Hubbry Logo
RamadanRamadanMain
Open search
Ramadan
Community hub
Ramadan
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Ramadan
Ramadan
Ramadan
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Ramadan
Iftar, traditional meal for breaking fast, Bangladesh
A crescent moon over Sarıçam, Turkey
Women reading the Quran in Bandar Torkaman, Iran
Men breaking their fast in Dubai Grand Mosque
Tarawih prayers in a mosque in West Sumatra, Indonesia
Iftar meal
Ramadan decorations in the streets of Aden, Yemen
Zakat donation boxes in Taipei, Taiwan
CalendarIslamic calendar
Month number9
Number of days29–30 (depends on actual observation of the moon's crescent)
Significant days
← Sha'ban
Shawwal →
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Practices
History
Culture and society
Related topics
Islamic calendar
Months
  1. Muharram
  2. Safar
  3. Rabi' al-Awwal
  4. Rabi' al-Thani
  5. Jumada al-Awwal
  6. Jumada al-Thani
  7. Rajab
  8. Sha'ban
  9. Ramadan
  10. Shawwal
  11. Dhu al-Qadah
  12. Dhu al-Hijjah

Ramadan[a][note 1] is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. It is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting (sawm), communal prayer (salah), reflection, and community.[5] It is also the month in which the Quran is believed to have been revealed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The annual observance of Ramadan is regarded as one of the five pillars of Islam[6] and lasts twenty-nine to thirty days, from one sighting of the crescent moon to the next.[7][8]

Fasting from dawn to sunset is obligatory (fard) for all adult Muslims who are not acutely or chronically ill, travelling, elderly, breastfeeding, pregnant, or menstruating.[9] The predawn meal is referred to as suhur, and the nightly feast that breaks the fast is called iftar.[10][11] Although rulings (fatawa) have been issued declaring that Muslims who live in regions with a midnight sun or polar night should follow the timetable of Mecca,[12] it is common practice to follow the timetable of the closest country in which night can be distinguished from day.[13][14][15]

The spiritual rewards (thawab) of fasting are believed to be multiplied during Ramadan.[16] Accordingly, during the hours of fasting, Muslims refrain not only from food and drink, but also from all behavior deemed to be sinful in Islam,[17][18] devoting themselves instead to prayer and study of the Quran.[19][20]

Etymology

[edit]

The word Ramadan derives from the Arabic root R-M-Ḍ (ر-م-ض) 'scorching heat',[21] which is the Classical Arabic verb ramiḍa (رَمِضَ) meaning 'become intensely hot – become burning; become scorching; be blazing; be glowing'.[22][23]

Ramadan is thought of as one of the names of God in Islam by some, and as such it is reported in many hadiths that it is prohibited to say only "Ramadan" in reference to the calendar month and that it is necessary to say "month of Ramadan", as reported in Sunni,[24][25][26][27][28][29] Shia[30][31][32][33][34][35] and Zaydi[36] sources. However, the report has been graded by others as Mawḍūʻ (fabricated)[37] and inauthentic.[24]

In the Persian language, the Arabic letter ض (Ḍād) is pronounced as /z/. The Muslim communities in some countries with historical Persian influence, such as Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, India, Pakistan and Turkey, use the word Ramazan or Ramzan. The word Romzan is used in Bangladesh.[38]

History

[edit]
Chapter 2, Verse 185 in Arabic

Ramadan is the month on which the Quran was revealed as a guide for humanity with clear proofs of guidance and the standard ˹to distinguish between right and wrong˺. So whoever is present this month, let them fast. But whoever is ill or on a journey, then ˹let them fast˺ an equal number of days ˹after Ramaḍân˺. Allah intends ease for you, not hardship, so that you may complete the prescribed period and proclaim the greatness of Allah for guiding you, and perhaps you will be grateful.

— Surah Al-Baqara 2:185

Muslims hold that all scriptures were revealed during Ramadan, the scrolls of Abraham, Torah, Psalms, Gospel, and Quran having been handed down during that month.[39] Muhammad is said to have received his first quranic revelation on Laylat al-Qadr, one of five odd-numbered nights that fall during the last ten days of Ramadan.[40]

Although Muslims were first commanded to fast in the second year of Hijra (624 CE),[39] they believe that the practice of fasting is not in fact an innovation of monotheism[41] but rather has always been necessary for believers to attain fear of God (taqwa).[42][Quran 2:183] They point to the fact that the pre-Islamic pagans of Mecca fasted on the tenth day of Muharram to expiate sin and avoid drought.[43] Philip Jenkins argues that the observance of Ramadan fasting grew out of "the strict Lenten discipline of the Syrian Churches", a postulation corroborated by other scholars, including theologian Paul-Gordon Chandler,[44][45] but disputed by some Muslim academics.[46] The Quran itself emphasizes that the fast it prescribes had already been prescribed to earlier biblical communities (2:183), even though an explicit intertext for this pre-Islamic practice does not exist.[47]

Important dates

[edit]

The Islamic calendar is a lunar one, where each month begins when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. The Islamic year consists of 12 lunar cycles, and consequently it is 10 to 11 days shorter than the solar year, and as it contains no intercalation,[c] Ramadan migrates throughout the seasons. The Islamic day starts after sunset. The estimated start and end dates for Ramadan, based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia, are:[48]

Ramadan dates between 2022 and 2026
AH First day (CE/AD) Last day (CE/AD)
1443 2 April 2022 1 May 2022
1444 23 March 2023 20 April 2023
1445 11 March 2024 9 April 2024
1446 1 March 2025[49] 29 March 2025
1447 18 February 2026 19 March 2026
An iftar meal

Many Muslims insist on the local physical sighting of the moon to mark the beginning of Ramadan, but others use the calculated time of the new moon or the Saudi Arabian declaration to determine the start of the month. Since the new moon is not in the same state at the same time globally, the beginning and ending dates of Ramadan depend on what lunar sightings are received in each respective location. As a result, Ramadan dates vary in different countries, but usually only by a day. This is due to the cycles of the moon; the moon may not meet the criteria to qualify as a waxing crescent, which delineates the change in months, at the time of sundown in one location while later meeting it in another location.[50] Astronomical projections that approximate the start of Ramadan are available.[51]

In Shia Islam, one of the special dates of this month is the day of the assassination of Ali, the fourth Rashidun caliph and the first Shia Imam. Ali was struck during morning prayer on the 19th day of Ramadan, 40 AH, and he died on the 21st day of the month. They engage in mourning and prayer on these nights, especially in Iran.[52]

Beginning

[edit]
Ramadan beginning dates between Gregorian years 1938 and 2038.

Because the hilāl, or crescent moon, typically occurs approximately one day after the new moon, Muslims can usually estimate the beginning of Ramadan;[53] however, many Muslims prefer to confirm the opening of Ramadan by direct visual observation of the crescent.[54]

Laylat al-Qadr

[edit]
Main article: Night of Power

The Laylat al-Qadr (Arabic: لیلة القدر) or "Night of Power" is the night that Muslims believe the Quran was first sent down to the world, and Muhammad received his first quranic revelation from it. The night is considered to be the holiest night of the year.[55][56] It is generally believed to have occurred on an odd-numbered night during the last ten days of Ramadan; the Dawoodi Bohra believe that Laylat al-Qadr was the twenty-third night of Ramadan.[57][58]

Eid

[edit]
Main articles: Eid al-Fitr and Eid prayers

The holiday of Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر), which marks the end of Ramadan and the beginning of Shawwal,[59] the next lunar month, is declared after a crescent new moon has been sighted or after completion of thirty days of fasting if no sighting of the moon is possible. Eid celebrates the return to a more natural disposition (fitra) of eating, drinking, and marital intimacy.[60]

Religious practices

[edit]
Azim Azimzade. Ramadan of the poor people. 1938

The common practice is to fast from dawn to sunset. The pre-dawn meal before the fast is called the suhur, while the meal at sunset that breaks the fast is called iftar.[61]

Muslims devote more time to prayer and acts of charity, striving to improve their self-discipline, motivated by hadith:[62][63] "When Ramadan arrives, the gates of Paradise are opened and the gates of hell are locked up and devils are put in chains."[64]

Fasting

[edit]
Main article: Fasting during Ramadan

Ramadan is a time of spiritual reflection, self-improvement, and heightened devotion and worship. Muslims are expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam. The fast (sawm) begins at dawn and ends at sunset. In addition to abstaining from eating and drinking, Muslims abstain from sexual relations[65] and sinful speech and behaviour during Ramadan. Fasting is said to redirect the heart away from worldly activities, and to cleanse the soul by freeing it from harmful impurities. Muslims believe that Ramadan teaches them to practice self-discipline, self-control,[66] sacrifice, and empathy for those who are less fortunate, thus encouraging actions of generosity and compulsory charity (zakat).[67]

Exemptions from fasting include those traveling, menstruating, severely ill, pregnant, or breastfeeding.[61] Those unable to fast are obligated to make up the missed days later.[68]

Suhur

[edit]
Main article: Suhur
Iftar at the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey

Each day before dawn, Muslims observe a pre-fast meal called the suhur. After stopping a short time before dawn, Muslims begin the first prayer of the day, Fajr.[69][70]

Iftar

[edit]
Main article: Iftar
Picture of some of the dishes used in breaking Ramadan fast in Nigeria
Some dishes used in breaking Ramadan fast in Nigeria

At sunset, families break the fast with the iftar, traditionally opening the meal by eating dates to commemorate Muhammad's practice of breaking the fast with three dates.[71][72] They then adjourn for Maghrib, the fourth of the five required daily prayers, after which the main meal is served.[73]

Social gatherings, many times in buffet style, are frequent at iftar. Traditional dishes are often highlighted, including traditional desserts, particularly those made only during Ramadan.[example needed] Water is usually the beverage of choice, but juice and milk are also often available, as are soft drinks and caffeinated beverages.[74]

In the Middle East, iftar consists of water, juices, dates, salads and appetizers; one or more main dishes; and rich desserts, with dessert considered the most important aspect of the meal.[75] Typical main dishes include lamb stewed with wheat berries, lamb kebabs with grilled vegetables, and roasted chicken served with chickpea-studded rice pilaf. Desserts may include lokma, baklava or knafeh.[76]

Over time, the practice of iftar has evolved into banquets that may accommodate hundreds or even thousands of diners.[77] The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi, the largest mosque in the UAE, feeds up to thirty thousand people every night.[78]

Iftar served for people fasting in the Imam Reza shrine

Charity

[edit]
Main articles: Zakat and Sadaqah
Men praying during Ramadan at the Shrine of Ali or "Blue Mosque" in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan
A mass prayer during the 1996 Ramadan at the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem
A mass prayer during the 1996 Ramadan at the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem

Zakat, often translated as "the poor-rate", is the fixed percentage of income a believer is required to give to the poor; the practice is obligatory as one of the pillars of Islam. Muslims believe that good deeds are rewarded more handsomely during Ramadan than at any other time of the year; consequently, many Muslims donate a larger portion – or even all – of their yearly zakat during this month.[79]

Nightly prayers

[edit]
Main article: Tarawih

Tarawih (Arabic: تراويح) are extra nightly prayers performed during the month of Ramadan. Contrary to popular belief, they are not compulsory.[80]

Recitation of the Quran

[edit]

Muslims are encouraged to read the entire Quran, which comprises thirty juz' (sections), over the thirty days of Ramadan.[81]

Cultural practices

[edit]
A Kebab seller from Chwakbazar Iftar Market in Old Dhaka. The Chowk Bazaar neighborhood of Old Dhaka is famous for its century-old Iftar Bazar.

