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Dhakaiyas
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The Rajoshik sculpture, in front of the InterContinental Dhaka, displays a horse carriage and its driver.

Key Information

The Old Dhakaiyas (Bengali: পুরান ঢাকাইয়া, romanized: Puran Dhakaiya) are a group of Indo-Aryan people, often viewed as the original inhabitants of Dhaka city.[1][2] They are sometimes referred to as simply Dhakaiya. Their history dates back to the Mughal period with the migration of Bengali cultivators and North Indian merchants to the city. The Bengali cultivators came to be known as Kutti and they speak Dhakaiya Kutti, a dialect of Bengali and the North Indian merchants came to be known as Khoshbas and they speak Dhakaiya Urdu, a dialect of Urdu. There are sizeable populations in other parts of Bangladesh. They have been described as a wealthy but very closed-off community; evidently being a minority in their own hometown.[3][4] It is said that some people living in Greater Dhaka are even unaware of the existence of an Urdu-speaking non-Bihari minority community although their presence dates back centuries.[2]

History

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ڈھاکہ عجیب شہر، نام جہانگیر نگر
Dhaka ajeeb shahar, naam Jahangir Nagar
Dhaka is a strange city, its name is Jahangirnagar
دو چار شریف ہے، باقی کٹّی تمام
Do-char Sharif hai, baaqi Kutti tamam
There are a few sharif (nobles), the rest are all Kutti

 – Urdu stanza describing population ratio.[5]

During the Mughal era, the Bengal Subah was famous for rice cultivation and the city of Jahangirnagar (now Old Dhaka) was the province's capital. Rice was a very important export product in the mid-eighteenth century, centred in Dhaka. The merchants who exported the rice were predominantly Marwaris and Central Indians of noble descent. These northern and central Indian merchants would go to different areas in Eastern Bengal and collect the rice. The rice was first needed to be cleaned up using dhekis before packaging, and this process is called kuta (কুটা) in Bengali. Many local Bengali rice cultivators from villages across Bengal were employed to do this. They would travel to the city to complete this job, and as it was lengthy journey, many of them started to permanently start residing in Dhaka. This migration took place circa 1760. However, not all were involved in the rice trade. The presence of the Mughals in Dhaka meant that there was generally a lot more employment opportunities there and so they took other occupations such as khansamahs, footsoldiers, guards, chefs and chauffeurs for the Nawabs of Dhaka and other aristocratic families.[6][7] These groups of people lived together and engaged in conversations and addas with their Hindustani counterparts and their main occupation led them to be known as kuttis (other less-common names included kutiyal and hatkutti). The interactions of Kutti-Bengalis with different migrated north Indian Urdu-speaking people in Old Dhaka led to the birth of an Urdu-influenced dialect of Bengali known as Dhakaiya Kutti, and with that - a new identity.[8]

The merchants from North India also eventually settled in Dhaka and came to be known as khoshbas meaning happily-settled. Other names for them included sukhbas and subbasi. Originally an Urdu-speaking community, their time in Bengal led to the emergence of a Bengali-influenced dialect known as Dhakaiya Urdu as they were a minority in comparison to the Kutti-Bengalis.[1]

Many of the Kutti-Bengalis became a lot wealthier over the years due to their occupation and many became landowners. With thousands of Kutti being involved in the rice supplying industry by 1787, they also formed a merchant class by monopolising rice retail in the city.[1] Notable landowners in New Paltan included Gulenur Khatun and Ayub Ali Sardar. Khatun owned a large portion of the northern part of New Paltan where she also owned a thatched hut residence as well as a tea stall. Named as Lalur Maar Dokan (লালুর মার দোকান, Lalu's mother's shop), it was located just beside the 3rd gate of the erstwhile East Pakistan Rifles. Sardar, who lived on the other side of Khatun's tea stall, was a horse operator and had a number of horses. These horses would engage in horse races in the famous Ramna Race Course, from which not only he made a fortune from, but also won medals from the British Raj. They can also be found in other localities such as Narinda.[9]

Presently, the Kutti-Bengalis are minority in Old Dhaka following the mass migration of non-Dhakaiya Bengalis from districts all over Bengal during the first and second partitions during the British colonial period. With the expansion of the city, new residential areas were created to supply housing to the more recent migrants. The traditional trade hub at Sadarghat was shifted to Nilkhet and Gulistan, decreasing Old Dhakaiya influence. The new educated migrant community (now also commonly known as Dhakaiyas with the former now being referred to as "Old Dhakaiyas") spoke in Standard Bengali, the standardised register of Bengali. Some of the Old Dhakaiya community began to see the new migrant community as their opponents due to these dialectal and cultural differences. This division was the source of modern troubles in the identities of the Old Dhakaiyas (who view themselves as original inhabitants) and the post-partition migrant community (who currently form the majority in the city).[1]

A young boy flying a kite in the Shakrain festival.

