabling repeated sampling to approximate ground states. Early applications of these prototypes highlighted potential quantum advantages in biomolecular simulations, particularly protein structure determination. Orion's protein folding demo illustrated how quantum annealing could accelerate the search for low-energy folds in toy models by exploiting superposition and tunneling to sample multiple configurations in parallel, providing a speedup over classical simulated annealing for the demonstrated cases. Similarly, D-Wave One extended this to larger instances, supporting exploratory work in folding simulations that informed subsequent validations of quantum effects in energy landscape navigation, though limited by noise and connectivity constraints. These initial systems laid the groundwork for practical quantum optimization, emphasizing embedding techniques to map real-world problems onto the hardware's native quadratic unconstrained binary optimization (QUBO) framework.

Intermediate Systems (D-Wave Two and 2000Q)

The intermediate systems from D-Wave Systems marked a significant scaling in qubit count and performance, transitioning from early prototypes to more robust platforms capable of tackling larger optimization problems. These systems built on the Chimera graph topology, which provided improved qubit connectivity over prior designs, allowing for the embedding of denser problem graphs with up to six connections per . This advancement enabled better representation of complex Ising models essential for applications. Released in 2013, the D-Wave Two featured 512 superconducting flux s arranged in a Chimera graph structure, quadrupling the qubit count from the D-Wave One and enhancing the system's ability to handle more intricate optimization landscapes. The processor operated at near-absolute zero temperatures within a shielded cryogenic environment to minimize external interference. Notably, a D-Wave Two was selected for the Ames Quantum Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (), in collaboration with and the Universities Space Research Association, where it was used to explore tasks such as generative modeling and in large datasets. In 2015, D-Wave introduced the 2X model with over 1,000 qubits (specifically 1,097), further refining the Chimera topology for increased problem-solving capacity. This system demonstrated higher coherence times compared to its predecessor, supporting annealing schedules up to 20 microseconds and enabling faster exploration of solution spaces. Benchmarks showed performance advantages of up to 600 times in native computation time over classical solvers for certain optimization problems, such as random Ising models, highlighting potential speedups in specific regimes despite ongoing debates about quantum advantage. The D-Wave 2000Q, launched in as a commercial evolution of the 2X, scaled to 2,048 qubits while maintaining the Chimera C16 graph as a foundational topology that presaged later innovations like . It incorporated enhanced fabrication processes for greater reliability, including reduced noise through improved shielding and cryogenic isolation, which lowered error rates and boosted solution quality for practical deployments. These systems also pioneered integration with classical solvers, facilitating hybrid quantum-classical workflows where the quantum annealer handles hard subproblems while classical algorithms manage decomposition and refinement, as implemented in D-Wave's early hybrid solver services.

Advanced Systems (Advantage and Advantage2)

The D-Wave Advantage system, released in 2020, represents a significant advancement in hardware, featuring over 5,000 qubits and a topology that enables 15-way connectivity between qubits. This design enhances the system's ability to embed and solve complex optimization problems, making it particularly suited for business applications such as and . The Advantage is accessible both on-premises for select customers and through D-Wave's Leap service, allowing hybrid quantum-classical workflows without dedicated hardware infrastructure. Building on the Advantage, the sixth-generation Advantage2 system was announced for general availability on May 20, 2025, incorporating over 4,400 with the new Zephyr topology for improved problem embedding efficiency. Key performance improvements include a 40% increase in energy scale, which widens the gap between ground-state and excited states for more reliable solutions, and doubled qubit coherence times that reduce errors in longer computations. These enhancements, combined with a 75% reduction in noise, enable faster problem-solving times, with reduced calibration requirements allowing up to 20 times quicker solutions for certain hard optimization tasks compared to prior systems. The Advantage2 has been deployed for specialized applications, including U.S. government use cases at Davidson Technologies, where it became operational on November 3, , to support defense-related optimization in areas like radar detection and . In , a €10 million contract announced in the third quarter of provides the Italian government and Q-Alliance with 50% capacity access to an Advantage2 system, facilitating education and research initiatives. Like its predecessor, the Advantage2 is offered via both on-premises installations and the Leap cloud platform, broadening accessibility for enterprise and institutional users.