In some Islamic countries, lights (fanous) are strung up in public squares and across city streets,[82][83][84] a tradition believed to have originated during the Fatimid Caliphate, where the rule of Caliph al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah was acclaimed by people holding lanterns.[85]

An old tradition of Old Dhaka, Bangladesh is during the time of sehri, groups of people would sing qasidas to wake up the Muslims in the neighbourhood.[86][87] Chowk Bazaar is a place with great significance in Bengali culture during Ramadan. Shahi jilapi is unique delicacy from Chowk Bazaar iftar market, popular for its large size.

On the island of Java, many believers bathe in holy springs to prepare for fasting, a ritual known as Padusan.[88] The city of Semarang marks the beginning of Ramadan with the Dugderan carnival, which involves parading the warak ngendog, a horse-dragon hybrid creature allegedly inspired by the Buraq.[89] In the Chinese-influenced capital city of Jakarta, firecrackers are widely used to celebrate Ramadan, although they are officially illegal.[90] Towards the end of Ramadan, most employees receive a one-month bonus known as Tunjangan Hari Raya.[91] Certain kinds of food are especially popular during Ramadan, such as large beef or buffalo in Aceh and snails in Central Java.[92] The iftar meal is announced every evening by striking the bedug, a giant drum, in the mosque.[93]

Common greetings during Ramadan include Ramadan mubarak and Ramadan kareem, which mean (have a) "blessed Ramadan" and "generous Ramadan" respectively.[94]

During Ramadan in the Middle East, a mesaharati beats a drum across a neighbourhood to wake people up to eat the suhoor meal.[95] Similarly in Southeast Asia, the kentongan slit drum is used for the same purpose.[96]

Ramadan attracts significant increases in television viewership, as the usual prime time hours coincide with the iftar, and are commonly extended into the late-night hours to coincide with the suhur. Broadcasters in the Arab world traditionally premiere serial dramas known as musalsal during Ramadan; they are similar in style to Latin American telenovelas, and are typically around 30 episodes in length so that they run over the length of the month.[97][98][99] Advertisers in the region have considered Ramadan to be comparable to the Super Bowl on U.S. television in terms of impact and importance; the cost of a 30-second commercial in peak time during Ramadan is usually more than double than normal.[100][101]

Observance

[edit]
Conversion of Hijri years 1343 to 1500 to the Gregorian calendar, with first days of al-Muharram (brown), Ramadan (grey) and Shawwal (black) bolded, and Eid al-Adha dotted – in the SVG file, hover over a spot to show its dates and a line to show the month

According to a 2012 Pew Research Centre study, there was widespread Ramadan observance, with a median of 93 percent across the thirty-nine countries and territories studied.[102] Regions with high percentages of fasting among Muslims include Southeast Asia, South Asia, Middle East and North Africa, Horn of Africa and most of Sub-Saharan Africa.[102] Percentages are lower in Central Asia and Southeast Europe.[102]

Ramadan in polar regions

[edit]
Main article: Islamic views on fasting in the polar regions

The length of the dawn to sunset time varies in different parts of the world according to summer or winter solstices of the Sun. Most Muslims fast for eleven to sixteen hours during Ramadan. However, in polar regions, the period between dawn and sunset may exceed twenty-two hours in summer. For example, in 2014, Muslims in Reykjavik, Iceland, and Trondheim, Norway, fasted almost twenty-two hours, while Muslims in Sydney, Australia, fasted for only about eleven hours. In areas characterized by continuous night or day, some Muslims follow the fasting schedule observed in the nearest city that experiences sunrise and sunset, while others follow Mecca time.[13][14][15]

Ramadan in Earth orbit

[edit]

As sunrise and sunset occur sixteen times each a day in low-Earth orbit, Muslim astronauts in space schedule religious practices around the time zone of the last place on Earth they were on. For example, this means an astronaut from Malaysia launching from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida would center their fast according to sunrise and sunset times in Cape Canaveral, in Florida's Eastern Time. This includes times for daily prayers, as well as sunset and sunrise for Ramadan.[103][104]

Laws

[edit]

In some Muslim countries, eating in public during daylight hours in Ramadan is a crime.[105][106][107] The sale of alcohol becomes prohibited during Ramadan in Egypt.[108] The penalty for publicly eating, drinking or smoking during Ramadan can result in fines or incarceration in the countries of Kuwait,[109][110] Saudi Arabia,[111][112][113] Morocco,[114][115] Algeria[116] and Malaysia.[117] In the United Arab Emirates, the punishment is community service.[118]

In some countries, on the contrary, the observance of Ramadan has been restricted by governments. In the USSR, the practice of Ramadan was suppressed by officials.[119][120] In Albania, Ramadan festivities were banned during the communist period.[121] However, many Albanians continued to fast secretly during this period.[122]

China is reported to have banned Ramadan fasting for officials, students, and teachers in Xinjiang since 2012.[123][124][125] Radio Free Asia alleges that residents in Kashgar Prefecture are compelled to film proof of eating for officials and are encouraged to report those who fasted to the authorities.[126][127] The ban has been denied by Chinese diplomats[128] and Muslim associations in Xinjiang.[129] Antara News,[130] Daily Times,[131] and Pakistan Today have also brought up accounts of residents in Xinjiang fasting.[132] According to a 2024 visit to Xinjiang by a reporter from the British magazine The Economist, many Uyghurs do not fast during Ramadan because, according to locals, "the Chinese government guarantees freedom of religion".[133]

Employment during Ramadan

[edit]

Muslims continue to work during Ramadan;[134][135] however, in some countries, such as Oman and Lebanon, working hours are shortened.[136][137] It is often recommended that working Muslims inform their employers if they are fasting, given the potential for the observance to impact performance at work.[138] The extent to which Ramadan observers are protected by religious accommodation varies by country. Policies putting them at a disadvantage compared to other employees have been met with discrimination claims in the United Kingdom and the United States.[139][140][141] An Arab News article reported that Saudi Arabian businesses were unhappy with shorter working hours during Ramadan, some reporting a decline in productivity of 35–50%.[142] The Saudi businesses proposed awarding salary bonuses in order to incentivize longer hours.[143] Despite the reduction in productivity, merchants can enjoy higher profit margins in Ramadan due to increase in demand.[144]

Some countries impose modified work schedules. In the UAE, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain and Kuwait, employees may work no more than six hours per day and thirty-six hours per week.[145]

Health effects

[edit]

There are various health effects of fasting in Ramadan. Ramadan fasting is considered safe for healthy individuals; it may pose risks for individuals with certain pre-existing conditions. Most Islamic scholars hold that fasting is not required for those who are ill. Additionally, the elderly and pre-pubertal children are exempt from fasting.[146] Pregnant or lactating women are also exempt from fasting during Ramadan.[147] There are known health risks involved in pregnant women who fast, which include the potential of induced labour and gestational diabetes.[148][149][150]

There are some health benefits of fasting in Ramadan including increasing insulin sensitivity and reducing insulin resistance.[151] It has also been shown that there is a significant improvement in 10 years coronary heart disease risk score and other cardiovascular risk factors such as lipids profile, systolic blood pressure, weight, BMI and waist circumference in subjects with a previous history of cardiovascular disease.[152] The fasting period is usually associated with modest weight loss, but weight can return afterwards.[153]

In many cultures, it is associated with heavy food and water intake during Suhur and Iftar times, which may do more harm than good.[154] Ramadan fasting is safe for healthy people provided that overall food and water intake is adequate but those with medical conditions should seek medical advice if they encounter health problems before or during fasting.[155]

The education departments of Berlin and the United Kingdom have tried to discourage students from fasting during Ramadan, as they claim that not eating or drinking can lead to concentration problems and bad grades.[156][157]

A review of the literature by an Iranian group suggested fasting during Ramadan might produce renal injury in patients with moderate (GFR <60 ml/min) or severe kidney disease but was not injurious to renal transplant patients with good function or most stone-forming patients.[158]

A study on 55 professional Algerian soccer players showed that performance during Ramadan declined significantly for speed, agility, dribbling speed and endurance, and most stayed low 2 weeks after the conclusion of Ramadan.[159]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ramadan

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Ramadan is the ninth month of the Hijri calendar, the lunar system followed by Muslims, which comprises approximately 354 days and causes Ramadan to shift backward through the solar year by about 10–11 days annually.
Observant adult Muslims of sound mind are obligated to fast each day from dawn (fajr) until sunset (maghrib), refraining from food, drink, smoking, and sexual intercourse, as commanded in the Quran to foster righteousness and self-restraint.
This month commemorates the initial revelation of the Quran to Muhammad in 610 CE near Mecca, emphasizing spiritual discipline, empathy for the needy, and devotion through intensified prayer, Quran recitation, and charity such as zakat al-fitr.
Exemptions from fasting apply to those who are ill, traveling, elderly, pregnant, breastfeeding, or menstruating, with requirements to make up missed days or provide fidya (expiation feeding) in cases of permanent inability.
The fast begins with suhoor (pre-dawn meal) and breaks with iftar (evening meal, often starting with dates and water), accompanied by special tarawih congregational prayers; the period peaks with Laylat al-Qadr, believed to be the Quran's revelation night, and concludes with Eid al-Fitr celebrating communal feasting after the final fast.
A defining characteristic is the reliance on physical crescent moon sighting to determine start and end dates, which—despite astronomical predictability—often results in discrepancies and disputes among global Muslim populations due to local verification practices versus global calculation proposals.