Culture

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Main article: Culture of Dhaka

Clothing

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A common tradition of the Kutti-Bengalis was that they would wear white shirts and white lungis.[10] The Khoshbas would dress very formally, sporting black sherwanis. Covering ones head in both communities is seen as more respectful, and notable headwear include the tupi, karakul, rumi topi and taqi. Women are famed for the Dhakai jamdani-sari, a clothing originating in Dhaka using a fine muslin textile. Dating back centuries, it is popular amongst Bengalis in general. The traditional art of weaving jamdani was patronised by the Mughals but under British colonial rule, the jamdani and muslin industries rapidly declined due to colonial import policies favouring industrially manufactured textiles. In more recent years, the production of jamdani has witnessed a revival in Bangladesh and in 2013, UNESCO classed it as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[11][12][13] In 2016, Bangladesh received geographical indication (GI) status for the Jamdani Sari.[14]

Cuisine

[edit]
Bakarkhani being made in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Shahi jilapi is a very popular sweetmeat in Ramadan
Cold borhani is drunk with hot meals
Khichuri is considered a rich gourmet delicacy.

Old Dhakaiya food is one of the most notable regional Bangladeshi cuisines. The rich culinary customs are influenced by Mughlai, Central Asian, Armenian, Hindustani and Bengali cuisines. However, it also has dishes unique to Dhaka.[15] Haji biryani is a dish, invented by a restaurateur in 1939, made with highly seasoned rice, goat's meat and number of spices and nuts. The restaurant has become an integral part of Dhakaiya culture.[16] Old Dhaka boasts a variation of the famous pilaf - the Morog Polao - in which the rice is cooked after and the chicken pieces are cut. Other polaos include ilish polao and rui polao. Dhakaiyas are noted for introducing paneer and boiled eggs to khichuri.[15] Dhakai bakarkhani is a thick, biscuit-like flat-bread which is a traditional street-food snack, famed for its quality and taste. It is mainly dished up with tea.[17][18] Old Dhakaiyas proudly hold a heritage of creating the best khili paan using various herbs and spices. They also offer a khili paan for diabetic patients called the "paan afsana".[19] Common Dhakaiya beverages include borhani, Rooh Afza, shorbot, traditional fruit juices as well as basil seed-based drinks. Falooda, shahi jilapi and shemai are popular sweet foods and desserts.

Festivals

[edit]

اٹھ تے ہیں پچھلے پھر رات کو کھا کر سحری
Uth te hain pichle pahar raat ko kha kar sehri
شوق سے رکھیو تو کل روزہ، میں تیرے واری
Shauq se rakhiyo tu kal roza, main tere vaari

 – A common Urdu qasida recited in Ramadan[20]

In the holy Islamic month of Ramadan, it was a custom for every household to send a food offering to their local mosque. A dostorkhan would be laid in the mosque for the fasting people to eat on.[21] Chowk Bazaar was one of the most famous business and social meeting centres of Old Dhaka in the Mughal period and even today, during Ramadan, it is famous for the availability of hundreds of Iftar items.[22][23][24] At the end of the month, Chowk Bazaar would host a two-day mela for the celebration of Eid al-Fitr. Popular toys and gifts, known as eidi, emerged in the Dhakaiya culture such as the bhotbhoti; a motor using kerosene that would spin around in water, as well as the drum-carriage.[21] Hakim Habibur Rahman mentions in his book, Dhaka Panchas Baras Pahle (Dhaka, fifty years ago) that during sehri time (pre-dawn), groups of people would sing qasidas to wake up the neighbourhood.[25] This tradition was patronised by the nawabs and sardars of Dhaka and on Eid day, the Chief Sardar would present awards and baksheesh to the best qasida singers. Qasidas were generally sung in Urdu but in the 1980s, Bengali qasidas also came into fashion. This tradition is experiencing a revival with the efforts from the likes of Shamsher Rahman of Posta.[20] Qawwalis as well as Urdu poetry recital was very common amongst the Khoshbas in particular.[21]

The Shakrain festival is an age-long Dhakaiya kiting tradition celebrating the arrival of winter in the Bengali calendar.[26] Kite fighters would assemble in their rooftops, lighting up the skyline.[27] Dhakaiya weddings are also typically seen as very "extravagant".[28] Other sports that were popular amongst Old Dhakaiyas were hockey, horse riding and Nouka Baich (boat racing). The latter was originally practised in rural areas, but its popularity in urban areas increased in the 18th century as the Nawabs would organise many races.[29]

Language

[edit]
Main articles: Dhakaiya Kutti and Dhakaiya Urdu
Hakim Habibur Rahman was the writer of the celebrated Urdu book Dhaka, Panchas Baras Pahle - a detailed history of Old Dhaka and its people, culture and traditions.
Map of the Dhaka District and the areas where the Dhakaiya Kutti Bengali dialect is spoken.

Two dialects of Bengali and Urdu emerged in Old Dhaka during the Mughal period due to the interactions between the Urdu and Bengali speakers. The Khoshbas and the Nawabs of Dhaka spoke a Bengali-influenced dialect of Urdu known as Dhakaiya Urdu (which is distinct to the Hindustani creole spoken by the Bihari community).[2] The Kutti-Bengalis spoke Dhakaiya Kutti, a Bengali dialect with an Urdu influence.[30] Humour is an important part of Kutti culture and in the past, their jokes - told in the Dhakaiya Kutti dialect - used to generally consist of short stories in which Dhakaiyas mess around with the bhadralok gentry.[31] The Kuttis refer to outsiders or non-Dhakaiya Bengalis by the name "Gaiya" (গাঁইয়া), meaning from the village,[32] and Kolkatans in particular as Demchi (ডেমচি).[33]

