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Three of Vaucanson's automata: the Flute Player, the Digesting Duck and the Tambourine Player

The Canard Digérateur, or Digesting Duck, was an automaton in the form of a duck, created by Jacques de Vaucanson and unveiled on 30 May 1764 in France. The mechanical duck appeared to have the ability to eat kernels of grain, and to metabolize and defecate them. While the duck did not actually have the ability to do this—the food was collected in one inner container, and the pre-stored feces were "produced" from a second, so that no actual digestion took place—Vaucanson hoped that a truly digesting automaton could one day be designed.

Voltaire wrote in 1769 that "Without the voice of le Maure and Vaucanson's duck, you would have nothing to remind you of the glory of France."[1]

The duck is thought to have been destroyed in a fire at a private museum in 1879.[2]

Operation

[edit]
An American artist's (mistaken) drawing of how the Digesting Duck may have worked

The automaton was the size of a living duck, and was cased in gold-plated copper. As well as quacking and muddling water with its bill, it appeared capable of drinking water, and of taking food from its operator's hand, swallowing it with a gulping action and excreting what appeared to be a digested version of it.[2]

Vaucanson described the duck's interior as containing a small "chemical laboratory" capable of breaking down the grain.[2] When the stage magician and automaton builder Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin examined the duck in 1844, he found that Vaucanson had faked the mechanism, and the duck's excreta consisted of pre-prepared breadcrumb pellets, dyed green. Robert-Houdin described this as "a piece of artifice I would happily have incorporated in a conjuring trick".[2]

Modern influence

[edit]

A replica of Vaucanson's mechanical duck, created by Frédéric Vidoni, was part of the collection of the (now defunct) Grenoble Automata Museum. Another replica was commissioned privately from David Secrett, an automaton maker known for his archer figures.

The duck is mentioned by the hero of Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story "The Artist of the Beautiful", and is referenced and discussed in John Twelve Hawks' novel "Spark". In Thomas Pynchon's historical novel Mason & Dixon, Vaucanson's duck attains consciousness and pursues an exiled Parisian chef across the United States. The duck is referred to in Peter Carey's novel, The Chemistry of Tears.[3] Vaucanson and his duck are referred to in Lawrence Norfolk's 1991 novel Lempriere's Dictionary, as well as a brief mention in Frank Herbert's Destination: Void. The Duck is featured in Lavie Tidhar's The Bookman, in the Egyptian Hall, alongside the Turk. The duck is also a key element to Max Byrd's mystery novel The Paris Deadline.

In 2002, Belgian conceptual artist Wim Delvoye introduced the world to his "Cloaca Machine", a mechanical art work that actually digests food and turns it into excrement, fulfilling Vaucanson's wish for a working digestive automation. Many iterations of the Cloaca Machine have since been produced; the latest iteration sits vertically, mimicking the human digestive system. The excrement produced by the machine is vacuum-sealed in Cloaca-branded bags and sold to art collectors and dealers; every series of excrements produced has sold out.[4][5]

See also

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References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
  • Wood, Gaby (2003). Living Dolls: A Magical History of the Quest for Mechanical Life. London: Faber. ISBN 9782738120021

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Digesting Duck

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from Grokipedia
The Digesting Duck (French: Canard digérateur), created by French inventor Jacques de Vaucanson in 1739, is a pioneering 18th-century automaton designed as a life-sized mechanical duck capable of flapping its wings, eating grain, drinking water, simulating digestion, and excreting waste.[1][2] This marvel of early automation, featuring over 400 moving parts in each wing alone, was first publicly exhibited in Paris in 1739 and quickly gained fame for convincingly mimicking biological functions, marking it as one of the earliest machines to imitate life processes.[3][4] Jacques de Vaucanson (1709–1782), born in Grenoble, France, developed the Digesting Duck as part of his broader work in mechanical automata, drawing on his background in anatomy, surgery, and clockwork engineering to create devices that blurred the line between machine and organism.[5][2] The duck's mechanisms included a system where ingested grain passed through a hidden compartment, while the apparent excrement—actually pre-stored bread crumbs dyed green and compressed by a metallic "sphincter"—was released to simulate digestion, revealing the process as an ingenious illusion rather than true chemical breakdown.[4][2] Powered by mainsprings and visible gears, it could quack, extend its neck to eat from a hand, and waddle on a pedestal, captivating audiences with its lifelike motions.[1][5] Following its debut at the Hôtel de Longueville in Paris alongside Vaucanson's other automata, such as a flute-playing shepherd, the Digesting Duck toured Europe, including a 1742 exhibition at London's Opera House, where it drew widespread acclaim and philosophical debate during the Enlightenment.[1][4] Voltaire praised it in 1741 as a triumph of French ingenuity, symbolizing the era's mechanistic view of life, while it influenced subsequent inventors in fields like robotics and biomechanics.[5][2] Vaucanson sold the duck and his other creations in 1743 to fund further innovations, including contributions to the silk loom that advanced industrial automation.[1] The original Digesting Duck survived into the 19th century in private collections and museums but was ultimately destroyed in a fire in 1879, with accounts placing the incident at either the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris or a museum in Krakow.[5][2] Modern replicas, such as one constructed in 1999 by Frédéric Vidoni for the now-closed Musée des Automates in Grenoble (closed as of 2022), preserve its legacy and demonstrate the enduring fascination with Vaucanson's blend of artistry and engineering.[5][3]