Etymology

Linguistic Origins and Interpretations

The term Ramadan (Arabic: رَمَضَان) originates from the triconsonantal root r-m-ḍ (ر-م-ض), denoting intense , dryness, or burning. This root underlies the Classical verb ramiḍa (رَمِضَ), which means "to become scorched" or "to burn intensely," evoking the parching effect of extreme aridity on the earth or ground. In pre-Islamic , where months retained fixed seasonal associations under an earlier , Ramadan designated a period of scorching summer , reflecting environmental conditions in the rather than any ritual significance. Linguistically, the word's form as a (maṣdar) from ramiḍa aligns with patterns for naming temporal units after dominant qualities, such as ar-ramaḍ (الرَّمَض), directly signifying "intense scorching." This etymology predates , as the pre-Islamic employed a 12-month with intercalation to align with solar seasons, positioning Ramadan—the ninth month—in the hottest period before the Hijri calendar's adoption in 622 CE decoupled it from fixed seasons. Post-Hijra, the month's variable timing decoupled the name from literal heat, yet the root's connotation persisted in poetic and descriptive usage. Within Islamic tradition, later interpretive layers extended the root's imagery metaphorically. Some exegetes, drawing on the burning motif, proposed that Ramadan symbolizes the incineration of sins through fasting and devotion, as the discipline of abstinence "burns away" spiritual impurities akin to fire consuming dry tinder. Certain hadith compilations advise prefacing "month of" (shahr) before Ramadan in speech, interpreting the term itself as potentially one of God's attributes, though this reflects devotional etiquette rather than altering the core linguistic derivation. These symbolic readings, while influential in piety-focused literature, remain secondary to the empirical root meaning grounded in pre-Islamic climatological observation.

Theological Foundations

Quranic Revelations and Obligations

The obligation of fasting during Ramadan is established in the through Al-Baqarah, verses 183–187, which were revealed in the early n period following the Prophet Muhammad's migration to in 622 CE. These verses prescribe as a duty upon believers, mirroring practices ordained for previous communities, with the explicit aim of fostering taqwa, or consciousness of . Verse 183 states: "O you who have believed, decreed upon you is as it was decreed upon those before you that you may become righteous." Verse 185 identifies Ramadan specifically as the month of , noting its significance as the time when the was first revealed: "The month of Ramadhan [is that] in which was revealed the Qur'an, a guidance for the people and clear proofs of guidance and criterion." is mandated for able-bodied adult who witness the month, from dawn until sunset, abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations. Exemptions apply to the ill or travelers, who must make up an equivalent number of days later; those unable to fast due to chronic conditions may instead provide a of feeding one poor person per missed day. The verses emphasize Allah's intent for ease rather than hardship, requiring completion of the fast's term while allowing compensatory measures. Additional provisions include the permissibility of marital relations at night during the fast, with spouses described as mutual "clothing" for comfort, and a directive to consume sustenance until the distinction between dawn's white thread and night's black thread becomes clear. Intention (niyyah) for fasting must precede the dawn, underscoring its spiritual discipline over mere ritual. These revelations, comprising the Quran's sole direct mandate for Ramadan fasting, integrate physical restraint with devotional focus on the scripture's revelation, without reliance on later interpretive traditions for core obligations.

Prophetic Traditions and Early Mandates

The fasting of Ramadan was formally mandated in the second year after the Hijra (624 CE), when the Prophet Muhammad led the Muslim community in in its initial observance, marking the first collective practice of the full-month fast following the revelation's implementation. Prior to this specific prescription, the Prophet had instituted voluntary fasting on the day of (the 10th of ) and on three days of each lunar month, practices that preceded the Ramadan obligation and served as preparatory disciplines for the community. These early mandates emphasized and , with the Prophet stating that fasting without proper resolve—seeking reward from —would not yield forgiveness of prior sins. Prophetic traditions, preserved in collections such as and , outline the practices that shaped early Ramadan observance. The Prophet instructed believers to consume suhoor (the pre-dawn meal), affirming, "Eat suhoor, for in suhoor there is blessing," to sustain the fast's physical and spiritual demands. He mandated breaking the fast immediately at sunset with fresh dates if available, or dry dates, or water otherwise, to hasten and avoid undue hardship, as reported by companions like . Continuous fasting without breaks (saum wisal) was practiced by the Prophet in Ramadan's early days but discouraged for the community due to health risks, with him stating it was not obligatory except what had imposed. Additional traditions include enhanced night worship, with the Prophet leading taraweeh prayers—extended supererogatory rakats—in the mosque, initially praying them himself before instructing companions to continue collectively, as narrated by Aisha, who noted he performed 11 rakats nightly during and outside Ramadan. Recitation of the Quran intensified, as the angel Jibril reviewed its verses annually with the Prophet during Ramadan, doubling the effort in his final year. He described Ramadan's entry as opening heaven's gates, closing hell's, and chaining devils, heightening spiritual opportunities like Laylat al-Qadr, urging search for it in the last ten nights' odds. These practices, rooted in the Prophet's example, established mandates for moderation, communal prayer, and devotion, influencing subsequent Islamic jurisprudence while prioritizing verifiable intent over ritual excess.

Historical Evolution

Pre-Islamic Antecedents and Establishment

Prior to the advent of Islam, the Arabian Peninsula featured sporadic fasting practices among its tribes, often tied to expiation, seasonal abstinence, or avoidance of misfortune, rather than a systematic month-long observance. Pre-Islamic Arabs fasted on specific days, such as the tenth of Muharram (known as Ashura), which was believed to atone for sins and prevent calamities like drought. These customs coexisted with the pre-existing lunar calendar, in which Ramadan was already recognized as one of the twelve months, named for the scorching heat of the season (from the Arabic root ramida, meaning "to burn"). Intermittent abstinences from food or certain activities occurred among pagan tribes, potentially influenced by neighboring communities including Jews, Christians, and Mesopotamian groups like the Sabians, who practiced lunar-timed fasts honoring deities such as the moon god Sin, though direct causal links to Arabian Ramadan-specific fasting remain speculative and unverified by primary archaeological evidence. Muhammad himself observed voluntary fasts before the formal prescription of Ramadan, including the day of Ashura—adopted from Medinan Jewish practices—and three days each month (Mondays and Thursdays), alongside abstaining from food and drink during parts of the day. These pre-obligatory habits aligned with broader Semitic traditions of periodic self-denial for spiritual or communal purposes, but lacked the comprehensive dawn-to-sunset prohibition across an entire lunar month. The month of Ramadan gained theological prominence retrospectively, as the initial Quranic revelation to Muhammad occurred during it in 610 CE, in the Cave of Hira near Mecca, marking the commencement of prophetic mission though not yet instituting fasting. The establishment of obligatory Ramadan fasting followed the Hijra migration to in 622 CE. In the month of , 2 AH (February-March 624 CE), verses from Surah Al-Baqarah ( 2:183-187) were revealed, mandating fasting for capable adult from dawn (Fajr) until sunset (Maghrib) throughout the month, emulating prescriptions for prior Abrahamic communities to foster righteousness (). This inaugural observance occurred amid the Medinan community's consolidation post-Hijra, initially allowing pre-dawn meals (suhoor) and immediate breaking at sunset with dates or water, with exemptions for the ill, travelers, pregnant, or menstruating. The practice superseded earlier voluntary fasts like , rendering the latter optional, and integrated exemptions via fidya (feeding the poor) or qada (make-up days) for missed obligations, solidifying Ramadan as the ninth pillar of Islamic discipline.

Developments in Islamic Eras

During the (632–661 CE), Ramadan observance emphasized adherence to the Prophet Muhammad's practices, with fasting and night prayers conducted primarily in homes or small groups to avoid innovation. Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644 CE) instituted congregational prayers in 14 AH (635 CE), gathering Muslims behind a single —such as —to recite the over multiple nights, thereby standardizing the practice across the community and describing it as a beneficial revival of rather than a new invention. This shift promoted collective worship in mosques, completing one khatm (full Quran recitation) per person through extended rak'ahs, typically 8 to 20 depending on later interpretations. Under the (661–750 CE), territorial expansion to regions like Persia and integrated diverse populations, leading to formalized communal elements while preserving core mandates. Caliph (r. 705–715 CE) initiated state-sponsored food distribution to mosques for breaking the fast, marking an early governmental role in supporting for the broader and enhancing social cohesion amid conquests. These developments reflected pragmatic adaptations to urban growth in , where larger congregations necessitated organized logistics, though primary emphasis remained on individual and Quranic without significant doctrinal alterations. The (750–1258 CE), centered in , coincided with intellectual flourishing that deepened theological engagement with Ramadan, including juristic refinements on exemptions and intentions via compilations. Public kitchens were established to provide meals to the indigent, exemplifying institutionalized charity ( precursors) and reflecting the era's emphasis on social welfare amid prosperity from trade routes. Rituals incorporated greater Quranic exegesis in sermons, influenced by scholars like al-Bukhari, fostering a culture of reflection that aligned with the month's revelatory origins, though practices stayed rooted in Medinan precedents rather than novel impositions. In subsequent eras, such as the (1299–1922 CE), Ramadan evolved with elaborate public customs blending devotion and festivity. Drummers (davulcular) patrolled streets before dawn to signal suhoor, a tradition persisting from the to ensure communal adherence. illuminations called mahya displayed illuminated Quranic verses or poetry, unique to Ottoman aesthetics and visible across , while cannons fired at sunset to announce , aiding precise timing in expansive cities. Charity practices intensified, including "hanging bread" distributions for travelers and the poor, underscoring causal links between imperial wealth and amplified almsgiving without altering fasting's obligatory nature. These accretions arose from administrative centralization and cultural synthesis with Byzantine influences, yet core disciplines—dawn-to-dusk abstinence, , and Laylat al-Qadr vigils—remained unchanged, as verified by Ottoman chronicles prioritizing prophetic emulation over innovation.