Applications

Optimization and Logistics

D-Wave's quantum annealing technology addresses combinatorial optimization challenges in logistics by mapping problems such as vehicle routing and inventory management to Ising models, which represent the objective functions and constraints as (QUBO) formulations suitable for annealing processes. In vehicle routing, this involves encoding route assignments, capacities, and time windows into spin variables where the Hamiltonian minimizes total distance or cost while satisfying constraints like vehicle limits. For inventory optimization, the approach formulates stock allocation and replenishment decisions as Ising problems to balance holding costs, demand variability, and supply constraints, enabling exploration of vast solution spaces for near-optimal distributions. Hybrid solvers from D-Wave enhance these applications by decomposing large-scale problems into manageable subproblems, leveraging on the QPU for computationally intensive components like dense constraint clusters while classical algorithms handle decomposition, sampling, and refinement. This integration allows scalability beyond pure quantum limits, providing robust solutions for real-time in dynamic environments such as supply chains. A notable deployment occurred in 2025 when Ford Otosan implemented a production-grade hybrid-quantum application using D-Wave's Leap cloud service to optimize vehicle sequencing in manufacturing the Ford Transit lineup, reducing scheduling times for up to 1,000 vehicles and minimizing production disruptions through customized assembly line configurations. Similarly, in November 2025, BASF completed a proof-of-concept project with D-Wave applying hybrid-quantum optimization to chemical manufacturing processes at a liquid-filling facility, achieving a 14% reduction in product lateness, 9% decrease in setup times, and up to 18% shorter tank unloading durations while slashing scheduling computation from 10 hours to 5 seconds. In simulations, D-Wave's systems have demonstrated speedups of up to 10 times over classical heuristics when optimizing routes for thousands of vehicles, as shown in collaborative efforts with to process solutions more efficiently than traditional methods. These results underscore the practical advantages of in , where hybrid approaches deliver actionable improvements in efficiency and resource utilization.

Machine Learning and Materials Science

D-Wave Systems has advanced applications through quantum Boltzmann machines (QBMs), which leverage to sample from probability distributions for tasks. These models extend classical Boltzmann machines by incorporating a transverse-field Ising Hamiltonian, enabling efficient exploration of complex energy landscapes that classical methods struggle with due to computational intractability. For instance, QBMs have been employed in , where the annealing process accelerates sampling to identify outliers in datasets without labeled . This approach contrasts with traditional contrastive divergence in restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs) by using quantum effects to potentially reduce time for . In 2025, D-Wave released an open-source quantum AI toolkit designed to integrate annealing-based quantum computing directly into pipelines, such as workflows for model training. The toolkit facilitates tasks like in large datasets by formulating them as problems solvable via , allowing developers to hybridize classical and quantum components for enhanced performance in models. This release marks a milestone in making quantum-enhanced AI accessible, with demonstrations showing improved efficiency in preprocessing high-dimensional for downstream tasks. In , D-Wave's quantum annealers simulate magnetic materials by embedding transverse-field Ising models, which capture quantum phase transitions and spin interactions relevant to real-world magnets. These simulations exploit the annealer's ability to find low-energy states in frustrated systems, providing insights into material properties that classical supercomputers approximate less accurately at scale. A key demonstration in 2025 involved D-Wave reporting in simulating the real-time dynamics of 3D spin glasses on the Advantage2 system, where the quantum approach was claimed to outperform classical methods in accuracy and speed for disordered magnetic configurations intractable on supercomputers like . Applications extend to drug discovery, where D-Wave's annealing techniques model protein folding extensions in lattice-based representations, optimizing conformational energies to predict stable structures for therapeutic design. For example, collaborations with research partners have used these methods to explore protein folding landscapes, accelerating candidate identification for novel drugs. In 2025, D-Wave's partnership with the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute (USC ISI) advanced research on the Advantage system, hosting it on-site to support investigations into quantum simulations for biomolecular and materials applications.

