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Great spotted woodpecker
Great spotted woodpecker
Great spotted woodpecker
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Great spotted woodpecker
Adult male Dendrocopos major pinetorum
Drumming recorded in Devon, England
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Piciformes
Family: Picidae
Genus: Dendrocopos
Species:
D. major
Binomial name
Dendrocopos major
Synonyms
  • Picus major Linnaeus, 1758

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) is a medium-sized woodpecker with pied black and white plumage and a red patch on the lower belly. Males and young birds also have red markings on the neck or head. This species is found across the Palearctic including parts of North Africa. Across most of its range it is resident, but in the north some will migrate if the conifer cone crop fails. Some individuals have a tendency to wander, leading to the recolonisation of Ireland in the first decade of the 21st century and to vagrancy to North America. Great spotted woodpeckers chisel into trees to find food or excavate nest holes, and also drum for contact and territorial advertisement; like other woodpeckers, they have anatomical adaptations to manage the physical stresses from the hammering action. This species is similar to the Syrian woodpecker.

This woodpecker occurs in all types of woodlands and eats a variety of foods, being capable of extracting seeds from pine cones, insect larvae from inside trees or eggs and chicks of other birds from their nests. It breeds in holes excavated in living or dead trees, unlined apart from wood chips. The typical clutch is four to six glossy white eggs. Both parents incubate the eggs, feed the chicks, and keep the nest clean. When the young fledge they are fed by the adults for about ten days, each parent taking responsibility for feeding part of the brood.

The species is closely related to some other members of its genus. It has a number of subspecies, some of which are distinctive enough to be potential new species. It has a huge range and large population, with no widespread threats, so it is classed as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Taxonomy

[edit]

Woodpeckers are an ancient bird family consisting of three subfamilies, the wrynecks, the piculets and the true woodpeckers, Picinae. The largest of the five tribes within the Picinae is Melanerpini, the pied woodpeckers, a group which includes the great spotted woodpecker. Within the genus Dendrocopos the great spotted woodpecker's closest relatives are the Himalayan, Sind, Syrian, white-winged woodpeckers and the Darjeeling woodpecker.[2] The great spotted woodpecker has been recorded as hybridising with the Syrian woodpecker.[1]

The great spotted woodpecker was described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Picus major.[3] It was moved to its current genus, Dendrocopos, by the German naturalist Carl Ludwig Koch in 1816.[4] The genus name Dendrocopos is a combination of the Greek words dendron , "tree", and kopos, "striking". The specific major is from Latin maior, "greater".[5]

Subspecies

[edit]

Recognised subspecies vary by author from as few as 14 to nearly 30. This is largely because changes are clinal with many intermediate forms. However, mitochondrial DNA data suggests that the Caspian Sea region's Dendrocopos major poelzami, Japanese D. m. japonicus and Chinese D. m. cabanisi may all merit full species status. Despite its distinctive appearance, D. m. canariensis from Tenerife in the Canary Islands appears to be closely related to the nominate subspecies D. m. major.[6][7]

The fossil subspecies D. m. submajor lived during the Middle Pleistocene Riss glaciation (250,000 to 300,000 years ago) when it was found in Europe south of the ice sheet. It is sometimes treated as a distinct species, but did not differ significantly from the extant great spotted woodpecker, whose European subspecies are probably its direct descendants.[8][9]

Description

[edit]
Female Dendrocopos major major
A juvenile male is foraging on a pine tree in Ystad.

An adult great spotted woodpecker is 20–24 cm (7.9–9.4 in) long, weighs 70–98 g (2.5–3.5 oz) and has a 34–39 cm (13–15 in) wingspan.[6][10] The upperparts are glossy blue-black, with white on the sides of the face and neck. Black lines run from the shoulder to the nape, the base of the bill and about halfway across the breast. There is a large white shoulder patch and the flight feathers are barred with black and white, as is the tail. The underparts are white other than a scarlet lower belly and undertail. The bill is slate-black, the legs greenish-grey and the eye is deep red. Males have a crimson patch on the nape, which is absent from the otherwise similar females. Juvenile birds are less glossy than adults and have a brown tinge to their upperparts and dirty white underparts. Their markings are less well-defined than the adult's and the lower belly is pink rather than red. The crown of the juvenile's head is red, less extensively in young females than males.[6]

The various subspecies differ in plumage, the general pattern being that northern forms are larger, heavier-billed and whiter beneath, as predicted by Bergmann's rule, so north Eurasian D. m. major and D. m. kamtschaticus are large and strikingly white, whereas D. m. hispanicus in Iberia and D. m. harterti in Corsica and Sardinia are somewhat smaller and have darker underparts. D. m. canariensis and D. m. thanneri in the Canary Islands are similar to the Iberian race but have contrasting white flanks. In Morocco, D. m. mauritanus is pale below with red in the centre of its breast, and birds breeding at higher altitudes are larger and darker than those lower in the hills. D. m. numidus in Algeria and Tunisia is very distinctive, with a breast band of red-tipped black feathers. Caspian D. m. poelzami is small, relatively long-billed and has brown underparts. D. m. japonicus of Japan has less white on its shoulders but more in its wings. The two Chinese forms, D. m. cabanisi and D. m. stresemanni, have brownish heads and underparts, and often some red on the breast. Both races have increasingly dark underparts towards the south of their respective ranges.[6]

Some other species in its genus are similar to the great spotted woodpecker. The Syrian woodpecker lacks its relative's black cheek bar and has whiter underparts and paler red underparts,[11] although juvenile great spotted woodpeckers often have an incomplete cheek bar, so can potentially be misidentified as Syrian. The white-winged woodpecker has a far more extensive white wing patch than the great spotted woodpecker.[7] The Sind woodpecker is very similar to the Syrian species, and can be distinguished from great spotted woodpecker in the same way.[11]

Moult

[edit]
Juvenile male D. m. major in Maidenhead, Berkshire, England. Juveniles can be distinguished from adults by their red crown, which is more pronounced in males.