History

Vaucanson's Background

Jacques de Vaucanson was born on February 24, 1709, in Grenoble, France, as the youngest of ten children in a modest working-class family.[6] His early education was shaped by the local Jesuit community, where he received training in mechanics and developed an interest in automata inspired by the intricate church mechanisms, such as clockwork angels that simulated divine movements.[7] This religious environment initially guided his path toward the priesthood, but after briefly joining the Minim order as a novice, he left around 1730 due to digestive health issues that barred him from ordination, turning instead to mechanical invention.[2] Transitioning to secular pursuits, Vaucanson focused on creating sophisticated automata that mimicked human actions. In 1737–1738, he completed his groundbreaking Flute Player, a life-sized figure capable of playing twelve different tunes on a transverse flute through complex mechanical systems involving bellows, reeds, and articulated fingers, marking a significant advancement in automated music production.[8] This invention showcased his skill in biomechanics and drew widespread attention in Paris.[9] In 1741, Vaucanson was appointed mechanician to King Louis XV and inspector of the French silk industry, a role that leveraged his mechanical expertise to improve manufacturing processes, including early designs for automated silk looms.[2] His work reflected a deeper fascination with replicating biological processes, influenced by Enlightenment philosophers who viewed nature as governed by mechanical principles akin to intricate machines.[10] This perspective culminated in his most renowned creation, the Digesting Duck.[2]

Creation and Unveiling

Jacques de Vaucanson, inspired by Enlightenment-era debates between vitalism—the belief in a non-mechanical life force—and mechanism, sought to create an automaton that could simulate biological digestion to demonstrate that animal functions might be entirely mechanical.[11] His motivation stemmed from a desire to replicate natural processes through ingenuity, building on his earlier successes with humanoid automata like the Flute Player.[2] Construction of the Digesting Duck took place in Paris during 1738, where Vaucanson collaborated with skilled clockmakers to assemble the device using over 400 moving parts.[1] The life-sized automaton featured an exterior of gold-plated copper that gave it a lifelike appearance.[12] The Digesting Duck was unveiled in 1739 at the Hôtel de Longueville in Paris, where it was demonstrated to enthusiastic audiences comprising scientists, nobility, and the general public for an admission fee of 3 livres.[2] The exhibition proved an immediate sensation, drawing large crowds and generating substantial income for Vaucanson, while philosopher Voltaire later praised the inventor as a rival to Prometheus, highlighting the Duck as a symbol of French mechanical prowess and ingenuity.[11]

Design and Construction

External Features

The Digesting Duck is a life-sized automaton designed to mimic the external form of a living duck, constructed primarily from gold-plated copper to achieve a shiny, metallic finish that enhances its realistic appearance.[13][12] Its exterior incorporates hundreds of articulated components covered in perforated gold-plated copper, contributing to the overall lifelike aesthetic through careful craftsmanship.[3] Key visible elements include a movable head and neck, articulated wings with feather-like structures made from lightweight materials, flexible legs for rising motions, and a detailed beak positioned to interact with food sources.[3][2] A shallow basin or dish placed in front of the automaton serves as the feeding area for grain and water during demonstrations.[2] The design draws from observations of actual ducks, emphasizing naturalistic proportions and surface detailing to support lifelike external animations such as wing flapping and head movements.[3] Contemporary engravings often depict the duck in a pond-like setting, underscoring its intended role in immersive public exhibitions.[14] The automaton's compact, self-contained structure facilitated its portability for widespread showings across Europe in the 18th century.[13]