Calendar and Key Dates

Lunar Cycle and Annual Variation

Ramadan occurs as the ninth month in the Hijri calendar, a purely lunar system where each month commences with the visual confirmation of the new crescent moon, known as the hilal. Lunar months alternate between 29 and 30 days, reflecting the moon's synodic period of approximately 29.53 days, as physical observation determines the exact length rather than fixed arithmetic. This empirical method, rooted in prophetic instructions, allows for local variations in start dates, with many Muslim communities relying on sightings reported from authoritative locations like , though discrepancies arise between regions using naked-eye observation and those employing astronomical predictions. The Hijri year consists of 12 such months, yielding 354 or 355 days, which is 10 to 11 days shorter than the average Gregorian solar year of 365.2425 days. As a result, Ramadan regresses through the solar calendar by about 10–12 days annually, causing it to traverse all seasons over time. This annual shift stems from the absence of intercalary months, unlike pre-Islamic Arabian practices, ensuring the calendar remains tied strictly to lunar phases without solar alignment. Over approximately 33 solar years, Ramadan completes a full seasonal cycle, returning to the same Gregorian position, as the cumulative drift equates to one solar year (365/11 ≈ 33.18). In equatorial and northern latitudes, this means during summer's extended daylight—up to 18 hours in high latitudes—contrasts with winter's brevity, impacting physical demands like risk in heat versus ease in cooler, shorter days. observers experience inverted seasonal effects, with Ramadan summers aligning to their winters. Such variations underscore the calendar's design to periodically distribute burdens across environmental conditions, though modern global travel and work prompt debates on unified commencement criteria.

Commencement and Conclusion Rituals

Ramadan commences upon the confirmed sighting of the new crescent moon, known as the hilal, marking the beginning of the . This determination follows the prophetic instruction: "Observe fast on the sighting of the moon and break it on the sighting of the moon; if clouds prevent sighting it, complete the number of days of to thirty." Local moon-sighting committees, often comprising religious scholars and astronomers, verify testimonies from witnesses who must be adult of sound mind and character. If the hilal is not sighted after sunset on the 29th day of Sha'ban, Ramadan begins after completing 30 days of the preceding month. Upon confirmation, mosques announce the start through calls to prayer and public declarations, signaling the onset of obligatory fasting from dawn (Fajr) the following day. Communities may engage in preliminary gatherings or increased supplications in anticipation, though the core ritual centers on visual confirmation rather than astronomical prediction alone, as emphasized in Islamic jurisprudence prioritizing empirical sighting. Variations occur regionally; some nations follow Saudi Arabian sightings for unity, while others prioritize local observations to account for geographical differences in visibility. The conclusion of Ramadan similarly hinges on sighting the Shawwal hilal after the 29th or 30th fast. If sighted, fasting ceases at sunset on that day, transitioning to the non-fasting month of ; absent sighting due to clouds or invisibility, the 30th day concludes the obligation. This mirrors the commencement process, with committees collecting and authenticating eyewitness accounts post-sunset. The final on the last day of fasting often involves communal meals, but the ritual emphasis remains on moon confirmation to empirically delineate the sacred period's end, ensuring adherence to lunar cycles as prescribed. Discrepancies in global sightings can lead to differing end dates, reflecting decentralized authority in Islamic practice.

Laylat al-Qadr and Eid al-Fitr

Laylat al-Qadr, known as the Night of Decree or , is observed during the last ten nights of Ramadan and commemorates the initial revelation of the to the Prophet Muhammad by the angel . The describes it in Surah Al-Qadr: "Indeed, We sent the down during the Night of Decree. And what can make you know what is the Night of Decree? The Night of Decree is better than a thousand months. The angels and the Spirit descend therein by permission of their Lord for every matter. Peace it is until the emergence of dawn." This surah emphasizes its unparalleled spiritual merit, equating one night of devotion to over 83 years of worship. Muslims seek Laylat al-Qadr particularly in the odd-numbered nights of the last ten days—21st, 23rd, 25th, 27th, or 29th—with the 27th night traditionally regarded as most probable based on prophetic guidance. The Prophet Muhammad instructed: "Search for the Night of Qadr in the last ten nights of Ramadan, on the night when nine or seven or five nights remain out of the last ten of Ramadan." Practices intensify during these nights, including extended night prayers (), Quran recitation, supplication (), and seclusion in mosques (i'tikaf) to maximize forgiveness and divine mercy. Authentic affirm that performing worship on this night out of faith erases prior sins, underscoring its role as a pivotal opportunity for spiritual renewal within Ramadan. Eid al-Fitr, the Festival of Breaking the Fast, concludes Ramadan and begins on the first day of Shawwal, confirmed by the sighting of the new crescent moon. It signifies gratitude to Allah for the strength to complete the fast and emphasizes communal joy, charity, and renewal. Key practices include paying Zakat al-Fitr—a mandatory alms of food or equivalent value, approximately 3-5 kg of staple grains per person—distributed to the needy before the Eid prayer to ensure all can partake in the celebration. The day commences with a special congregational prayer (Salat al-Eid) performed in open spaces or mosques shortly after sunrise, consisting of two units with additional takbirs (declarations of "Allahu Akbar"). Families then feast on sweets, meats, and traditional dishes, exchange visits, and give gifts, particularly to children, fostering social bonds and reflection on Ramadan's lessons. Observance spans one to three days, varying by region, but universally prohibits fasting on Eid day itself. This festival reinforces Ramadan's culminative themes of discipline and generosity, transitioning believers back to normal routines with heightened piety.

Religious Practices

Fasting Discipline

requires adult of sound mind and physical capability to abstain from food, drink, , and from the break of dawn (Fajr) until sunset (Maghrib), as this discipline fosters self-restraint and consciousness of God (). The obligation is established in the , which prescribes for believers as it was for previous communities, for a fixed number of days unless illness or travel intervenes, with compensatory or charity as alternatives. Intention (niyyah) is a prerequisite, formed in the heart by resolving to fast specifically for Ramadan's before Fajr each night; verbal articulation is not required but mental suffices to distinguish obligatory from voluntary acts. Prohibited actions include deliberate of or , which invalidate the fast, as well as intentional emission of semen through or other means, though unintentional emissions like wet dreams do not. Accidental consumption, such as forgetting one is , does not nullify it, and the faster should continue upon remembrance. Exemptions apply to the ill, travelers (for journeys of about 80 km or more), menstruating or postpartum women, pregnant or mothers if fasting risks harm to themselves or the child, and the elderly or chronically ill unable to fast, who may instead provide fidya (feeding one poor person per missed day). Exempted individuals must make up missed fasts (qada') later when able, except where permanent incapacity precludes it. Intentional breaking without valid excuse incurs qada' makeup, with sexual intercourse requiring kaffarah: freeing a slave (if possible), otherwise two consecutive months, or feeding 60 poor persons if unable to fast continuously. Such violations undermine the fast's purpose of disciplined obedience, as emphasized in prophetic traditions warning against deliberate nullification during daylight hours.

Supplemental Prayers and Recitation

Tarawih prayers, voluntary night prayers specific to Ramadan, are performed in congregation after the obligatory Isha prayer and consist of multiple rak'ahs followed by Witr. Authentic hadith report that the Prophet Muhammad performed eight rak'ahs of Tarawih for several nights in Ramadan, then ceased leading them publicly to prevent the prayer from becoming obligatory upon the ummah, encouraging individual performance thereafter. The second caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab later revived the congregational form with twenty rak'ahs, a practice adopted by subsequent generations and endorsed by major Sunni schools including Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. This discrepancy in rak'ah count—eight versus twenty—stems from differing interpretations of prophetic tradition versus companion practice, with scholars of hadith often favoring the Prophet's eleven total rak'ahs (eight Tarawih plus three Witr) as the baseline. In many mosques, includes Quranic by the , often covering one (approximately 1/30th of the ) per night to facilitate communal completion of the full text by Ramadan's end, known as Khatm al-. This tradition draws from early Muslim practices where Ramadan intensified focus on Quranic engagement, with companions like Ibn Mas'ud and others dedicating nights to its study and reflection. Individual Muslims are encouraged to complete personal recitations of the entire during the month, aligning with promising multiplied rewards for reading in Ramadan, such as tenfold merit per letter recited. Beyond , supplemental devotions include (Qiyam al-Layl), voluntary pre-dawn prayers emphasized in Ramadan for spiritual elevation, performed in odd-numbered rak'ahs up to thirteen total as per prophetic . prayer, typically concluding night worship, remains obligatory in Hanafi but sunnah mu'akkadah elsewhere, often integrated after Tarawih with specific supplications invoking protection. These practices, rooted in Quranic injunctions to "establish prayer at the two ends of the night and in some hours of the day" ( 11:114), underscore Ramadan's emphasis on extended worship without mandating excess beyond prophetic example.

Charitable Imperatives

![Zakat donation box at a mosque during Ramadan][float-right] Zakat al-Fitr, an obligatory form of almsgiving, must be paid by every capable Muslim for themselves and their dependents before the Eid al-Fitr prayer at the conclusion of Ramadan. This charity, instituted by the Prophet Muhammad, equates to one saa'—approximately 2.5 to 3 kilograms—of staple food such as wheat, rice, or dates, or its monetary equivalent based on local prices, ensuring the poor can partake in the Eid festivities. It serves to expiate any trivial sins from fasting and purifies the faster's wealth, with recipients limited to the eight categories outlined in Quran 9:60, including the destitute and those in debt. Payment is due after sunset on the last day of Ramadan or up to two days prior, though delaying beyond Eid invalidates the obligation for communal celebration purposes. Beyond this mandatory , voluntary —non-obligatory charity—is strongly encouraged throughout Ramadan due to the belief that , including almsgiving, receive multiplied rewards during the month. A attributed to the states that the best charity is given in Ramadan, underscoring its spiritual amplification as the Quran's commenced then, opening gates of mercy and good. Forms include feeding the , providing meals, or monetary aid to orphans and widows, with emphasis on direct aid to the needy to foster amid personal from food and drink. This practice aligns with broader Islamic imperatives on charity as a pillar, but Ramadan's intensity heightens communal giving, often through mosques or organizations distributing to the underprivileged. ![Ramadan charity aiding the poor][center] Empirical observations note spikes in donations during Ramadan, with organizations reporting increased inflows for alleviation, though critiques highlight potential inefficiencies in distribution amid varying global need assessments. predominates in detailing these imperatives, deriving from prophetic rather than explicit Quranic mandates tied solely to the month, prioritizing verifiable need over symbolic gestures.