Adult great spotted woodpeckers have a complete moult after the breeding season which takes about 120 days. Northern D. m. major starts its moult from mid-June to late July and finishes in October or November, temperate races like D. m. pinetorum are earlier, commencing in early June to mid-July and completing in mid-September to late October, and southern D. m. hispanicus starts late May or June and finishes as early as August. Juveniles have a partial moult, retaining some of the wing coverts but replacing body, tail and primary feathers. This moult to near-adult plumage starts from late May to early August and finishes from mid-September to late November, timing varying with latitude as with the adults.[12]

Voice

[edit]

The call of the great spotted woodpecker is a sharp kik, which may be repeated as a wooden rattling krrarraarr if the bird is disturbed. The courtship call, gwig, is mostly given in the display flight. Drumming on dead trees and branches, and sometimes suitable man-made structures,[6] serves to maintain contact between paired adults and to advertise ownership of territory.[13]

Drumming

Both sexes drum, although the male does so much more often, mostly from mid-January until the young are fledged.[6] The far-carrying drumming is faster than for any other woodpecker in its range at around 10–16 strikes per second,[13] typically in one-second bursts, although repeated frequently.[14] As late as the early twentieth century it was thought that the drumming might be a vocalisation, and it was not until 1943 that it was finally proved to be purely mechanical.[15]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Large trees provide habitat for excavating feeding holes.

The species ranges across Eurasia from Ireland to Japan, and in North Africa from Morocco to Tunisia; it is absent only from those areas too cold or dry to have suitable woodland habitat.[7] It is found in a wide variety of woodlands, broadleaf, coniferous or mixed, and in modified habitats like parks, gardens and olive groves. It occurs from sea level to the tree line, up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in Europe, 2,200 m (7,200 ft) in Morocco and 2,500 m (8,200 ft) in Central Asia.[6]

The great spotted woodpecker is mainly resident year-round, but sizeable movements can occur when there are shortages of pine and spruce cones in the north of the range.[10] Highland populations often descend to lower altitudes in winter. Juveniles also have a tendency to wander some distance from where they were hatched, often as far as 100–600 km (60–400 mi), sometimes up to 3,000 km (1,900 mi).[6] Vagrants have reached the Faroe Islands, Hong Kong and Iceland,[1] and there are several sightings from North America in at least the Aleutian Islands, Pribilof Islands and Alaska.[6]

Due to deforestation, this woodpecker was extirpated in Ireland in the seventeenth century,[16] but the island has been naturally recolonised, with the first proven nesting in County Down in 2007.[17] Its expansion in range is continuing, with breeding proven or suspected in at least 10 counties by 2013, with the main concentration in Down and County Wicklow.[18] Genetic evidence shows the birds to be of British, rather than Scandinavian, ancestry, with the populations in Ireland and Northern Ireland having separate origins.[19] The great spotted woodpecker was also found to have been nesting in the Isle of Man from 2009,[19] and breeding from 2010.[20]

Behaviour

[edit]
Skull showing tongue and supporting structures.

The great spotted woodpecker spends much of its time climbing trees, and has adaptations to this lifestyle, many of which are shared by other woodpecker species. These include the zygodactyl arrangement of the foot, with two toes facing forward and two back,[21] and the stiff tail feathers that are used as a prop against the trunk. In most birds the bones of the tail diminish in size towards its end, but this does not occur in woodpeckers, and the final vertebra, the pygostyle, is very large to anchor the strong tail muscles.[22]

The hammering of woodpeckers when drumming or feeding creates great forces which are potentially damaging to the birds.[23] In the great spotted woodpecker and most of its relatives, the hinge where the front of the skull connects with the upper mandible is folded inwards, tensioned by a muscle that braces it against the shock of the impact when the bill is hammering on hard wood.[22] The outer layer of the upper mandible is significantly longer than the more rigid lower mandible and absorbs much of the concussive force.[24] Skeletal adaptations and strengthening also help to absorb the shock, and narrow nostrils protect against flying debris.[22]

As well as using holes for breeding, great spotted woodpeckers roost at night, and sometimes during the day, in old nest cavities, excavated by other woodpeckers. They will occasionally make a new roosting hole or use an artificial site such as a nest box.[25]

Breeding

[edit]
Female feeding chick.