Dhaka was also an esteemed centre for the study of Persian,[34] as it was an official language up until the colonial period and due to the high population of merchants and businessman from Central Asia and Persia that settled in Dhaka.[35] The Naib Nazim of Dhaka Nusrat Jang was known to have written a history book titled Tarikh-i-Nusrat Jangi around the late 18th century. Agha Ahmad Ali is considered to be the greatest among Persian scholars of Bengal,[36] famed for his Persian lexicology works like Muayyid-i-Burhan and Shamsher-i-Teztar, rivalling contemporaries like Ghalib, and are still read today across South Asia.[34] The Department of Persian at the University of Dhaka was opened in 1921.[34]

In media

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In 2008, Ekushey Television launched a serial called "Tuntuni Villa" centred on an Old Dhakaite family.[37] Shakib Khan played an Old Dhakaiya character in the 2015 Dhallywood film "Love Marriage".[38][39]

Notables

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See also

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References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Dhakaiyas

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The Dhakaiyas, often referred to as Old Dhakaiyas or Puran Dhakaiya, are the early settler community of , , comprising primarily who trace their origins to the Mughal era in the early , when local cultivators, laborers, and North Indian merchants from regions like and established roots in the city as a burgeoning hub. This group, identified historically by inherited property ownership in areas mapped as far back as , includes subgroups such as the Kuttis—migrants from nearby districts who transitioned from manual labor like rice husking to mercantile roles—and the Khusbas, fostering a distinct urban identity amid Dhaka's evolution under Mughal, British, and post-independence rule. Renowned for their unique linguistic heritage, Dhakaiyas speak dialects like Dhakaiya Kutti Bengali—a vernacular blending local influences with historical migrations—and , a Persian-Urdu-Bengali hybrid once prevalent among elites but now fading due to and assimilation into standard Bengali. Their emphasizes communal through practices like endogamous marriages, informal panchayat governance for , and a business-oriented ethos that underpinned Old Dhaka's commerce, though and city expansion have eroded traditional roles, with many relocating to modern areas like Dhanmondi. A hallmark of Dhakaiya identity is their cuisine, drawing from Mughal aristocratic traditions with rich, ghee-laden dishes such as subdeg (slow-cooked game fowl), motanjan , and saffron-infused pulaos, preserved in family recipes by descendant households despite the abolition of feudal land systems in 1950. This culinary legacy, alongside artifacts in preserved colonial-era homes, underscores their role in sustaining Dhaka's historical fabric, even as population estimates hover around 1.1 million amid broader demographic shifts.

History

Mughal Era Origins

In 1610, the Mughal subahdar Islam Khan Chisti transferred the capital of from to , renaming it Jahangirnagar in honor of , which rapidly elevated the settlement into a major administrative and commercial hub. This shift drew rural Bengali cultivators from surrounding areas seeking opportunities in the expanding urban economy, alongside merchants from northern who established trading networks leveraging 's strategic riverine position on the Buriganga. The influx laid the groundwork for a distinct settler community in what became , characterized by intermarriage and cultural synthesis between local and newcomers. From the mid-17th century, Urdu-speaking traders from regions like and began integrating into Dhaka's mercantile class, contributing to the proto-Dhakaiya identity through linguistic and occupational blending with Bengali populations. These migrants, often involved in overland , coexisted with Persian-influenced administrators and military personnel appointed by the Mughals, fostering a multilingual trading distinct from rural agrarian . By the early , this core group had solidified residential enclaves in , marked by havelis and mosques that reflected North Indian architectural influences adapted to local materials. Economic foundations of these early Dhakaiyas centered on textile , with emerging as a premier center for fine production by the 1660s, employing thousands of local under oversight. Complementary activities included inland cultivation of and for , alongside crafts like and that utilized the Buriganga's waterways for to ports such as Hooghly. This triad of , , and craftsmanship ensured economic resilience, embedding the community's presence amid Mughal provincial until the empire's decline.

Colonial and Partition Periods

During British colonial rule, established through the Company's dominance in from 1757 and formalized under Crown control after , Dhaka's economy stagnated as administrative and trade priorities shifted to Calcutta, reducing the city's role in regional commerce and causing the decline of traditional industries like weaving. , home to Dhakaiya communities, earned the moniker "City of Magnificent Ruins" by the early due to decaying and depopulation, yet these Muslim enclaves retained social cohesion and cultural practices amid escalating Hindu-Muslim communal tensions fueled by colonial policies and separate electorates introduced in 1909. The 1905 Partition of Bengal, enacted by Viceroy Lord Curzon on October 16, divided the province into a Muslim-majority with as capital, granting local Muslim elites enhanced administrative positions and economic opportunities that bolstered their influence and Indo-Aryan cultural distinctiveness. This reconfiguration, welcomed by many Dhaka Muslims as a counter to Hindu dominance in undivided , spurred political mobilization, including the founding of the in on December 30, 1906, which advocated for Muslim interests. Annulled in 1911 amid Hindu protests and opposition, the partition nonetheless entrenched a sense of separate Muslim identity among urban elites, influencing subsequent communal dynamics. The 1947 , effective August 14-15, integrated into as , triggering mass migrations that reshaped Dhaka's demographics with an influx of approximately 1-2 million Muslim refugees from , including Urdu-speaking who settled in urban areas and competed for resources. Concurrent Hindu departures from , numbering in the tens of thousands, reduced minority populations but did not displace Dhakaiya dominance in historic neighborhoods like Shankhari Bazar and Nawabpur, where established families adapted to Pakistani governance while preserving linguistic and culinary traditions. This period marked a transition from colonial marginalization to post-partition integration, with Dhakaiyas navigating imposition and economic challenges without full .