Cultural Manifestations

Regional Customs and Festivities

In , streets and homes are adorned with colorful lanterns known as fanoos, which symbolize light and joy during the holy month, a tradition dating back centuries and evoking tales from the era of the . These decorations illuminate Cairo's historic districts, where communal meals feature dishes like (sweet stuffed pancakes) and konafa, shared in bustling night markets. In , Ramadan emphasizes elaborate gatherings with seasonal soups such as made from lentils, chickpeas, and lamb, followed by visits to souks for dates and pastries, fostering community bonds amid extended evening prayers. Across the Levant, including and , the midfa al-iftar custom involves firing cannons at sunset to signal the breaking of the fast, a practice originating in the Ottoman era when visual signals from minarets were unreliable due to smoke from cooking fires. In , families construct mheibes—temporary tents from palm fronds—for evening storytelling sessions that recount Islamic history and folklore, enhancing spiritual reflection. maintains the davulcu tradition, where drummers roam neighborhoods before dawn to awaken residents for suhoor, often receiving tips or sweets in return, a custom rooted in pre-modern timekeeping methods. In , particularly and , iftar includes specialized snacks like pakoras, samosas, and fruit chaat, with markets swelling in the days leading to under the (Night of the Moon) festivities involving application and shopping. Sirens or announcements may signal suhoor in urban areas, adapting older traditions to modern infrastructure. Southeast Asian observances in feature padusan, a pre-Ramadan with floral waters for spiritual cleansing, and nyekar grave visits for prayers, while in , bazaar Ramadan stalls offer rendang curry and kuih sweets amid lantern displays. In , such as , iftar highlights local staples like jollof rice and pounded yam, with communal feasts underscoring regional agricultural rhythms, while in Somalia, a regional linguistic variation includes the greeting Ramadan mubarak dhamaan ehel iyo asxaab idin le yahay, translating to "Blessed Ramadan to all my family and friends." These variations, while enriching the month, remain secondary to the universal emphases on fasting, prayer, and charity, with local practices often blending pre-Islamic elements adapted to Islamic observance.

Media Influence and Modern Adaptations

Television series produced specifically for Ramadan have become a staple in the Arab world, with major broadcasters in countries like Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE airing dozens of dramas that draw peak audiences during iftar and taraweeh prayer times, often exceeding 20 million viewers per episode in regional markets. These series frequently address social issues such as gender roles, religious interpretations, and family dynamics, sparking public debates and occasionally provoking backlash from religious authorities or governments over perceived moral lapses or political undertones, as seen in the 2023 controversies surrounding shows critiqued for challenging traditional norms. Social media platforms amplify Ramadan's visibility, with usage surging by 30-40% during the month, particularly between and suhoor, enabling users to share greetings, recipes, and spiritual content while fostering global connections among Muslim communities. Influencers in the intensify activity, promoting gatherings and charitable drives, though critics argue this contributes to commercializing the holiday by prioritizing luxury displays and over , potentially diluting its spiritual emphasis amid rising spends that target heightened spending on and gifts. Digital tools represent modern adaptations, including mobile applications that calculate prayer times, track , and provide recitation audio, used by millions to maintain practices amid and life. Streaming services adjust schedules for late-night viewing, while platforms facilitate virtual da'wah and blended traditions through shared videos of regional customs, though excessive risks undermining the discipline of reduced worldly engagement central to the fast. via these channels homogenizes some observances, exporting Middle Eastern aesthetics to non-Arab contexts, as evidenced by cross-cultural recipe exchanges on and .

Observance Adaptations

Challenges in Polar and Extreme Latitudes

In regions above the Arctic Circle, approximately 66.5°N latitude, the midnight sun phenomenon during boreal summer—when the sun remains visible for 24 hours—poses significant challenges to Ramadan fasting, which traditionally requires abstinence from dawn (Fajr) to sunset (Maghrib). This continuous daylight eliminates natural markers for breaking the fast, potentially extending fasting periods to 20-23 hours if based on local astronomical twilight, as seen in places like Tromsø, Norway, or Utqiaġvik (formerly Barrow), Alaska, during peak summer Ramadans. In Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada, where Ramadan coincided with over 20 hours of sunlight in 2016, practitioners reported physical exhaustion from prolonged deprivation of food and water under such conditions. Conversely, during in winter—when the sun does not rise for months—determining the start of the fast becomes problematic, as there is no observable dawn. Although Ramadan's shifts annually, avoiding perpetual overlap with extreme seasons, instances occur; for example, Muslims in northern have faced near-continuous darkness during winter Ramadans, complicating Fajr timing. These disruptions extend to supplemental practices like prayers, which rely on nightfall, leading to adaptations such as performing them at estimated intervals. Islamic scholars have issued varied fatwas to address these issues, lacking consensus due to differing interpretations of Quranic injunctions emphasizing ease (e.g., 2:185). Common methods include following the schedule of , reducing effective fasts to about 12-14 hours regardless of local conditions, as practiced by Alaskan Muslims in 2022. Others recommend the nearest latitude below 45-48°N with a standard day-night cycle, such as for northern Scandinavians or for Arctic Canadians, to approximate 14-18 hour fasts. The Council of cautions against 23-hour fasts, arguing they impose undue hardship unsupported by primary sources, while some European fatwas for latitudes above 45°N endorse twilight-based estimates only if sustainable. These adaptations highlight tensions between literal adherence to solar cues and practical equity, with smaller Muslim populations (e.g., ~1,000 in Norway's ) relying on community consensus or travel to lower latitudes for observance. Health risks from extended fasting, including and in cold climates, amplify challenges, prompting some to prioritize shorter, Mecca-aligned schedules to maintain productivity and well-being. Similar issues arise in research stations with transient Muslim personnel, though fewer documented cases exist due to smaller numbers.

Implications for Employment and Space Travel

Observance of Ramadan fasting can reduce productivity among Muslim employees, with empirical studies documenting declines of 20-40% in sectors like during peak fasting periods, attributed to physiological effects such as and . In Muslim-majority economies, longer daylight fasting hours correlate with slower GDP growth, as fasting intensity—measured by additional fasting minutes—negatively impacts output through diminished labor effort. Shorter working hours, often reduced by 2-4 hours daily in countries like and , further contribute to overall drops of 35-50%, compounded by behavioral shifts toward evening activities. Safety risks elevate during Ramadan, particularly in high-hazard occupations. Traffic accident probabilities rise by approximately 25% for fasting drivers, linked to impaired cognitive function and slower reaction times from caloric restriction and sleep disruption. Road injuries and crashes increase significantly, with daily accident rates up due to factors like hunger-induced distraction and fatigue, as observed in analyses from regions with mandatory daytime fasting. In construction and night-shift roles, accident likelihood grows from reduced focus and physical stamina, prompting calls for heightened monitoring and adjusted schedules to mitigate dehydration-related errors. One study notes a countervailing 4% reduction in workplace injuries among Muslim workers, possibly from decreased exposure via shorter hours, though this does not offset broader accident upticks in transportation. Employers in diverse settings often provide accommodations to balance religious observance with operational needs, such as flexible start times, shortened lunches, or private prayer areas, without imposing undue hardship. In secular jurisdictions like the , requests for breaks at sunset or time off for must be evaluated via interactive processes, prioritizing essential functions over blanket exemptions. Muslim-majority states typically enforce reduced hours by law, but productivity losses persist, highlighting tensions between religious imperatives and economic efficiency. For space travel, Ramadan presents logistical and physiological challenges for Muslim astronauts, as orbital paths produce 16 sunrises and sunsets daily aboard the , rendering location-based dawn-to-dusk impractical. Islamic authorities, including Malaysia's National Council, permit deferral of until return or alignment with 's , prioritizing mission over strict adherence. UAE , during his 2023 Ramadan mission, observed based on UAE local times for and suhoor, adapting prayers toward via onboard indicators. Microgravity amplifies risks like fluid imbalance and , but no verified incidents of mission compromise have occurred; guidelines emphasize hydration monitoring and exemption if demands, reflecting causal priorities of over ritual in extreme environments.

Health Consequences

Documented Physiological Benefits

Ramadan fasting, involving daily abstinence from food and drink from dawn to sunset for approximately 29-30 days, has been examined in numerous clinical studies for its physiological effects, often comparable to time-restricted protocols. indicates benefits primarily in metabolic and domains, though outcomes vary by individual factors such as baseline , fasting duration, and post-fast behaviors. A of 95 studies on , including Ramadan variants, reported significant reductions in body weight (mean 3-8%) and fat mass (4-15%) across participants, attributed to caloric restriction and enhanced fat oxidation during fasting windows. Improvements in insulin sensitivity represent a key documented benefit, with a randomized controlled trial demonstrating enhanced insulin response and reduced insulin resistance indices post-Ramadan in healthy adults, linked to prolonged fasting-induced shifts in glucose homeostasis and decreased hepatic glucose output. Similarly, meta-analyses confirm modest reductions in fasting blood glucose levels (effect size -0.15 to -0.35 mmol/L) without significant changes in insulin concentrations, suggesting better glycemic control through adaptive metabolic flexibility rather than absolute caloric deficit alone. Cardiovascular markers also show favorable alterations, including elevated (HDL) cholesterol (mean increase 0.1-0.2 mmol/L) and lowered systolic (3-5 mmHg reduction in observational cohorts), as evidenced in longitudinal studies tracking pre- and post-Ramadan . These changes correlate with decreased inflammatory biomarkers like , potentially mitigating risks for , though long-term persistence requires sustained lifestyle adherence beyond the period. Additional findings include enhanced liver function, with reduced levels in individuals, indicative of alleviated hepatic stress, and preliminary evidence of effects that may lower chronic disease risks, such as , via modulated metabolic pathways. However, benefits are not universal; meta-regressions highlight that scales with fasting hours (e.g., >12 hours daily yielding greater effects), and gains may reverse without compensatory dietary changes. Overall, these physiological adaptations stem from circadian-aligned nutrient timing and promotion, but rigorous randomized trials emphasize individual variability over generalized claims.