Great spotted woodpeckers are strongly territorial, typically occupying areas of about 5 ha (12 acres) year-round,[26] which are defended mainly by the male, a behaviour which attracts females. Pairs are monogamous during the breeding period, but often change partners before the next season.[27]

Sexual maturity is attained at an age of one year; courtship behaviour commences in the following December. The male has a fluttering flight display with shallow wingbeats and a spread tail. He calls in flight and may land at a prospective nest-site.[6] The female may initiate mating and will occasionally mount the male, this reverse mounting typically preceding normal copulation.[28]

The pair excavate a new hole at least 0.3 m (1 ft) above the ground and usually lower than 8 m (26 ft), although sometimes much higher. The chosen site is normally a tree, alive or dead, occasionally a utility pole or nest box. Old holes are rarely re-used,[6] although the same tree may be used for nesting for several years.[27][29] The nest cavity is 25–35 cm (9.8–13.8 in) deep with an entrance hole 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) wide. It is excavated by both sexes, the male doing most of the chiselling.[6] As with other woodpeckers, the hole is unlined, although wood chips from the excavation may cover the base of the cavity.[30]

Egg

Trees chosen for nest holes have soft heartwood and tough sapwood, the former often due to parasites or diseases that weaken the tree's core. It is not certain how suitable trees are selected, although it may be by drumming, since woods with differing elastic modulus and density may transmit sound at different speeds. A Japanese study found nests in trees from many families; these included grey alder, Japanese white birch, Japanese hop-hornbeam, Japanese tree lilac, willows, Japanese larch and Sargent's cherry. The Mongolian oak and prickly castor-oil tree were rarely if ever used.[31]

The typical clutch is four to six glossy white eggs that measure 27 mm × 20 mm (1.06 in × 0.79 in) and weigh about 5.7 g (0.20 oz), of which 7% is shell.[13][32] They are laid from mid-April to June, the later dates being for birds breeding in the north of the range or at altitude.[6] The eggs are incubated by either adult during the day and by the male at night,[27][32] for 10–12 days before hatching. Both birds brood and feed the altricial naked chicks and keep the nest clean. The young fledge in 20–23 days from hatching. Each parent then takes responsibility for feeding part of the brood for about ten days, during which time they normally remain close to the nest tree.[6]

There is only one brood per year. The survival rates for adults and young are unknown, as is the average lifespan, but the maximum known age is just over 11 years.[32]

Feeding

[edit]
Male and female feeding young

The great spotted woodpecker is omnivorous. It digs beetle larvae from trees and also takes many other invertebrates including adult beetles, ants and spiders. The bird also digs for Lepidoptera larvae like Acronicta rumicis.[33] Crustaceans, molluscs and carrion may be eaten, and bird feeders are visited for seeds, suet and domestic scraps.[6] The nests of other cavity-nesting birds, such as tits, may be raided for their eggs and chicks;[13] nest boxes may be similarly attacked, holes being pecked to admit entrance by the woodpecker where necessary.[34] House martin colonies can be destroyed in repeated visits.[15]

Fat-rich plant products such as nuts and conifer seeds are particularly important as winter food in the north of the woodpecker's range, and can then supply more than 30% of the bird's energy requirements. Other plant items consumed include buds, berries and tree sap,[6] the latter obtained by drilling rings of holes around a tree trunk.[13]

Scavenging on a dead pig

The species feeds at all levels of a tree, usually alone, but sometimes as a pair. It will use an "anvil" on which to hammer hard items, particularly pine, spruce, and larch cones, but also fruit, nuts, and hard-bodied insects.[6]

Easily accessible items are picked off the tree surface or from fissures in the bark, but larvae are extracted by chiselling holes up to 10 cm (3.9 in) deep and trapping the soft insect with the tongue, which can extend to 40 mm (1.6 in) beyond the bill, and is covered with bristles and sticky saliva to trap the prey.[13] The woodpecker is able to extend its tongue so far because the hyoid bone to which it is attached has long flexible "horns" that wind around the skull and can move forward when required.[22][35]

Predators and parasites

[edit]

Woodland birds of prey such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk and the Eurasian goshawk hunt the great spotted woodpecker.[36] This woodpecker is a host of the blood-feeding fly Carnus hemapterus, and its internal parasites may include the spiny-headed worm Prosthorhynchus transversus. Protozoans also occur,[37] including the potentially fatal Toxoplasma gondii, which causes toxoplasmosis.[38] The great spotted woodpecker is the favoured host of the tapeworm Anomotaenia brevis.[39]

Status

[edit]

The total population for the great spotted woodpecker is estimated at 73.7–110.3 million individuals, with 35% of the population in Europe. The breeding range is estimated as 57.8 million square kilometres (22.3 million sq mi), and the population is considered overall to be large and apparently stable or slightly increasing, especially in Britain, where the population has recently overspilled into Ireland. For this reason the great spotted woodpecker is evaluated as a species of least concern by the IUCN.[1][6]