Partnerships and Business

Key Collaborations

D-Wave Systems' collaboration with began in 2011, marking the company's first commercial sale of a quantum computer for optimization applications. This partnership has continued through multi-year agreements, including a 2015 renewal that supported ongoing research into for complex problem-solving. Joint efforts have included verification of quantum speedup on practical tasks, contributing to advancements in defense-related simulations. In 2013, D-Wave partnered with and to establish the at , housing a 512-qubit D-Wave Two system for experiments. This initiative focused on exploring quantum annealing's potential for tasks like and optimization in , fostering early demonstrations of quantum-enhanced computing. More recent collaborations include a 2025 proof-of-concept project with , a leading chemical company, to develop a hybrid-quantum application that improved efficiency in production facilities by reducing scheduling times from hours to seconds. In Q4 2025, D-Wave secured a €10 million booking with the Italian government for 50% capacity on an Advantage2 annealing quantum computer, supporting national quantum initiatives through the Q-Alliance. Additionally, on November 3, 2025, D-Wave deployed an Advantage2 system at Davidson Technologies for U.S. defense applications, enabling government access to for challenges. Academic partnerships have bolstered D-Wave's research ecosystem. The University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute (USC ISI) has hosted D-Wave systems since 2011, including an Advantage quantum computer deployed in 2022 as part of the USC-Lockheed Martin Center, facilitating hands-on quantum research. D-Wave also collaborates with the University of Waterloo's on hardware research to improve quantum coherence and device design for superconducting quantum processors, with projects funded by Canada's Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council since 2023. These collaborations have yielded proof-of-concept outcomes that transitioned to commercial use, such as Ford Otosan's 2025 deployment of a D-Wave hybrid-quantum application for vehicle production sequencing, which optimized workflows and reduced processing times by up to 83%. , Canada's largest independent grocery retailer, has partnered with D-Wave to optimize workforce scheduling and driver auto-scheduling across its operations. Using D-Wave's hybrid quantum solvers via the Leap cloud service, Pattison achieved an 80% reduction in manual scheduling effort for its retail workforce and automated complex planning, enhancing operational efficiency in its 58 stores as of 2024. On January 7, 2026, D-Wave announced an agreement to acquire Quantum Circuits, Inc. (QCI), a developer of gate-model quantum technology known for delivering dual-rail qubits with built-in error correction, for $550 million consisting of $250 million in cash and $300 million in stock. The acquisition positions D-Wave as the only company with all three key technologies for scaled, error-corrected superconducting gate-model quantum computers, including high-fidelity dual-rail qubits, on-chip cryogenic control, and robust cryogenic platforms. The combined entity aims to bring gate-model quantum systems to market in 2026 while continuing development of annealing quantum computing.

Financial Performance and Market Position

D-Wave Systems secured more than $300 million in private funding from investors prior to its public listing. The company went public in August 2022 through a SPAC merger with DPCM Capital, listing on the under the ticker QBTS at an initial equity valuation of approximately $1.2 billion. This transition provided additional capital for scaling operations and research in technology. As of January 29, 2026, D-Wave Quantum Inc. had a market capitalization of approximately $8.59 billion. Analyst estimates for the company's revenue in 2026 range around $39.5 million to $41.8 million. In 2025, D-Wave demonstrated strong revenue growth amid expanding commercial adoption of its systems. First-quarter revenue reached $15 million, marking a 509% increase year-over-year, primarily driven by system sales and quantum computing-as-a-service subscriptions. By the third quarter, revenue doubled to $3.7 million, a 100% year-over-year rise, while gross profit surged 156% to $2.7 million; year-to-date revenue for 2025 totaled $21.8 million, up 235% from the prior year. The company's (QBTS) rose approximately 223% year-to-date through early November 2025, though it experienced significant volatility, trading between $1.39 and $46.75 over the period. D-Wave maintains a leading position in the quantum annealing segment of the quantum computing market, where it has pioneered commercial applications for optimization problems since the early 2010s. Unlike gate-model approaches pursued by competitors such as and , D-Wave's annealing systems target practical near-term use cases in industries like and , positioning it as a specialist in this niche amid a broader competitive valued at billions. Despite revenue momentum, D-Wave continues to navigate challenges on the path to profitability, reporting widening operating losses of $27.7 million in the third quarter of 2025 due to elevated expenses. However, bolstered by $836 million in cash reserves—providing several years of operational runway—the company sustains investments in advancing its annealing platforms. In recognition of these efforts, D-Wave's Advantage2 quantum computer was named a winner in Fast Company's 2025 Next Big Things in Tech Awards in the , Chips, and Foundational category.