Post-Independence Developments

The of 1971 caused severe disruptions to Old Dhaka's communities, including Dhakaiyas, through intense urban fighting, civilian casualties, and infrastructure damage in the capital, where Pakistani forces surrendered on December 16. This conflict exacerbated pre-existing economic vulnerabilities, leading to immediate post-war displacement and hardship among the merchant class, who had historically dominated local trade in textiles, , and other goods. Following independence, the government's socialist policies under nationalized 254 major industrial units in sectors like , textiles, and engineering by March 1972, seizing assets previously held by private entrepreneurs and family businesses central to Dhakaiya economic life. This rapid state takeover, covering approximately 86% of industrial capacity, resulted in inefficiencies, operating deficits, and stifled private initiative, prompting and contributing to the or intra-urban relocation of affected merchant families during the early . The policy's fallout, compounded by the 1974 famine, intensified pressures on traditional trading networks in . No. The 1975 political shifts, including the assassination of Mujibur Rahman and subsequent military-backed regimes, introduced measures, such as the Revised Investment Policy in December 1975, which permitted joint ventures and expanded roles up to Tk 80 million in investment ceilings by 1974 (further liberalized post-1975). These reforms enabled a partial revival among Dhakaiya merchants, who leveraged inherited properties and trade expertise in the burgeoning ready-made garments sector and urban commerce, fostering resilience amid broader national recovery. Rapid urbanization from the late 1970s onward, driven by rural-urban migration and industrial growth, transformed , with the city's population surging and diluting the area's original demographic composition. Dhakaiya intra-urban migration peaked between 1971-1981 and 1981-1990, as families relocated to emerging neighborhoods like Dhanmondi, Gulshan, and Uttara for better housing and opportunities, with about 20% moving extended kin groups while retaining ancestral holdings. By 2011, the Dhakaiya population reached an estimated 1.1 million, yet only 24% resided in by 2014, as non-native tenants and lower-income migrants filled the void; however, business-oriented Dhakaiyas initiated from the late 1980s, renovating properties and constructing multi-story buildings, which boosted land values and preserved cultural enclaves despite ongoing dispersal.

Demographics and Ancestry

Population and Geographic Distribution

The Dhakaiya population was estimated at over 800,000 in 1991, comprising approximately 20% of Dhaka's total residents based on city corporation data and contemporary studies. By 2011, this figure had increased to around 1.1 million, reflecting natural amid the city's rapid . These numbers indicate a historically substantial presence, though their proportion has declined relative to Dhaka's overall expansion to over 10 million in the by 2024. Dhakaiyas remain concentrated in , where they constitute about 24% of the local inhabitants, particularly in historic wards such as Bangsal, Kalta Bazar, and areas along the eastern and western fringes of the Mughal-era settlement. This reflects enduring ties to original settlement patterns from the , despite dense overcrowding and socio-economic pressures in these compact neighborhoods. Significant outward migration has dispersed many to modern Dhaka suburbs, including Dhanmondi, Gulshan, Mohammadpur, Uttara, and Mirpur, often driven by housing shortages, congestion, and economic opportunities between 1981 and 1990. Smaller pockets exist in other Bangladeshi cities like , while a limited has formed in the UK and through post-1947 relocations and subsequent professional migrations, though exact figures for these overseas communities remain undocumented in data. The group's urban-rural spread is negligible, with virtually no rural concentrations due to their historical urban origins.

Ethnic Composition and Genetic Profile

Dhakaiyas constitute an Indo-Aryan subgroup within the broader Bengali Muslim population, characterized by a core ancestry derived from pre-Mughal local augmented by migrations of merchants, administrators, and elites from North Indian regions such as , , and during the 17th and 18th centuries. This historical layering results in an ethnic composition that, while fundamentally Bengali, exhibits elevated proportions of North Indian-derived elements compared to rural or eastern Bengali groups like those in (Chatgiyas). Autosomal DNA analyses of Bengali samples collected from in the (BEB population) reveal a typical admixture profile comprising approximately 40-50% Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI)-related ancestry, 25-35% Iranian Neolithic farmer-related, 10-20% Western Herder (Indo-European )-related, and 10-20% East/Southeast Asian components, with individual variation reflecting substructure. These proportions indicate a relatively higher and Iranian farmer ancestry in some Dhakaiya-representative samples compared to more eastern-shifted rural , aligning with genetic affinities to North Indian and Urdu-speaking groups (e.g., closer clustering to Punjabi or Gujarati samples in principal component analyses than to Tibeto-Burman-influenced eastern populations). The endogamous Dhakaiya Kutti (or Old Dhakaiya) elite subgroup maintains distinct traits through historical practices of intra-community marriage, potentially preserving elevated North Indian admixtures and reducing dilution from broader Bengali gene flow; however, dedicated genetic studies on Kuttis remain scarce, with inferences drawn from broader samples showing sub-clinal variation toward higher West Eurasian components. Overall, Dhakaiya underscore a urban-specific Indo-Aryan enrichment, debunking uniform "Bengali" homogenization by highlighting Mughal-era causal inputs from northern sources.