Breeding densities have been recorded as between 0.1 and 6.6 pairs/10 ha (0.04–2.7 pairs/10 acres), with the greatest densities in mature forest growing on alluvium. Numbers have increased in Europe due to the planting of forests, which provides breeding habitat, and more available dead wood, and this species has profited from its flexibility with regard to types of woodland and its ability to thrive in proximity to humans. Harsh winters are a problem, and fragmentation of woodland can cause local difficulties. The Canary Islands populations of the subspecies D. m. canariensis on Tenerife and D. m. thanneri on Gran Canaria face a potential threat from the exploitation of the local pine forests.[6]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d BirdLife International (2016). "Dendrocopos major". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016 e.T22681124A87323054. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22681124A87323054.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ Shakya, Subir B; Fuchs, Jérôme; Pons, Jean-Marc; Sheldon, Frederick H (2017). "Tapping the woodpecker tree for evolutionary insight". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 116: 182–191. Bibcode:2017MolPE.116..182S. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2017.09.005. PMID 28890006.
  3. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Vol. 1. Holmiae [Stockholm]: Laurentii Salvii. p. 114.
  4. ^ Koch, Carl Ludwig (1816). System der baierischen Zoologie (in German). Vol. 1. Nürnberg: Stein. p. 72.
  5. ^ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 133, 238. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Winkler, Hans; Christie, David A; Kirwan, Guy M (2020). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.). "Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major), version 1.0". Birds of the World. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bow.grswoo.01. S2CID 226025386.
  7. ^ a b c Gorman (2014) pp. 265–267.
  8. ^ Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002). Cenozoic Birds of the World (PDF). Vol. Part 1: Europe. Prague: Ninox. p. 150. ISBN 978-80-901105-3-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-20. Retrieved 2008-12-18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)
  9. ^ Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile; Philippe, Michel; Quinif, Yves; Chaline, Jean; Debard, Evelyne; Guérin, Claude; Hugueney, Margarite (2003). "Position of the palaeontological site Aven I des Abîmes de La Fage, at Noailles (Corrèze, France), in the European Pleistocene chronology". Boreas. 32 (3): 521–531. Bibcode:2003Borea..32..521M. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3885.2003.tb01232.x. S2CID 129833747.
  10. ^ a b Johnsson, Lars (1992). Birds of Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. London: A&C Black. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-7136-8096-6.
  11. ^ a b Porter, Richard; Aspinal, Simon (2010). Birds of the Middle East. Helm Field Guides. London: Christopher Helm. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-7136-7602-0.
  12. ^ Cramp, Stanley, ed. (1985). " Dendrocopos major Great Spotted Woodpecker". Handbook of the birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4: Terns to Woodpeckers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 856–873 [871]. ISBN 978-0-19-857507-8.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M, eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition (2 volumes). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 993–996. ISBN 978-0-19-854099-1.
  14. ^ Brazil, Mark (2009). Birds of East Asia. London: A & C Black. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-7136-7040-0.
  15. ^ a b Cocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005). Birds Britannica. London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 306–307. ISBN 978-0-7011-6907-7.
  16. ^ D'Arcy, Gordon (1999). Ireland's Lost Birds. Dublin: Four Courts Press. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-1-85182-529-5.
  17. ^ McComb, A M G; Kernohan, R; Mawhirt, P; Robinson, B; Weir, J; Wells, B (2010). "Great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major): proof of breeding in Tollymore Forest Park, Co. Down". Irish Naturalists' Journal. 31: 66–67.
  18. ^ Fahy, K (on behalf of the Irish Rare Birds Committee) (2014). "Report of the Irish Rare Breeding Birds Panel 2013". Irish Birds. 10: 68–69.
  19. ^ a b Mcdevitt, Allan D; Kajtoch, Łukasz; Mazgajski, Tomasz D; Carden, Ruth F; Coscia, Ilaria; Osthoff, Christian; Coombes, Richard H; Wilson, Faith (2011). "The origins of Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major colonizing Ireland revealed by mitochondrial DNA". Bird Study. 58 (3): 361–364. Bibcode:2011BirdS..58..361M. doi:10.1080/00063657.2011.582619.
  20. ^ Morris, Neil G; Sharpe, Christopher (2021). "Birds of Conservation Concern in the Isle of Man". British Birds. 114 (9): 526–540.
  21. ^ Gorman (2014) p. 18.
  22. ^ a b c d van Grouw, Katrina (2012). The Unfeathered Bird. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 74–79. ISBN 978-0-691-15134-2.
  23. ^ Gibson, L J (23 February 2006). "Woodpecker pecking: how woodpeckers avoid brain injury". Journal of Zoology. 270 (3): 462–465. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00166.x. hdl:1721.1/70094.
  24. ^ Wang, L; Cheung, J T-M; Pu, F; Li, D; Zhang, M; Fan, Y (2011). "Why do woodpeckers resist head impact injury: a biomechanical investigation". PLOS ONE. 6 (10) e26490. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626490W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026490. PMC 3202538. PMID 22046293.
  25. ^ Mazgajski, Tomasz D (2002). "Does the Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major select holes for roosting?". Polish Journal of Ecology. 50 (1): 99–103.
  26. ^ Burton, Robert (2006). Garden Bird Behaviour. London: New Holland. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-84537-597-3.
  27. ^ a b c Michalek, K G; Miettinen, J (2003). "Dendrocopos major Great Spotted Woodpecker". BWP Update. 5 (2): 101–184.
  28. ^ Gorman, Gerard (2020). "Reverse mounting by three European Dendrocopus woodpeckers". British Birds. 113 (3): 180–181.
  29. ^ Glue, David E; Boswell, Tim (1994). "Comparative nesting ecology of the three British breeding woodpeckers" (PDF). British Birds. 87 (6): 253–269. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-11. Retrieved 2017-02-10.
  30. ^ Gorman (2014) pp. 20–22.
  31. ^ Matsuoka, Shigeru (2008). "Wood hardness in nest trees of the Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major". Ornithological Science. 7 (1): 59–66. doi:10.2326/1347-0558(2008)7[59:WHINTO]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86316071.
  32. ^ a b c "Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major [Linnaeus, 1758]". BTOWeb BirdFacts. British Trust for Ornithology. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
  33. ^ Vogrin, M., 2002. Breeding birds in hop fields. Ornis Svecica, 12, pp.92–94.
  34. ^ Tom Waters (2 June 2011). "How often do great spotted woodpeckers eat other birds' chicks?". RSPB. Retrieved 7 April 2017.
  35. ^ Perrins, Christopher; Attenborough, Sir David (1987). New Generation Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-292-75532-1.
  36. ^ Jedrzejewska, Bogumila; Jedrzejewski, Wlodzimierz (1998). Predation in Vertebrate Communities: The Bialowieza Primeval Forest as a Case Study. Berlin: Springer. pp. 252–254. ISBN 978-3-540-64138-4.
  37. ^ Rothschild, Miriam; Clay, Theresa (1957). Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A study of bird parasites. New York: Macmillan. pp. 163, 189, 222.
  38. ^ Jokelainen, Pikka; Vikøren, Turid (2014). "Acute Fatal Toxoplasmosis in a Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major)". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 50 (1): 117–120. doi:10.7589/2013-03-057. PMID 24171576. S2CID 23115642.
  39. ^ Combes, Claude; Simberloff, Daniel (2008). The Art of Being a Parasite. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-226-11429-3.