Identified Risks and Empirical Critiques

Empirical studies have documented physiological risks associated with Ramadan , including and imbalances due to prolonged abstinence from fluids in daylight hours, particularly in hot climates or among laborers. and hyperosmolar states pose heightened dangers for individuals with or metabolic disorders, with case reports and observational indicating increased emergency visits for such complications during fasting periods. Epidemiological evidence links Ramadan observance to elevated rates of accidents and injuries, attributed to , reduced cognitive function, and altered sleep patterns from nocturnal eating. A of trauma data found a 24% higher odds of fatal accidents during Ramadan compared to non-fasting months (OR = 1.24, 95% CI: not specified in aggregate but derived from pooled studies), while another analysis reported statistically significant increases in daily accidents (p = 0.040) and injuries (p = 0.001). Acute myocardial infarction-related mortality has also shown an adjusted of approximately 2.2 during Ramadan versus pre-Ramadan periods, potentially due to circadian disruptions and exacerbating cardiac strain. Critiques of Ramadan fasting's health impacts highlight that observed weight reductions (typically 0.8-1.4 kg) are often short-term and confounded by caloric restriction and decreased physical activity rather than fasting mechanisms alone, with frequent post-Ramadan rebound gains negating benefits. Systematic reviews note insufficient evidence linking fasting to reduced cardiovascular events in at-risk populations like diabetics, and benefits may be overstated in studies from observant communities where non-compliance or selective reporting occurs. For vulnerable groups—such as pregnant women, the elderly, or those with gastrointestinal issues—fasting contravenes medical guidelines due to risks of nutrient deficiencies and disease exacerbation, underscoring causal limitations in promoting it universally despite cultural imperatives.

Socio-Economic Ramifications

Productivity and Growth Impacts

Empirical studies document a decline in worker during Ramadan fasting, attributed to physiological effects such as , reduced caloric intake, and disrupted patterns from late-night meals and early predawn eating. In sectors like , overlap between Ramadan and labor-intensive periods correlates with productivity drops of 20-40% and a 1% reduction in agricultural GDP contribution in affected regions. Cognitive performance, particularly sustained attention and psychomotor vigilance, deteriorates in the afternoon hours post-noon, when fasting duration peaks, though morning performance may remain stable or slightly improved in some tasks. These micro-level effects aggregate to macroeconomic impacts, with from Muslim-majority countries showing that longer average daylight fasting hours during Ramadan—varying annually due to the lunar Hijri calendar—reduce contemporaneous GDP growth. Specifically, an additional hour of prescribed per day is associated with a 0.15 annual decline in GDP growth, compounding over decades as the shifts. This causality stems from reduced labor supply and output per worker, evident in employment slowdowns and sector-specific contractions, rather than demand-side factors alone. Effects are more pronounced in warmer months when fasts exceed 12-14 hours, exacerbating fatigue in manual and outdoor labor. Countervailing observations include fewer workplace injuries among fasting Muslim workers, down 4% on average, possibly from heightened caution or reduced exposure to hazards amid shorter effective work hours. However, no robust evidence supports net productivity gains; reviews of fasting's workplace effects consistently highlight net negatives on performance metrics, with adaptations like shortened workdays mitigating but not eliminating losses. Long-term growth trajectories in Muslim economies show persistent drags from recurrent Ramadan cycles, though post-fasting recovery and Eid consumption provide temporary offsets without reversing the annual dip.

Consumption Shifts and Charitable Flows

During Ramadan, daytime consumption of and beverages declines sharply due to the prohibition on , , and from dawn to sunset, leading to altered daily patterns across Muslim-majority populations. Evening meals, marking the breaking of the fast, often feature heavy consumption of dates, traditional dishes, and sweets, resulting in food bills increasing by 50-100% for many households compared to non-Ramadan periods. Approximately 83% of families report shifting their food habits, with surges in demand for staples like dates and reduced intake of items such as caffeinated drinks and . In the UAE, residents increased food and beverage spending by 57% during Ramadan 2025, reflecting heightened evening retail activity. Similarly, in , consumer spending jumped 34.7% to SR17.5 billion ($4.6 billion) in the week before Ramadan 2025, driven largely by preparations for and suhoor (pre-dawn meals). Night-time transactions, particularly between 10 p.m. and 4 a.m., more than double in countries like and , as social and commercial activity shifts post-iftar. In , household expenditures rose by 20% during Ramadan 2024, though growth was moderated to under 10% due to prioritization of other categories. Charitable giving intensifies during Ramadan, fulfilling Islamic obligations like (2.5% of eligible wealth annually) and (voluntary alms), with —a fixed amount per person paid before to aid the needy—recommended at $10-15 in 2025 depending on regional councils. In the , 69% of Muslim report always donating during Ramadan, contributing to $1.8 billion in religious giving in 2021, with average household at $2,070. Globally, organizations like UNHCR have supported over 6 million beneficiaries through and since 2017, emphasizing aid to refugees. In , 80% of surveyed consumers gave , infaq, or similar during Ramadan 2024, often alongside increased personal expenses. These flows redistribute resources toward the poor, though empirical critiques note potential inefficiencies in some aid channels due to varying organizational transparency.

Enforcement in Muslim-Majority Contexts

In several Muslim-majority countries, state authorities enforce Ramadan fasting through prohibitions on public eating, drinking, smoking, or other visible abstinence-breaking acts during daylight hours, targeting both Muslims and non-Muslims to maintain communal piety. Violations often carry penalties including fines, imprisonment, corporal punishment like flogging, or deportation for expatriates, with religious police or morality squads conducting patrols and raids. These measures derive from interpretations of Sharia that extend private religious obligations into public spheres, though enforcement intensity varies by regime ideology and local customs. Saudi Arabia imposes some of the strictest rules, with the Commission for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice monitoring compliance; public violators face up to several months in , lashes, or both, while non-Saudis risk immediate alongside job loss. In , authorities explicitly warned of such punishments for eating or drinking openly, and similar directives persist annually. Businesses like restaurants remain shuttered during hours unless serving private meals, with closures enforced to prevent facilitation of breaches. In , judicial enforcement includes flogging and short-term imprisonment for "ostentatious non-fasting," as codified under laws against displays undermining Islamic norms; in 2017, 20 individuals received and endured 10 to 74 lashes on day for in . Authorities sealed over 100 businesses in 2024 for Ramadan violations, and police patrol streets and vehicles, though arrests in private cars require warrants per some legal interpretations. Penalties apply regardless of religious affiliation, reflecting the Islamic Republic's emphasis on enforced . Other states exhibit comparable but graduated rigor: , alongside , UAE, , , , and , criminalizes public consumption with fines or jail, often via religious policing. In Nigeria's , Hisbah forces arrested 25 Muslims in March 2025 for daytime eating or food sales during . Malaysia's raids in 2024 led to fines for over 20 individuals caught breaching fasts publicly. Conversely, like and prioritize work-hour reductions (to 5-6 hours daily) over punitive patrols, treating observance as cultural expectation rather than mandatory law, though informal social pressures persist. Enforcement disparities highlight tensions between state-imposed uniformity and exemptions for the ill, pregnant, or travelers under Islamic , yet reports indicate arbitrary applications, including against non-Muslims unaware of rules. In stricter contexts, such as and , annual campaigns intensify surveillance, correlating with higher compliance rates but also documented overreach, as critiqued by monitors for infringing personal freedoms.

Secular Accommodations and Disputes

In the United States, Title VII of the requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations for employees' religious practices, including Ramadan fasting, unless such accommodations impose an undue hardship on business operations. Common accommodations include flexible work schedules to allow earlier starts and ends for preparation, private spaces for prayer, and time off for , provided these do not disrupt essential functions. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces these obligations, emphasizing an interactive process between employer and employee to identify feasible adjustments. European countries exhibit varied approaches, with no uniform EU-wide mandate but national laws often mirroring anti-discrimination directives. In the , employers are encouraged to offer flexible hours and food options during Ramadan under the , though implementation depends on organizational policies. Some nations, such as and , permit adjusted shifts for workers in public sectors, but secular principles limit accommodations that alter core operations, like in emergency services where safety concerns may override requests. Disputes frequently arise when employers deny accommodations, leading to litigation. In a 2025 EEOC settlement, staffing firm Logic Staffing paid $217,500 after refusing to hire a Muslim applicant who requested prayer time during Ramadan, violating Title VII by failing to engage in good-faith discussions. U.S. prisons have seen challenges over Ramadan meal timings and religious items, with inmates alleging violations of the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act, as in cases denying compliant iftar meals or seizing prayer rugs. In Europe, fewer Ramadan-specific court rulings exist, but broader religious discrimination cases under the European Convention on Human Rights have upheld accommodations absent proven hardship, though French laïcité principles have sparked tensions over public fasting displays conflicting with workplace neutrality rules. These conflicts highlight causal tensions between individual religious observance and secular operational demands, with empirical data showing accommodations rarely cause undue hardship in office settings but provoke contention in high-stakes environments like or healthcare, where fatigue from raises liabilities. Critics argue mandatory flexibility can strain non-fasting colleagues, potentially fostering resentment, while proponents cite minimal productivity disruptions when proactively managed.

Controversies

Disputes Over Observance Authenticity

Disputes over the authenticity of Ramadan observance frequently center on the determination of the month's start and end dates, which hinges on the sighting of the new crescent moon (hilal). Traditional Islamic , based on a attributed to Prophet Muhammad stating "Fast when you see it [the moon] and cease when you see it, and if it is hidden or cloudy, complete the number of days," mandates physical visual confirmation by reliable witnesses. However, inconsistencies arise because atmospheric conditions, geographical horizons, and verification processes vary, leading some communities to commence or conclude on differing days despite proximity; for instance, in 2025, Middle Eastern countries diverged by one day on , sparking public frustration over fragmented unity. Proponents of astronomical calculations argue that reliance on naked-eye sightings introduces errors and potential manipulation, undermining the observance's precision and thus its spiritual , as precomputed could ensure uniformity across (Muslim community). Critics of this view, including Salafi scholars, contend that calculations bypass the Quran's emphasis on eyewitness testimony (e.g., Surah Al-Baqarah 2:189), rendering such methods (innovation) that dilutes authentic prophetic practice. Accusations of deliberate fabrication have targeted Saudi Arabia's announcements, with amateur astronomers documenting cases where claimed sightings contradicted global visibility models, allegedly to assert religious leadership and synchronize pilgrims in . Beyond calendrical issues, authenticity debates extend to the qualitative aspects of , where physical alone is deemed insufficient without accompanying moral restraint. Classical scholars like Ibn Taymiyyah emphasized that true sawm () encompasses guarding the from falsehood, the eyes from illicit gazes, and the limbs from , warning that nocturnal overindulgence or daytime arguments negate its rewards. Contemporary critiques, often from reformist voices, highlight performative piety—such as public extravagance contrasting with private lapses—as eroding genuineness, with empirical observations in urban settings noting spikes in and disputes despite the month's introspective intent. variations, like the prayer's rak'ah count (8 versus 20), further fuel sectarian tensions, as differing interpretations question adherence to the Prophet's . These rifts persist because no centralized authority enforces uniformity, allowing local customs to supplant textual fidelity in some contexts.