Cultural Elements

Language and Dialects

The Dhakaiya community primarily speaks variants of Bengali and Urdu shaped by centuries of linguistic contact during the Mughal era, when Persian-Urdu-speaking administrators and traders settled in Dhaka from around the early 17th century, blending their languages with the local Eastern Bengali substrate. This resulted in Dhakaiya Urdu, also known as the Sobbasi or Khosbasi dialect, a Bengali-influenced form of Urdu characterized by heavy lexical borrowing from Bengali, a Bangla phonetic accent, and simplified Urdu grammar adapted to urban commerce. Spoken historically by the Sobbas (original elite residents) and associated with the Nawab families, it incorporates Persian and Hindi elements alongside Bengali syntax, reflecting the causal role of migratory elites in Old Dhaka's markets. Complementing this is the Dhakaiya Kutti dialect, a regional variant of Bengali used by the indigenous Kutti (farmer-descendant) population, which retains with standard Bengali but features distinct lexical items and phonetic shifts tied to pre-Mughal agrarian roots. Urban known as Bazaira Vasha (market ) emerged within these dialects, particularly in Sobbasi speech, as a pidgin-like register for , incorporating hybrid phrases such as "kela" for "why" or "shotti" for "true" to facilitate rapid exchange in bustling bazaars like those in Shankari Bazar. Over time, these influences evolved into Ancholik Dhakaiya Bangla, a transitional form blending Kutti Bengali with Sobbasi Urdu loans, preserving archaic Mughal-era terms amid ongoing substrate dominance by Bengali. Both dialects have declined since Bangladesh's independence in 1971, driven by the institutional push for standardized Bengali in and media, which prioritizes a Kolkata-influenced norm over regional variants to foster national unity. Usage has contracted to pockets in Old Dhaka's historic markets and multi-generational families, where elders maintain it for cultural continuity, though younger speakers increasingly adopt standard Bengali due to and schooling pressures, reducing fluency rates among those under 30. Preservation efforts remain limited, with dialects persisting mainly in informal domains rather than formal .

Cuisine and Culinary Traditions

Dhakaiya cuisine reflects the Mughal-era culinary legacy of Old Dhaka, characterized by aromatic rice preparations, layered breads, and dairy-infused sweets derived from North Indian merchant adaptations during the 17th and 18th centuries. Central to this tradition is the kacchi biryani, a dum-cooked dish featuring marinated raw mutton or beef layered with partially boiled basmati rice, fried onions, ghee, milk, saffron, kewra water, rose water, and spices such as cumin, cloves, mace, and nutmeg. This preparation, preserved in family-run establishments like those in Puran Dhaka, emphasizes slow cooking in sealed handis to infuse flavors, distinguishing it from other regional biryanis through its emphasis on tender meat and subtle dairy notes. Bakarkhani, a thick, spiced , exemplifies the bread traditions imported during Mughal rule, originally linked to 17th-century Persian influences and legends of courtly romance involving figures like Agha Khan under Siraj-ud-Daulah. Baked in tandoors with layers of dough enriched by and sesame seeds, it is commonly paired with or curries in Old Dhaka's historic eateries, many operated by families tracing recipes to the colonial era. These high-ghee, calorie-dense items historically signified affluence among urban merchant classes, aligning with pre-modern trade prosperity in and textiles. Sweets in Dhakaiya culinary practice include rasmalai variants, where spongy balls soaked in thickened milk flavored with and pistachios adapt broader Bengali confections to local preferences, often featuring denser textures in preparations compared to regional counterparts. Preservation efforts, such as the Food Map initiative, highlight family shops maintaining these recipes amid urban changes, underscoring the cuisine's role in cultural continuity tied to Mughal administrative heritage.

Traditional Clothing and Attire

Dhakaiya men traditionally don the panjabi, a loose-fitting knee-length tunic akin to a kurta, paired with a lungi, a cylindrical wraparound skirt made from cotton or silk, serving as everyday lower-body garment. This attire, common among adult males in Dhaka, emphasizes comfort in the subtropical climate and reflects continuity from Mughal-influenced Bengali Muslim dress practices. For ceremonial occasions, such as weddings, the panjabi may feature embroidery or finer fabrics, while the lungi is often checkered or bordered in contrasting colors to denote social status. Women among the Dhakaiya community favor the salwar kameez, comprising a long tunic (kameez) over loose trousers (), with a scarf, adapted from Mughal court styles that gained prominence in the region during the 16th to 19th centuries. Intricate embroidery, including motifs like floral patterns or designs, adorns ceremonial versions, linking to the era's royal tailoring techniques imported by Mughal artisans. Everyday wear tends toward simpler, unadorned variants for practicality, though conservative coverage remains normative. Historically, Dhaka's renowned fabric—produced from fine Phuti carol with thread counts exceeding 800—formed the basis for elite Dhakaiya attire, prized for its gossamer lightness and exported globally until colonial disruptions in the early rendered traditional production nearly extinct. This "woven air" was woven into translucent garments symbolizing refinement among the urban Muslim , but modern substitutes like synthetic blends have largely replaced it due to the loss of artisanal techniques. Among younger urban Dhakaiyas, Western influences have diminished daily adherence to these styles, yet they persist in matrimonial and religious events to preserve .