Cited texts

[edit]
  • Gorman, Gerard (2014). Woodpeckers of the World. Helm Photographic Guides. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-4715-3.

See also

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Great spotted woodpecker

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major), known in Slovenian as veliki detel, is a medium-sized member of the woodpecker family (Picidae), renowned for its bold black-and-white accented by a red rump and undertail coverts, with males distinguished by a crimson patch on the of the neck and juveniles by a red crown. Measuring 22–23 cm in length, with a of 34–39 cm and an average weight of 78–85 g, it exhibits a characteristic undulating flight and spends much of its time climbing tree trunks in search of food. This is widely distributed across —from and to eastern , including parts of , , and the —and occurs from sea level up to 2,500 m in , with 14 recognized showing regional variations in size and coloration, such as the paler D. m. numidus in . Predominantly resident, it favors mature broadleaved and coniferous woodlands, but adapts well to parks, gardens, and urban areas with sufficient trees, where and pose localized threats. The great spotted woodpecker's diet is varied and opportunistic, primarily consisting of such as larvae and extracted from bark crevices, supplemented by tree seeds, nuts, and occasionally the eggs or nestlings of other birds; it employs rapid pecking and drumming—producing up to 20 strikes per second—to locate and access prey. Breeding occurs from to June in self-excavated tree cavities, typically 5–15 m above ground, with clutches of 4–6 white eggs incubated mainly by the female for 14–16 days; fledglings leave the nest after 19–24 days, and pairs may raise a second brood in favorable years. Globally, the population is estimated at 49–78 million mature individuals across a range exceeding 57 million km², classified as Least Concern by the IUCN despite an overall decreasing trend due to factors like severe winters and forest exploitation, particularly affecting island subspecies such as the forms (D. m. canariensis and D. m. thanneri), which are protected under the Birds Directive. In the UK, numbers have increased by over 370% since the 1960s, reflecting adaptation to suburban environments and garden feeders.

Taxonomy

Classification

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) was originally described by in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Picus major in 1758, with the type locality in Europe. It was subsequently reclassified into the genus Dendrocopos by the German naturalist in 1816, reflecting refinements in taxonomy based on morphological characteristics. The species is placed within the family Picidae, which encompasses all woodpeckers and encompasses over 200 characterized by zygodactyl feet and stiffened tail feathers adapted for climbing. Phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA have established close evolutionary relationships between D. major and other pied woodpeckers, including the Syrian woodpecker (Dendrocopos syriacus) and the Himalayan woodpecker (Dendrocopos himalayensis), with these taxa forming a monophyletic within the Melanerpini of Picinae that diverged during the . These molecular studies highlight shared ancestry and minimal among Eurasian Dendrocopos , supporting their classification in a tightly knit group distinct from other lineages like the sapsuckers or flickers. The fossil record of extends to the Middle Pleistocene, with fossils of Dendrocopos major, previously referred to as the subspecies Dendrocopos major submajor, documented from sites in dating to the middle Pleistocene (Riss glaciation, approximately 250,000–300,000 years ago), indicating the ' persistence through glacial periods south of the ice sheets. Taxonomic debates persist regarding potential species splits within the D. major complex, particularly for peripheral showing significant divergence; for instance, D. m. poelzami (from the region) and D. m. japonicus (from ) exhibit genetic distances comparable to those between recognized , prompting proposals for their elevation to full status.