Sectarian and Enforcement Conflicts

Differences in Ramadan observance between Sunni and Shia , though minor in core fasting requirements, extend to timing and rituals, occasionally fostering disputes. Sunnis typically break the fast at sunset when the sun's disk has fully disappeared below the horizon, while some Shia interpretations allow breaking slightly earlier based on alternative definitions of twilight, leading to divergent times in mixed communities. Shia generally abstain from congregational taraweeh prayers, a nightly Sunni tradition involving extended recitations of the , preferring individual or smaller group worship, which has prompted mutual criticisms of authenticity in observance. Moon-sighting practices for determining Ramadan's start and end dates amplify sectarian tensions, as Sunni-majority authorities like often issue global announcements followed by many Sunnis, whereas Shia centers such as prioritize local or calculated sightings, resulting in one-day discrepancies. In regions like or with significant Sunni-Shia populations, these variances have led to parallel observances, family divisions, and accusations of (innovation) against followers of the opposing method, exacerbating communal rifts. For instance, in Jammu and Kashmir, competing sectarian committees have historically declared independent sightings amid ongoing insurgencies, fueling local controversies over unified practice. Enforcement of fasting in Muslim-majority states has sparked conflicts, particularly where public eating violates norms, leading to arrests and clashes with authorities. In the 2007 under control, morality police patrolled streets, detaining individuals for consuming food or water during daylight hours, drawing criticism for overreach in a politically volatile area. Similarly, during Ramadan 2015, executed or flogged at least 94 people, including minors, in territories under its control for alleged fast violations, enforcing compliance through terror. In Shia-majority , 2024 saw intensified police raids on businesses and individuals for non-observance, mirroring prior hijab enforcement tactics and prompting reports of arbitrary detentions. Such enforcement disproportionately affects minorities or nonconformists, with human rights groups documenting coercion in countries like Saudi Arabia and Indonesia, where non-Muslims or exempt individuals face social or legal repercussions for public non-fasting, underscoring tensions between personal autonomy and state-imposed piety. In mixed-sect contexts, like Iraq post-2003, enforcement by Sunni or Shia militias has occasionally targeted the other group during Ramadan, intertwining religious observance with broader sectarian strife. Media portrayals, such as a 2025 Ramadan TV series glorifying the Sunni caliph Muawiya, have reignited historical grievances, prompting Shia backlash and highlighting how cultural outputs can inflame divides during the holy month.