Festivals and Religious Practices

Dhakaiyas, as a predominantly Sunni Muslim with historical ties to Mughal and Nawabi eras, center their religious observances on Islamic festivals, particularly Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha, conducted with communal prayers at historic eidgahs and mosques in . Eid-ul-Fitr concludes with special dawn prayers followed by processions featuring marching bands and large figurines, a custom documented from the late Nawabi period and revived in 2025 after decades of suppression under Pakistani rule. These gatherings emphasize family visits, charitable distributions, and feasting, reinforcing social bonds in densely packed neighborhoods like Shankhari Bazar. Eid-ul-Adha, observed around June 6-10 in 2025, involves ritual animal sacrifices (qurbani) by families, with meat divided into thirds for household consumption, relatives, and the needy, adhering to interpretations prevalent among Dhakaiyas. Prayers occur at open fields such as the Gor-e-Shahid , the largest in , highlighting the community's emphasis on collective worship and almsgiving. Subgroups with Shia influences, stemming from Persian cultural imprints during Mughal rule, participate in Muharram mourning rituals, culminating on Ashura (10th of Muharram) with processions at Imambara Hoseni Dalan in , where participants don black attire and reenact the through tazia replicas and elegies. These observances, observed nationwide as a , involve and sermons for both Sunni and Shia, though processions are limited to Shia-led events in urban centers like . Family-level rites include for newborns, typically on the seventh day post-birth, entailing the sacrifice of one or two animals ( or sheep) per norms in Sunni , with the meat cooked and shared to express gratitude and seek protection. This practice, shaved-head included, aligns with prophetic and remains a private yet obligatory custom in Dhakaiya households, often tied to extended kin networks. While core practices remain Islamic, some Dhakaiyas engage in secular adaptations of on April 14, incorporating Bengali cultural elements like traditional attire without religious rituals, viewing it as a harvest-derived civic event rather than a faith-based observance. Conservative factions, however, critique participations involving processions as incompatible with strict , leading to varied observance levels within the community.

Social Structure and Customs

Family and Marriage Systems

Dhakaiyas exhibit a strong preference for endogamous marriages within their community, aimed at preserving linguistic distinctiveness, cultural traditions, and elevated derived from historical urban roots. Among Kuttis, a closely related of Old Dhaka's original Muslim inhabitants, rates reached 94% from grandfathers to fathers and 75% from fathers to sons, reflecting limited marital mobility and intentional insularity to maintain communal boundaries. This practice contrasts with broader exogamous trends in modern urban , where inter-community unions have increased due to migration and socioeconomic shifts. Marriage rituals among Dhakaiyas emphasize elaborate, multi-stage ceremonies that diverge from simpler rural Bengali norms, incorporating opulent feasts with polao, meat dishes, and community-wide celebrations hosted by extended kin networks. These events reinforce familial alliances and cultural continuity, often spanning days with formalized engagements, religious unions, and post-wedding receptions that highlight Old Dhaka's refined hospitality traditions. Such customs underscore a deliberate differentiation from rural practices, which typically feature more austere village gatherings focused on basic religious rites without the same scale of communal feasting. Family dynamics are predominantly patriarchal, with authority vested in senior male members who oversee decisions on , residence, and alliances in multigenerational households. These joint family structures, common in Old Dhaka's historic baris (mansions), promote intergenerational cohesion and transmission of , attire, and , contributing to resilience against cultural dilution. While and extended kin living foster tight-knit support systems—evident in sustained community practices amid —critics highlight potential insularity and elitism in , which prioritize lineage over individual compatibility, though empirical patterns show declining but persistent adherence as economic pressures erode traditional forms.

Community Organization and Social Norms

The Dhakaiya community maintains hierarchical structures centered on informal panchayets, which function as local councils for dispute resolution and resource management, particularly in neighborhoods like Bangshal. These bodies, drawing from historical Muslim merchant practices, distribute and address intra-community conflicts without formal legal intervention, preserving autonomy amid urban pressures. Mosques and bazaars serve as primary social hubs, fostering cohesion through daily interactions, religious gatherings, and economic exchanges that reinforce . Social norms emphasize , with marriages predominantly within the Dhakaiya group to sustain tight-knit ties and cultural continuity. and honor codes, inherited from merchant guild traditions, mandate generous hosting of guests and upholding family reputation, often prioritizing networks and communal trust over individual gain. As a conservative Muslim-majority enclave, these norms privilege occupational continuity in trade while enforcing and familial obligations. Gender roles adhere to traditional divisions, with men leading public and commercial spheres and women managing domestic affairs, though the latter exert influence through inherited property rights that affect household decisions like relocation. Sons typically inherit residential properties, while daughters receive alternative shares, reflecting patrilineal priorities tempered by spousal asset control. This structure underscores women's indirect authority within the family unit, distinct from broader economic participation.