Scientific Debate

Quantum Supremacy Claims

In March 2025, D-Wave Systems announced a significant milestone in quantum computing by claiming to have achieved quantum supremacy using its Advantage2 prototype quantum annealer. The system, featuring approximately 1,200 qubits, solved a complex 3D spin glass problem related to magnetic materials simulation in just 20 minutes, a task estimated to take nearly one million years on the world's most powerful classical supercomputers. This claim was substantiated in a peer-reviewed paper published in Science titled "Beyond-classical computation in quantum ," which detailed the demonstration of exponential speedup in simulating real-world magnetic materials. The study focused on the of the in 3D topologies, generating samples that closely matched solutions to the with high fidelity. Unlike prior demonstrations that relied on contrived or sampling-based tasks, this achievement targeted a practically relevant in , marking the first such supremacy for hardware. The methodology involved benchmarking the D-Wave annealer against state-of-the-art classical algorithms, including executed on the exascale supercomputer at . The quantum system outperformed classical and methods, exhibiting area-law scaling of entanglement that enabled efficient handling of the problem's , while classical approaches scaled stretched-exponentially with system size. This comparison highlighted the annealer's ability to explore solution spaces more effectively for frustrated spin systems, providing evidence of a computational advantage on a non-trivial, industrially applicable challenge. The implications of this demonstration position quantum annealing as a viable tool for beyond-classical in optimization domains, particularly for problems intractable to current classical hardware, thereby advancing applications in fields like materials discovery without relying on universal gate-model quantum computers.

Criticisms and Responses

D-Wave's early systems faced significant scrutiny regarding claims of quantum speedup. In 2014, an by researchers from the , , and other institutions tested the D-Wave Two processor on a benchmark of 1,000 random instances and found no evidence of quantum speedup, with performance comparable to or slower than classical algorithms on a single CPU. The analysis, published in Science, emphasized that while the device exhibited quantum behavior, it did not solve optimization problems faster than classical methods under the tested conditions, raising doubts about practical advantages over conventional computing. Critics have also highlighted inherent limitations in D-Wave's approach compared to gate-model quantum computers. Unlike universal gate-based systems, annealing processors are specialized for optimization tasks and lack full universality, restricting their applicability to a narrower class of problems such as . Additionally, these systems suffer from high noise levels, including thermal fluctuations, control errors, and flux biases, which contribute to elevated error rates and decoherence, complicating reliable computation on larger scales. In 2025, D-Wave's announcement of in simulating complex magnetic materials using the Advantage2 system drew immediate backlash from the scientific community. Researchers at the demonstrated that classical GPU simulations could replicate the task in days, far short of D-Wave's estimated nearly one million years on a like , while the showed even smaller models solvable in hours on a single CPU. Critics argued that the problems were tailored to the annealing hardware, biasing results toward quantum methods and undermining claims of broad superiority. D-Wave has responded by emphasizing the peer-reviewed nature of its findings, published in Science, and clarifying that the demonstration focused on computational advantage for practical materials simulations rather than theoretical supremacy. CEO Alan Baratz stated in March 2025 that the work underwent rigorous independent review and highlighted its real-world utility in optimization challenges unsolvable by classical means today. The company has pointed to independent validations, such as a University of Southern California study using the Advantage processor, which demonstrated quantum scaling advantage in approximate optimization for spin-glass problems, outperforming classical supercomputers in time-to-epsilon metrics via error-suppressed logical qubits. Baratz has reiterated that D-Wave prioritizes annealing's strengths in delivering tangible business value over abstract benchmarks.

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