Subspecies

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) is recognized as comprising 14 to 30 across its wide Palearctic range, with variations primarily in size, coloration, and to a lesser extent vocalizations, reflecting geographic and climatic gradients such as Bergmann's and Gloger's rules. The nominate , D. m. major, inhabits central and from to northern and , extending eastward to ; it represents the typical form with a wing length of approximately 12–14 cm, black upperparts, white underparts, and a red vent, serving as the baseline for comparisons. In contrast, D. m. anglicus occurs in the and is distinguished by paler tones, including more washed-out white underparts and reduced black streaking, adapted to the region's milder, humid climate, with similar size to the nominate but slightly shorter wings averaging 11.5–13 cm. Southern European and North African forms exhibit smaller body sizes and browner , correlating with warmer environments. The Iberian D. m. hispanus (also known as hispanicus in some classifications) is restricted to the , where it is notably smaller ( length 11–12.5 cm) with heavier pigmentation, including darker brown tones on the underparts and a more slender bill, facilitating in Mediterranean woodlands. Further south, D. m. mauritanus occupies and parts of northwest , featuring even smaller dimensions ( length around 11 cm) and browner overall compared to northern counterparts, with distributions centered in oak and pine forests. In the , D. m. canariensis () and D. m. thanneri () show browner frontal bands and underparts contrasting with whitish flanks, alongside reduced size ( length 10.5–12 cm) and longer, slenderer bills; these insular forms form a distinct with unique haplotypes, suggesting isolation dating back 50,000–150,000 years, though nuclear markers show minimal divergence from mainland populations. Asian subspecies display greater size variation, with northern and eastern forms larger and whiter. D. m. kamtschaticus ranges across eastern , including Kamchatka and the , and is among the largest (wing length 14–15 cm) with extensive white in the tail feathers and paler underparts, reflecting cold continental conditions; its distribution extends to and parts of . In eastern , D. m. japonicus inhabits (), the , and northeastern , characterized by slightly larger size (wing length 12.5–14 cm) and yellower-buff underparts, with phylogeographic analyses indicating 3% mitochondrial from Eurasian forms, prompting debates on its potential elevation to full species status as an evolutionarily significant unit. Taxonomic debates persist due to hybridization in contact zones and emerging molecular evidence. For instance, clinal variations in plumage and size across and suggest ongoing , blurring boundaries in transitional areas like the and Tien Shan, where forms such as D. m. brevirostris ( to ) show intermediate traits. Vocal differences, including variations in drumming cadence and call pitch, further support distinctions in peripheral populations like the and Japanese forms, though comprehensive nuclear genomic studies are needed to resolve potential splits. Overall, while ITIS recognizes 24 based on classical morphology, more conservative treatments like that in Handbook of the Birds of the World list 15, emphasizing major geographic groups: European, North African/insular, and Asian.

Description

Physical characteristics

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) is a medium-sized , measuring 20–24 cm in length with a of 34–39 cm and weighing 70–98 g. These dimensions provide a compact yet robust build suited to its arboreal , allowing agile movement through canopies. Key structural features include a strong, straight, chisel-like bill that is short to moderately long and tipped for excavating . The feet are zygodactyl, with two toes facing forward and two backward, enabling a secure grip for climbing vertical surfaces. Stiffened tail feathers act as a prop, bracing the body against tree trunks during or drumming. Additionally, the forms a flexible apparatus with long "horns" that wrap around the skull, permitting the tongue to extend up to 4 cm beyond the bill tip to probe for hidden prey. Sexual dimorphism is subtle, with males averaging slightly larger overall and possessing longer bills than females. Juveniles are smaller than adults at fledging, gradually reaching full size during their first year. Adaptations for drumming include a thickened reinforced with spongy that cushions repeated impacts, reducing shock to the , while the specialized hyoid further dissipates force during rapid pecks on resonant surfaces.

Plumage variation and moult

The adult great spotted woodpecker exhibits striking black upperparts, including a glossy black crown, , and back, contrasted by prominent white patches on the shoulders (scapulars) and a white rump visible in flight. The wings feature black-and-white barring on the , while the underparts are mainly white with black markings on the sides. A distinctive brilliant red patch adorns the undertail coverts (vent) in both sexes. Males are distinguished by a solid red patch on the , absent in females, where the remains entirely black. Juvenile plumage is overall browner and less contrasting than in adults, with the white underparts more heavily streaked or barred with black and the scapular patches showing dark barring rather than solid white. Both juvenile sexes feature a conspicuous red crown covering most of the head, bordered narrowly by black, which serves as a key identifier. This juvenile plumage transitions to adult-like through a partial moult, retaining some juvenile characteristics such as the barred scapulars until the first complete adult moult. The red vent is present but paler than in adults. Adults undergo a complete post-breeding (post-nuptial) moult from to November, typically lasting around 120 days, during which all feathers are replaced to maintain condition after the energetic demands of . Primaries are moulted in a descendant sequence (from innermost to outermost), while secondaries are often retained until the following year's moult. Juveniles perform a partial pre-breeding (post-juvenile) moult from September to November, replacing body feathers, some wing coverts, and select primaries (with inner primaries sometimes beginning before fledging), but retaining juvenile secondaries and some . Moult of occurs sequentially to preserve flight capability, with primaries dropping at progressive ages post-fledging (e.g., innermost primary at about 20 days, outermost at 106 days). In irruptive years, such as those observed in , juvenile moult may be arrested or reduced in intensity due to food scarcity. Plumage intensity shows geographic variation, with birds in arid regions, such as parts of and the , exhibiting paler overall coloration and reduced black markings compared to those in humid, northern European forests, consistent with Gloger's rule linking darker pigmentation to moister climates. Subspecies-specific differences, such as slightly darker underparts in continental forms like D. m. major, are detailed elsewhere.