Contemporary Challenges and Perceptions

Gentrification and Urban Pressures

Since the late 1980s, in has accelerated alongside Bangladesh's real estate boom, prompting many Dhakaiyas to relocate from ancestral properties in the historic core to newer parts of the city. The formation of the Real Estate and Housing Association of Bangladesh (REHAB) in 1991 marked the start of organized private development, which expanded to over 1,500 companies by 2015, driving multi-storied constructions that repurpose or demolish traditional homes for commercial and residential use. This process, intensified in the , has led to intra-urban migration peaks, such as during 1981–1990 when city expansion displaced original residents through rising land values and inadequate infrastructure like narrow streets averaging 4.88 meters wide. Displacement manifests in the sale or conversion of inherited properties, with over 33% repurposed for commercial activities and more than 25% for new housing, often acquired by non-Dhakaiya buyers or . By , Dhakaiyas comprised only 24% of 's population, reflecting a dilution of their residential dominance amid owner-built high-rises that violate aspects of the Building Code 2006 and exacerbate density. Heritage advocates estimate at least 2,200 buildings in merit preservation, yet systematic demolition by developers—often enabled by lax enforcement from bodies like RAJUK—has erased numerous structures despite listings by the Department of Archaeology up to August 2024. Conflicts arise as local groups, including urban volunteers since at least , face threats from property owners resisting documentation efforts to halt demolitions. Economically, some displaced Dhakaiyas benefit by becoming landlords or gaining larger living spaces—per capita housing rising from 15 square meters to 38 square meters post-relocation for many—yet this prosperity comes at the cost of for lower-income original residents and cultural erosion through homogenized urban fabrics. State-driven modernization, prioritizing economic output over heritage safeguards, has traded irreplaceable historic morphology for short-term gains, leaving and as persistent pressures on remaining communities.

Cultural Decline and Preservation Efforts

The distinct Kutti dialect of the Dhakaiyas, characterized by its Urdu-influenced Bengali spoken primarily in , has experienced significant decline due to the widespread adoption of standard Bengali in formal systems, which prioritize the official as the . This shift is exacerbated by and city expansion, which have integrated migrant populations and diluted traditional linguistic practices among younger generations. Intermarriage with non-Dhakaiya communities further erodes the dialect's usage, as families increasingly raise children in standard Bengali to avoid perceptions of the Kutti dialect as outdated or associated with lower in mainstream Bangladeshi society. Customs tied to Dhakaiya identity, such as specific artisanal traditions and community rituals, face similar pressures from economic modernization and population influx, leading to assimilation into broader urban Bengali norms rather than outright rejection. These factors, driven by practical incentives like access to higher education and job markets, contribute to a gradual erosion without evidence of deliberate cultural suppression, though mainstream narratives sometimes frame the and as markers of "backwardness" relative to standardized progress. Preservation initiatives include the establishment of platforms like Worldwide Dhakaiya, launched to connect global Dhakaiya communities and promote shared heritage through cultural events and online networking, emphasizing unity amid dispersal. documentation efforts, such as those highlighted in The Daily Star articles from 2025, have raised awareness by detailing the evolution and divisions of Dhakaiya Bangla variants like Kutti and Sobbasi, encouraging linguistic recording to counter extinction risks. Tourism promotion in , via heritage trails and guided explorations of historic sites, has boosted visibility and revenue for traditional areas, fostering local pride and funding for maintenance, though it introduces risks of where authentic practices may be stylized for visitors at the expense of organic transmission. These efforts demonstrate partial successes in sustaining elements of Dhakaiya culture against assimilation, reliant on community-driven and market-based incentives rather than top-down mandates.

Regional Tensions and Stereotypes

Dhakaiyas, descendants of the historic merchant class in Old Dhaka, are frequently stereotyped by other Bangladeshis as arrogant and elitist, a perception rooted in their preservation of refined urban customs amid waves of rural and regional migration to the capital. This view contrasts their purported cultural sophistication—evident in dialect, attire, and cuisine—with the perceived dynamism and adaptability of migrants from regions like Chittagong, where Chatgiyas are often characterized as shrewd, business-savvy, and less bound by tradition. Dialect differences exacerbate these tensions; the Dhakaiya variant, with its archaic Persian-Arabic influences, is sometimes mocked as pretentious in inter-regional interactions, highlighting linguistic barriers that reinforce social divides rather than seamless Bengali unity. Historically, Dhakaiya pride traces to their role in the 17th-18th century trade under Mughal rule, which instilled a of insularity and , leading to criticisms of detachment from broader national upheavals, such as the 1971 Liberation War, where urban elites were accused by some rural participants of prioritizing commerce over frontline sacrifices. While Dhakaiyas contributed to Dhaka's administrative and cultural backbone during the conflict, post-war influxes of non-Dhakaiya diluted their demographic dominance, fostering resentment over perceived resistance to assimilation and cultural dilution. Genetic studies indirectly support elements of isolation, showing higher consanguinity rates in endogamous Old families compared to national averages, though this is attributed more to custom than deliberate exclusion. These stereotypes, while overstated in anecdotal forums, underscore empirical regional fractures in marriage patterns and social networks, with Dhakaiyas maintaining tighter community ties amid Dhaka's . On the positive side, Dhakaiya influences are credited with elevating Bangladesh's urban aesthetic, from architectural motifs to culinary standards, yet this is offset by narratives of snobbery toward "provincial" arrivals, as seen in discourses decrying their "closed-off" ethos. Such views, prevalent in platforms reflecting migrant frustrations, reveal causal dynamics where economic displacement in amplifies inter-group frictions, rather than innate superiority, though unsubstantiated claims of universal overlook individual variations.