References

  1. https://ing.org/resources/for-all-groups/calendar-of-important-islamic-dates/ramadan-information-sheet/
  2. https://islamonline.net/en/ramadan-and-the-lunar-calendar/
  3. https://quran.com/2/183
  4. https://www.islamicity.org/5331/islamic-legal-rules-of-fasting/
  5. https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/how-does-ramadan-work-a-beginners-guide
  6. https://www.zakat.org/valid-exemptions-for-not-fasting-ramadan
  7. https://al-islam.org/media/exemption-fasting
  8. https://newlinesmag.com/argument/ramadan-and-eids-crescent-wars/
  9. https://muslimmatters.org/2007/09/12/understanding-the-controversies-regarding-moonsighting/
  10. https://www.etymonline.com/word/Ramadan
  11. https://fluentarabic.net/ramadan-linguistic-perspective/
  12. https://www.getquranic.com/the-meaning-of-ramadan/
  13. https://arabizi.wordpress.com/2013/07/19/scorching-hot-like-the-heat-of-the-sun-on-stone-the-etymological-origins-of-the-word-ramadan/
  14. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/ramadan
  15. https://www.islamicity.org/26617/the-true-meaning-of-ramadan/
  16. https://www.newarab.com/Comment/2016/6/19/The-origins-of-the-word-Ramadan
  17. https://www.nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/ramadan
  18. https://quran.com/en/surah/al-baqarah/info
  19. https://www.islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=2&verse=187&to=187
  20. https://ouwbmmsa.wordpress.com/2015/06/18/ramadan-in-the-quran/
  21. https://www.trtworld.com/article/12790550
  22. https://islam.stackexchange.com/questions/24777/what-was-ramadan-and-fasting-in-islam-before-the-time-of-muhammad-%25EF%25B7%25BA
  23. https://productivemuslim.com/12-super-sunnahs-for-ramadan/
  24. https://en.islamonweb.net/a-day-in-the-company-of-the-prophet-%25EF%25B7%25BA-in-ramadan
  25. https://raleighmasjid.org/rules-of-the-fasting-of-ramadaan-with-evidences/
  26. https://www.iium.edu.my/deed/hadith/muslim/006_smt.html
  27. https://gtaf.org/blog/ramadan-with-the-prophet-pbuh/
  28. https://humanappealusa.org/news/2021/04/ramadan-the-prophetic-way
  29. https://sunnah.com/ramadan
  30. https://sunnah.com/bukhari:1901
  31. https://www.historyextra.com/period/ancient-history/ramadan-history-islam-muslim-month-fasting-when-begin-moon-fast-what/
  32. https://rrimedia.org/Worldviews/Islam/History-of-Islam/ArtMID/1458/ArticleID/98/The-Pagan-Origins-of-Ramadan-Fasting
  33. https://www.scribd.com/document/267395767/Fasting-in-Pre-Islamic-Arabia
  34. https://www.muslimaid.org/media-centre/blog/the-history-of-ramadan/
  35. https://www.orphansinneed.org.uk/news/the-history-of-ramadan/
  36. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/230276
  37. https://muslimmatters.org/2024/04/01/the-origin-and-evolution-of-the-taraweeh-prayer/
  38. https://historyofislam.org/umayyad-caliphate/religious-beliefs/
  39. https://www.secondgoldenage.com/p/a-ramadan-renaissance-how-can-we
  40. https://www.pakistansweethome.org.pk/blog/islamic-months/history-of-ramadan
  41. https://www.turkiyetoday.com/culture/month-of-worship-and-entertainment-ramadan-in-ottoman-empire-135606
  42. https://www.dailysabah.com/feature/2014/07/18/everlasting-nostalgia-of-ottoman-ramadan-traditions
  43. https://www.islamic-relief.org.uk/resources/islamic-calendar/sighting-the-crescent-moon/
  44. https://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/islamic
  45. https://getquranic.com/islamic-calendar/
  46. https://hikaayat.com/remembering-ramadan-a-33-year-cycle/
  47. https://hilalcommittee.org/procedures-for-moon-sighting
  48. https://fiqhcouncil.org/moon-sighting-and-calculations/
  49. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/events/ramadan-2025-moon-sighting-time-world-wide-rules-for-fasting-during-the-sacred-month-and-who-is-exempt-from-fasting-sehri-iftari-timing/articleshow/118630124.cms
  50. https://www.almadina.org/studio/articles/an-islamic-legal-analysis-of-the-astronomical-determination-of-the-beginning-of-ramadan
  51. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/157275
  52. https://www.zakat.org/when-does-ramadan-end
  53. https://www.soundvision.com/article/have-you-seen-it-sighting-the-crescent-of-ramadan
  54. https://www.muslimpro.com/crescent-moon-sighting-and-its-significance-for-ramadan/
  55. https://raleighmasjid.org/fiqh/fasting/what-is-the-methodology-in-confirming-the-sighting-of-the-ramadan-moon/
  56. https://quran.com/al-qadr
  57. https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/why-laylatul-qadr-the-significance-virtues-of-the-most-important-night-of-the-year
  58. https://sunnah.com/bukhari/32
  59. https://irusa.org/islamic-giving/laylatul-qadr/
  60. https://pluralism.org/ramadan-and-eid-al-fitr
  61. https://humanappealusa.org/news/2017/05/what-is-eid-al-fitr
  62. https://islamic-relief.org.uk/giving/islamic-giving/ramadan/eid-al-fitr/
  63. https://muslimaid.org/media-centre/blog/the-significance-of-eid-in-islam-part-1-eid-ul-fitr/
  64. https://myislam.org/quran-verses-ramadan/
  65. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/22909
  66. https://al-islam.org/fasting-ramadhan-simple-guide-ritual-social-spiritual-dimensions-sayyid-muhammad-rizvi/things
  67. https://www.muslimpro.com/acts-that-break-your-fast-and-those-that-dont-in-islam/
  68. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/23296
  69. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/232694/what-happens-if-you-break-your-fast-on-purpose
  70. https://www.zakat.org/what-is-meant-by-kaffarah-for-violations-of-ramadan-fasts
  71. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/9036
  72. https://matwproject.org/islamic-charity/how-many-rakats-in-taraweeh/
  73. https://gtaf.org/blog/how-to-finish-quran-in-ramadan/
  74. https://en.islamonweb.net/ramadan-and-quran-time-practices-of-early-generations
  75. https://www.muslimpro.com/why-muslims-khatam-quran-ramadan/
  76. https://www.eidparty.co.uk/pages/different-prayers-during-ramadan
  77. https://islamchannel.tv/what-are-the-types-of-prayer-in-ramadan/
  78. https://riwaqalquran.com/blog/ramadan-prayer-guide-2021/
  79. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/37636
  80. https://islamic-relief.org/zakat/zakat-al-fitr/
  81. https://www.anera.org/blog/zakat-al-fitr-giving-during-ramadan/
  82. https://gtaf.org/blog/importance-of-charity-in-ramadan/
  83. https://www.transparenthands.org/the-most-important-donations-in-islam-during-ramadan/
  84. https://qurbani.haramain.com/blogs/news/ramadan-donation-significance-zakat-al-fitr-and-sadaqah
  85. https://www.zakat.org/ramadan-donation-significance-zakat-al-fitr-and-sadaqah
  86. https://islamicrelief.org.au/giving-charity-in-ramadan-zakat-sadaqah-and-more/
  87. https://islamonline.net/en/zakatul-fitr-rulings-how-to-pay-in-ramadan/
  88. https://karamfoundation.org/latest/ramadan-traditions-around-the-world/
  89. https://www.worldremit.com/en/blog/community/ramadan-traditions-around-the-world
  90. https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-us/blog/ramadan-in-egypt/
  91. https://www.memphistours.com/blog/the-hidden-magic-of-ramadan-in-morocco-local-guide
  92. https://akhuwat.org.au/ramadan-traditions-in-different-countries/
  93. https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/2025/02/24/ramadan-traditions-nyekar-haq-al-laila-mheibes/
  94. https://www.halalzilla.com/8-unique-ramadan-traditions-worldwide/21782
  95. https://islamictravel.com.au/ramadan-celebrations-around-the-world/
  96. https://www.embracerelief.org/celebrating-ramadan-globally-unique-traditions-and-unity/
  97. https://www.muslimaid.org/media-centre/blog/celebrating-diversity-in-ramadan-traditions-around-the-world/
  98. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/longform/2025/3/28/ramadan-in-colour-how-muslims-in-africa-celebrate-the-holy-month-and-eid
  99. https://talkpal.ai/culture/what-are-the-specific-greetings-used-during-ramadan-in-somalia/
  100. https://localization.saudisoft.com/ramadan-traditions/
  101. https://www.dw.com/en/middle-east-why-are-ramadan-tv-specials-always-so-controversial/a-65194101
  102. https://agsi.org/analysis/ramadan-series-tackle-womens-issues-and-religion/
  103. https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/film-tv/2025/02/14/ramadan-2025-start-television-drama-series/
  104. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/social-media-ramadan-silent-addiction-index-media-uae-xsdlf
  105. https://www.dw.com/en/ramadan-how-are-influencers-changing-the-muslim-holiday/a-68505285
  106. https://www.nielsen.com/insights/2020/standing-out-from-the-crowd-during-ramadan-means-knowing-when-to-stand-out/
  107. https://dinaalmahdy.com/2024/04/04/celebrating-ramadan-in-the-digital-age/
  108. https://www.halaltrip.com/other/blog/ramadan-traditions-digital-impact/
  109. https://dicm.ae/ramadan-2024-report-transformative-trends-in-media-and-entertainment/
  110. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390279823_DIGITALIZATION_OF_RAMADAN_DA%27WAH_EFFECTIVE_STRATEGIES_FOR_ISLAMIC_EDUCATION_IN_THE_TECHNOLOGICAL_ERA
  111. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/arctic-islam-midnight-sun-isha-prayer-islamic-law-practice/
  112. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/05/22/how-muslims-observe-ramadan-in-the-land-of-the-midnight-sun.html
  113. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/06/16/muslims-fast-longer-in-alaska-for-ramadan/28824639/
  114. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/03/ramadan-canada-arctic-fasting-hours-sunlight
  115. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/51746/how-do-muslims-fast-ramadan-if-there%25E2%2580%2599s-no-sunset
  116. https://www.dailysabah.com/life/religion/ramadan-under-midnight-sun-canadas-unique-muslim-community
  117. https://fiqhcouncil.org/should-muslims-in-the-north-fast-23-hours-a-day/
  118. https://www.alaskasnewssource.com/2022/04/18/muslims-alaska-during-ramadan-adjust-fasting-hours-follow-meccas/
  119. https://unity1.store/2014/06/30/fatwa-on-fasting-in-ramadan-during-the-uk-summer/
  120. https://thequran.love/2021/04/14/arctic-ramadan-fasting-in-land-of-midnight-sun-comes-with-a-challenge/
  121. https://www.islamicity.org/21527/ramadan-in-arctic-why-fasting-is-not-subject-to-persistent-sunlight/
  122. http://chibe.upenn.edu/news/heather-schofield-study-shows-muslims-less-productive-during-ramadan/
  123. https://www.hks.harvard.edu/publications/does-religion-affect-economic-growth-and-happiness-evidence-ramadan
  124. https://www.axdif.com/blog/tips-trick/does-productivity-decrease-during-ramadan-see-the-facts
  125. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304387824000099
  126. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11853509/
  127. https://www.jpost.com/health-and-wellness/article-791319
  128. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268124003251
  129. https://extensishr.com/resource/blogs/ramadan-in-the-workplace/
  130. https://ogletree.com/insights-resources/blog-posts/ramadan-starts-soon-considerations-for-employers/
  131. https://futurism.com/the-byte/muslim-astronaut-ramadan-iss
  132. https://www.cnn.com/2023/03/22/world/ramadan-astronauts-space-station-scn
  133. https://www.space.com/uae-astronaut-ramadan-in-space
  134. https://www.iflscience.com/with-16-sunsets-a-day-how-do-muslim-astronauts-observe-ramadan-in-space-68149
  135. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2020.625240/full
  136. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7958211/
  137. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-43862-9
  138. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.1036496/full
  139. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7887457/
  140. https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/03/05/fasting-at-ramadan-while-keeping-health-in-mind
  141. https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240204/Ramadan-fasting-linked-to-favorable-metabolic-changes-and-reduced-chronic-disease-risk.aspx
  142. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32157368/
  143. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261561425000068
  144. https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/pdf/10.1055/s-0042-1757473.pdf
  145. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langas/article/PIIS2468-1253%2824%2900283-8/abstract
  146. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11407079/
  147. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39994599/
  148. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/17/5145
  149. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168822719306023
  150. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12158714/
  151. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360012967_The_impact_of_fasting_on_workplace_productivity_and_wellbeing_a_review_of_fasting_in_Ramadan
  152. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3289210/
  153. https://heatherschofield.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/schofield-ramadan-and-agricultural-output.pdf
  154. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sports-and-active-living/articles/10.3389/fspor.2024.1362066/full
  155. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02673843.2025.2526461
  156. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w19768/w19768.pdf
  157. https://www.npr.org/2014/07/24/334851604/as-millions-of-people-fast-for-ramadan-does-the-economy-suffer
  158. https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstreams/54ec4616-b8d3-441c-99e3-d587c2f0a144/download
  159. https://docs.iza.org/dp14769.pdf
  160. https://www.cerge-ei.cz/pdf/wp/Wp655.pdf
  161. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360101198_The_impact_of_fasting_on_workplace_productivity_and_wellbeing_A_review_of_fasting_in_Ramadan
  162. https://yanagizawadrott.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/ramadan_oa.pdf
  163. https://ex-muslim.org.uk/2025/02/human-rights-violations-during-ramadan/
  164. https://medium.com/extra-extra/7-countries-where-drinking-water-in-ramadan-could-land-you-in-jail-8b5fa5e7e92c
  165. https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2013/07/09/Saudi-Arabia-threatens-Ramadan-punishment/78121373377801/
  166. https://www.france24.com/en/20130710-saudi-arabia-expel-foreigners-breaking-ramadan-fast
  167. https://www.spa.gov.sa/1248184
  168. https://iranhr.net/en/articles/2909/
  169. https://www.iranintl.com/en/202403243340
  170. https://iranhumanrights.org/2017/06/arresting-people-for-eating-in-their-cars-during-the-ramadan-fasting-month-in-iran-is-illegal/
  171. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c7890jkn3g2o
  172. https://edition.cnn.com/2024/04/08/asia/malaysia-ramadan-fasting-raids-intl-hnk
  173. https://www.iranintl.com/en/202503040841
  174. https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/guidance/section-12-religious-discrimination
  175. https://www.worktango.com/resources/articles/ramadan-in-the-workplace-hr-best-practices
  176. https://muslimadvocates.org/files/2018.05.24-Ramadan-Workplace-KYR.pdf
  177. https://iuslaboris.com/insights/ramadan-around-the-world-global-perspectives-on-workplace-practices/
  178. https://hrmlabs.com/ph/adjusting-work-hours-during-ramadan-how-different-countries-manage-it-2/
  179. https://www.eeoc.gov/newsroom/200-days-eeoc-action-protect-religious-freedom-work
  180. https://www.prisonsociety.org/updates/why-ramadan-fasts-are-an-even-greater-challenge-behind-bars
  181. https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-163820
  182. https://www.dallasemploymentlawyer.com/ramadan-2022-is-here-do-i-qualify-for-a-religious-accommodation/
  183. https://www.newsweek.com/fight-over-ending-ramadan-sparks-fury-arab-world-2052861
  184. https://muslimdirectoryapp.com/blog/moon-sighting-debate-guide-understanding-approaches-arguments
  185. https://www.newarab.com/indepth/2019/8/10/Moon-wars-Exposing-Saudi-Arabias-fake-lunar-sightings
  186. https://www.muslimmatters.org/2007/10/11/argumentation-and-dispute-during-ramadan/
  187. https://newhumanist.org.uk/articles/4225/the-other-side-of-ramadan
  188. https://www.alhakam.org/the-moon-sighting-paradox/
  189. https://www.reddit.com/r/shia/comments/191s7rw/what_is_things_shia_do_in_ramadan_thats_is/
  190. https://www.quora.com/Is-Ramadan-the-same-for-Sunni-and-Shia
  191. https://www.thecorsaironline.com/corsair/2025/4/1/ramadan-same-faith-different-upbringing
  192. https://al-islam.org/ask/why-do-shias-begin-ramadan-a-day-later-than-sunnis-what-is-the-reasoning-behind-this-difference-if-someone-lives-in-a-predominantly-sunni-community-is-there-any-issue-with-starting-ramadan-when-they-do/amina-inloes
  193. https://politicstoday.org/the-politics-of-sighting-the-crescent-moon-in-the-muslim-world/
  194. https://swarajyamag.com/culture/hollow-controversies-amongst-muslims-over-moon-sighting-theres-a-simple-way-out
  195. https://www.npr.org/2007/10/11/15178892/police-enforce-ramadan-fasting-rules-in-west-bank
  196. https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2015/07/16/Islamic-State-punishes-94-it-said-violated-Ramadan-fast
  197. https://iranwire.com/en/news/127180-iranian-authorities-ramp-up-crackdown-on-businesses-and-women-during-ramadan/
  198. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/03/28/world/middleeast/ramadan-muawiya-series.html
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.