Vocalizations

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) relies primarily on a repertoire of calls and non-vocal drumming rather than melodic songs for communication, with vocal activity increasing seasonally during the breeding period to facilitate defense and mate attraction. Drumming and calls serve distinct roles in social interactions, including alarm signaling and contact maintenance, and exhibit individual and sex-specific variations that aid in recognition. Acoustic analyses reveal that these are adapted for transmission through forested environments, with frequencies typically in the 2–3 kHz range for calls and lower for drumming. The alarm call consists of a sharp, single "kix" or "kik" note, often delivered in rapid series when disturbed or threatened, functioning to warn conspecifics of potential danger. This call has a dominant frequency around 2.5 kHz, allowing it to carry effectively over moderate distances in woodland habitats. A contact or rattle call is produced as a rolling, wooden-sounding "krrarraarr" or "churr-churr," typically used during flight, foraging, or agitation to maintain pair bonds or signal location. This call varies in length and may be preceded by an introductory "kix" note, with spectral characteristics showing mid-part dominant frequencies contributing to individual distinctiveness, enabling mate recognition with high accuracy. Drumming involves rapid tapping of the bill against resonant substrates like dead wood, producing a series of 6–20 strokes that accelerate, with inter-stroke intervals decreasing from about 63 ms to 40 ms, equating to roughly 16–25 strikes per second and lasting 1–3 seconds. Primarily for territorial advertisement, drumming exhibits sex differences, with males producing faster rhythms (e.g., shorter mean intervals of 57 ms versus 61 ms in females), and temporal patterns allowing 70–88% accuracy in individual discrimination. Spectral content is concentrated below 1.5 kHz, optimized for long-distance propagation in forests, and peaks during the breeding season from March to May.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) has a broad native range across the , extending from —including the and recently recolonized parts of —to eastern , where it reaches as far as and the in . This distribution also encompasses , from through to , with isolated populations on the . The species is absent from extreme northern and southern deserts within this expanse, but its overall extent of occurrence spans approximately 57,800,000 km². In terms of elevation, the great spotted woodpecker occupies habitats from up to about 2,500 m in mountainous regions, such as the central and southwestern , though it is generally less common above 2,000 m in parts of its range like . Rare vagrant records occur outside the native range, including sporadic sightings in , primarily on the and the western mainland. Historically, the species has shown notable range expansions, including the recolonization of after an absence since the 19th century; the first confirmed breeding occurred in in 2006, with subsequent spread to the by 2009, originating primarily from British populations based on analysis. As of 2025, the species has continued to spread across , with breeding confirmed in additional counties including Kerry in 2024. In Europe, its breeding range has shifted northward, particularly into since the mid-20th century, likely influenced by climate warming that has facilitated poleward movements. These changes reflect broader patterns of distributional adjustment to environmental shifts. The great spotted woodpecker is predominantly sedentary across most of its range, maintaining year-round residency in suitable woodlands. However, northern populations exhibit partial migratory behavior, with occasional irruptions—sudden large-scale movements—triggered by food shortages, such as poor crops in years of seed failure. These irruptive events can lead to temporary influxes into southern regions, including Britain from .

Habitat preferences

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) primarily inhabits a variety of types, including , mixed, and coniferous forests, where mature trees provide essential resources for nesting and . It favors dense forest patches with high basal area and a diversity of native tree , such as , Scots , and rowan, which support its ecological needs. Heterogeneous forests containing a proportion of trees are preferred over those dominated by a single coniferous , as the former offer greater structural variety. Microhabitat requirements emphasize the presence of dead or decaying wood, which is crucial for excavating nest cavities in softer timber and accessing prey beneath bark; the abundance of standing dead trees significantly enhances suitability. Large broadleaf trees in clustered patches, rather than isolated small trees, are selected for their stability and resource availability, with suitability often assessed by factors like stand age and . While proximity to is not a strict requirement, the tolerates a range of conditions as long as mature vegetation persists. This woodpecker is adapted to temperate and boreal climatic zones, occurring from sea level up to 2,500 meters in elevation, though it avoids extreme tropical or arid environments. In human-modified landscapes, it thrives in plantations (e.g., poplar or ), rural gardens, parks, and even urban areas with sufficient large trees, often utilizing nest boxes or utility poles as substitutes for natural sites. However, it is sensitive to the removal of over-mature or decaying trees, which can disrupt its dependence on such features for reproduction and survival.

Behaviour and ecology

Breeding biology

The great spotted woodpecker forms monogamous pairs during the breeding season, with partners typically changing annually, and defends a year-round averaging about 5 ha, primarily by the male through drumming and calls. In , the breeding season generally spans March to June, starting earlier in southern regions (as early as March) compared to northern areas where laying begins in mid-April. involves drumming and vocal displays by the male to attract a mate. Pairs excavate a new nest cavity each year, though reuse of old holes occurs occasionally, typically in dead or decaying wood of living trees with diameters at breast height exceeding 28 cm for most nests. The cavity entrance measures about 5 cm in diameter, and the nest hole is usually positioned 2–15 m above ground, with a mean height of around 6 m, unlined except for wood chips. The female lays a clutch of 4–6 glossy white eggs (average 5.3), typically one brood per year. Both parents incubate the eggs for 11–16 days, with the female handling most daytime duties and the male incubating at night. The altricial chicks hatch naked and are brooded and fed by both parents, fledging after 20–27 days in the nest. Post-fledging, the male often provides more feeding to the young, while each parent may take partial responsibility for subsets of the brood; juveniles achieve independence after 1–2 weeks of continued . Breeding success, measured as the proportion of nests producing fledglings, ranges from 60–80%, with higher rates in reused cavities and variation influenced by weather conditions (e.g., cooler, wetter springs reducing fledging numbers) and predation.

Foraging and diet

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) exhibits an omnivorous diet that varies seasonally, with comprising the primary component during the breeding and summer periods. Key prey includes beetles and their larvae, , and other such as spiders and caterpillars, often extracted from tree bark or wood. In winter, the diet shifts toward plant-based foods, predominantly seeds and nuts from coniferous trees like Scots pine and Norway spruce, supplemented occasionally by fruits, tree sap, bird eggs, and nestling chicks. Foraging techniques are adapted to accessing hidden or embedded food sources. The employs its elongated tongue, which is sticky and tipped with barbs, to probe crevices in bark and extract or larvae from tunnels. Common methods include from surfaces, excavating wood with rapid pecking (observed in approximately 39% of bouts), and hammering to dislodge prey or create access points. To process hard-shelled items like nuts, it utilizes natural "anvils" such as branches, stumps, or stones to wedge and break them open. Seasonal dietary adjustments align with food availability, emphasizing during the energy-demanding breeding season while relying on cached stores in autumn for winter survival. reflecting high efficiency across substrates like live trunks and dead wood. Rare instances of tool use, such as modifying twigs to aid in prey extraction, have been documented, highlighting behavioral flexibility.