Notable Individuals

Historical Figures

Khwaja Alimullah (1772–1854), a leading Dhakaiya merchant of Kashmiri descent, founded the prominent family of through his commercial enterprises in saltpeter, , and other commodities during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Settling in Begum Bazar, he inherited wealth from his uncle Khwaja Hafizullah and expanded family trade networks, which bolstered 's post-Mughal economy as a regional center. In recognition of his and support for British interests, Alimullah received the hereditary title of in 1843 from the , marking the formal elevation of Dhakaiya merchant elites. He commissioned the Inder Mahal (Rang Mahal), a precursor to palace, and patronized Shia religious sites like Hussaini Dalan, reflecting the community's cultural and administrative influence. The Khwaja forebears, including Khwaja Abdul Wahab and Khwaja Abdullah, migrated from to around 1730 amid declining Mughal authority in , initially engaging in local commerce that laid the groundwork for later prosperity. Their success exemplified Dhakaiya khoshbas merchants—North Indian settlers who integrated into 's administration and economy, managing estates and facilitating trade links to Calcutta. Such families sustained 's status as a key Bengal port until British dominance shifted commercial power westward in the mid-19th century.

Modern Personalities

Mahib Ahsan, a Dhaka-based producer, singer, and entrepreneur born in the , founded Dhakaiya Dose around as a platform to revive and promote Dhakaiya cultural elements through and . His productions, including covers and original tracks like "Mombati" featuring Mohon Sharif and "Jolonto Agun," incorporate Dhakaiya linguistic nuances and themes, contributing to dialect preservation efforts amid urbanization pressures since the early 2000s. Ahsan's work has garnered over 33,000 subscribers by 2024, emphasizing empirical cultural continuity via rather than institutional channels. In business, modern Dhakaiya entrepreneurs often sustain heritage trades such as traditional sweets production in , where firms like Alauddin Sweetmeat, established in the , continue operations under family leadership into the , adapting recipes like while preserving artisanal methods amid market competition. These leaders prioritize empirical quality metrics, such as ingredient sourcing from local suppliers, to maintain in a sector valued at Tk20,000 nationally by 2023. figures, though less documented, include professionals in the UK and who organize cultural events to sustain Dhakaiya identity, drawing on remittances exceeding $20 billion annually to fund preservation initiatives abroad.

Media and Cultural Representation

Depictions in Literature and Film

Hakim Habibur Rahman's 1949 Urdu work Dhaka Panchas Baras Pahle (Dhaka Fifty Years Ago) offers a detailed nostalgic portrayal of early 20th-century Dhakaiya social and cultural life, including customs, cuisine variants like polau and khichuri, and urban traditions such as pre-dawn sehri gatherings with singing groups. The book emphasizes the vibrancy of Old 's heritage under Mughal influence, presenting Dhakaiyas as custodians of refined traditions amid historical continuity. This romanticized lens privileges pre-partition elite nostalgia, potentially overlooking socioeconomic disparities within the community, though Rahman's firsthand observations as a local physician lend empirical grounding to descriptions of daily practices. Literature in the Dhakaiya Kutti dialect, such as Jewel Mahmud's poem "Channi-poshor Raiter Lour," captures vernacular expressions of local and street life, preserving linguistic nuances tied to Old Dhaka's identity. These works often idealize communal rituals and dialect-specific humor, countering broader Bengali narratives by foregrounding hyper-local customs, yet they risk reinforcing insularity perceptions without broader contextual critique. Film and television depictions of Dhakaiya life remain sparse, with settings frequently used to evoke historical decay rather than authentic cultural vitality, as seen in post-2010 Bangladeshi productions set amid urban congestion. Media portrayals sometimes Dhakaiyas as arrogant elites, reflecting regional tensions where their perceived cultural superiority clashes with non-Dhakaiya migrants, though such views stem more from anecdotal perceptions than rigorous analysis. Accurate representations, when present, highlight and customs like kite-flying or Eid preparations to underscore heritage erosion, but often prioritize dramatic conflict over nuanced preservation efforts.

Influence on Broader Bangladeshi Identity

Dhakaiya culinary traditions, rooted in Mughal-era practices, have significantly shaped national , with dishes such as kacchi transitioning from elite urban fare to a staple in weddings, social gatherings, and everyday meals across the country. Introduced during Dhaka's time as a Mughal provincial capital in 1610, this raw-meat fused local and Persian influences, becoming widely accessible through historic eateries like those established in the early . These traditions embody a and that contribute to broader perceptions of refinement in Bangladeshi , as seen in preserved practices linking Old Dhaka's to national identity figures. Efforts to promote Dhakaiya foods, such as through heritage dining experiences since 2018, further export these elements via , enhancing national appreciation of urban Nawabi legacies amid a predominantly rural populace. By sustaining distinct urban customs against homogenization pressures, Dhakaiyas foster regional diversity within Bengali identity, countering uniform national narratives with evidence of layered historical influences from Dhaka's cosmopolitan past. This resistance underscores tensions between urban elitism and rural agrarian norms, where Dhakaiya elements enrich but occasionally highlight divides in cultural expression.

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