Predators, parasites, and interactions

The great spotted woodpecker faces predation primarily from raptors and mammals targeting adults, eggs, and nestlings. Woodland such as the (Accipiter nisus) and (Accipiter gentilis) hunt adults and juveniles, with sparrowhawks identified as a major predator influencing population dynamics in . Mammals like the pine marten (Martes martes) frequently raid nests, preying on eggs and chicks; documented cases include martens scaling trees to access cavities and consuming entire broods. Nest predation rates for woodpeckers, including the great spotted, typically range from 0% to 35%, with a of 13% across European and North American populations, often limiting breeding success. Parasites affect the health and reproductive output of great spotted woodpeckers, with both ectoparasites and endoparasites documented. The blood-feeding fly Carnus hemapterus infests nestlings, potentially reducing fledging success by causing anemia and stress during the vulnerable post-hatching period. Endoparasites include the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, which can cause acute fatal toxoplasmosis; a confirmed case involved widespread tissue infection leading to organ failure in a juvenile bird. Other parasites comprise the hen flea (Ceratophyllus gallinae), the nematode Ornithocapillaria picorum, and chewing lice, which may impair condition and increase mortality risk, though specific impacts on fledging rates remain understudied. Haematozoan blood parasites, such as those from genera Haemoproteus and Trypanosoma, occur in woodpecker populations and correlate with reduced body condition in infected individuals. Interspecific interactions involve competition, , and occasional predation by the great spotted woodpecker. It competes with the lesser spotted woodpecker (Dryobates minor) for insect food in dead wood, particularly during low spruce seed years, contributing to the decline of the smaller species through resource overlap and territorial exclusion. Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius) engage in , stealing cached nuts or excavated insects from woodpeckers at foraging sites, though such interactions are opportunistic rather than systematic. The great spotted woodpecker occasionally preys on small birds, raiding nests of species like blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) to consume eggs and nestlings, with predation rates up to 48% in some nest-box studies. Human conflicts with great spotted woodpeckers are infrequent but arise from their use of feeders and excavation behaviors. At bird feeders, they dominate resources, displacing smaller and rapidly depleting or supplies, which can alter local avian community dynamics. Nest excavation occasionally damages trees or poles, creating entry points for decay, though such incidents are rare compared to other and typically affect only stressed or weakened trees.

Conservation status

The global population of the great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) is estimated at 49–78 million mature individuals as of 2021, with comprising approximately 35% of the global range and supporting 17–27 million mature individuals. The species' breeding range covers a vast area of about 57.8 million km², extending from across northern Asia to parts of . These estimates derive from extrapolations of regional surveys, accounting for availability and density variations across the palearctic region. Regional population densities vary significantly, typically ranging from 1–5 breeding pairs per km² in optimal habitats such as mature or mixed forests. In the , the breeding population is approximately 130,000–150,000 pairs, reflecting a stable to increasing trend in recent decades. For instance, continental European countries like and host hundreds of thousands of pairs each, with densities higher in fragmented but mature forests compared to intensive agricultural landscapes. Overall, the population is decreasing at a global scale, though regional trends show heterogeneity: increases in linked to afforestation and restoration efforts, contrasted by declines in parts of associated with loss. Post-2021 monitoring indicates resilience, particularly in response to milder winters; for example, populations rose by about 5–10% between 2021 and 2024 according to recent surveys. These patterns are tracked through standardized methods, including Breeding Bird Surveys (BBS) conducted by organizations like the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) and Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme (PECBMS), supplemented by contributions for broader coverage.

Threats and management

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) is classified as Least Concern on the as of 2025, owing to its extensive geographic range across and , estimated at 57,800,000 km², and its high adaptability to varied forest types and human-modified landscapes. Key threats include from intensive forestry and , which locally disrupts nesting and foraging opportunities in woodlands. Severe winters pose a major risk, causing high mortality through starvation and triggering irregular irruptions where birds migrate en masse in search of food, as observed in northern European populations during cold spells. The decline of prey due to use further exacerbates food shortages, particularly for breeding pairs reliant on bark-dwelling larvae. effects are minor but include potential range shifts northward in , altering breeding and resource availability. Management efforts focus on legal protections under the EU Birds Directive and the Bern Convention Appendix II, which safeguard the species and its habitats across member states by prohibiting deliberate disturbance or destruction of breeding sites; the Canary Island subspecies are specifically protected under EU Birds Directive Annex I. practices emphasize deadwood retention, such as leaving snags and logs in managed stands to support populations and nesting cavities, enhancing local densities in and mixed woodlands. In urban and suburban areas, supplementary winter feeding in gardens—using , , or mealworms—helps mitigate starvation risks during harsh weather, with community programs promoting bird-friendly practices. Knowledge gaps persist, particularly regarding long-term population trends in Asian , where data from southeastern regions remain sparse due to limited monitoring. Emerging concerns from highly pathogenic (HPAI H5N1) outbreaks in the 2020s include isolated detections in European populations, though overall impacts appear minimal with no widespread mortality reported.

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