Internal Mechanisms

The internal mechanisms of the Digesting Duck were concealed within a life-sized frame covered by gilded copper plating, comprising over 1,000 movable brass components including gears, levers, and cams, all driven by a weight-powered clockwork system housed in a large pedestal base.[15] This intricate assembly drew heavily from contemporary clockwork technology, employing springs and weights to provide consistent motive force, with a descending weight wrapped around a cylinder that turned cams to orchestrate the automaton's actions.[16] The design emphasized precision engineering to mimic organic motion, using elastic components such as leather hinges and flexible rods to simulate the supple movements of a living bird without relying on actual biological processes.[2] Key subsystems included a network of approximately 30 interconnected levers forming a skeletal frame, which transmitted power from the central gearing to articulate the limbs and body.[16] For limb movement, pulley systems and cams controlled the extension of the neck and the flapping of wings, with each wing alone featuring over 400 articulated pieces modeled after avian bone structure to achieve realistic oscillation.[16][1] Sound production relied on bellows integrated into the torso, which compressed air to generate quacking and gurgling noises through tuned reeds, echoing the duck's natural vocalizations.[2] The simulated digestion subsystem utilized two separate internal chambers: one for ingesting and storing grain without processing, and another pre-loaded with molded "waste" pellets dyed green to resemble digested matter, separated mechanically via pipes and a metallic sphincter valve rather than any chemical reaction.[2][1] This arrangement, powered by cams and levers, allowed for the sequential intake and expulsion of materials, highlighting Vaucanson's innovative use of compartmentalized mechanics inspired by anatomical studies, though it involved no true transformation of inputs.[16] Vaucanson's approaches to these mechanisms influenced his later patents for automated silk looms, where similar cam-based systems automated repetitive motions.[2]

Operation

Feeding and Digestion Simulation

The Digesting Duck's feeding process began with spectators offering kernels of grain or similar food to the automaton, which extended its neck and dabbed its bill to simulate pecking and swallowing. The ingested material was directed through a concealed pipe beneath the bill into a hidden storage chamber, often referred to as the "stomach," where it accumulated without undergoing any transformation. This mechanism created the appearance of natural consumption while keeping the grain separate from the rest of the device's operations.[17] The simulated digestion relied entirely on mechanical illusion rather than biological or chemical processes. After a brief interval to mimic digestive timing—described as a "pregnant pause"—the duck expelled pre-prepared pellets from a distinct rear compartment, propelled by a forcing pump. These pellets, resembling feces and consisting of green-tinted breadcrumbs, were ejected through the anus onto a silver salver, with their volume calibrated to approximate the input grain for added realism. No actual breakdown of the swallowed material occurred; the stored grain was periodically removed from the chamber, typically every few days, to maintain the device's functionality.[17][18] The overall sequence was initiated by an operator winding the clockwork drive via a hand crank, engaging a system of thousands of moving parts, including pipes, valves, and cams, to synchronize the feeding, delay, and excretion motions. Jacques de Vaucanson promoted the duck as capable of true digestion, asserting in his descriptions that it "swallows [the corn], digests it, and discharges it digested by the usual passage," implying a replication of organic chemical dissolution. However, the device operated through purely mechanical means, with no evidence of genuine metabolic activity.[1][18] The illusion was publicly exposed in 1844 by magician and automaton expert Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin during repairs to the device at the Palais Royal in Paris. Upon inspecting the internals, Robert-Houdin discovered the dual compartments for unprocessed grain and fabricated waste, confirming Vaucanson's claims as a sophisticated trick rather than a feat of artificial life.[17]

Additional Animations

Beyond the core simulation of digestion, Vaucanson's Digesting Duck incorporated several supplementary mechanical animations that contributed to its overall lifelike appearance, drawing from intricate systems of cams and levers to replicate natural avian behaviors. The wings, each comprising over 400 articulated components mimicking the structure of actual duck wing bones, could flap in a coordinated manner to simulate flight or preening, enhancing the illusion of vitality during performances.[1] Leg movements allowed the automaton to rise up on its feet and then lie down, producing a waddling gait on its demonstration platform that evoked a duck foraging or settling.[19] These motions were enabled by cam-driven levers within the internal gear systems, which translated rotational energy into precise, sequential actions. The Duck also featured auditory and interactive elements to further immerse audiences in its realism. A bellows mechanism generated quacking or gurgling sounds reminiscent of a live duck, particularly when the automaton "played" in a shallow water basin by dipping its bill to create splashing effects.[4] The head could turn and stretch its neck to "peck" at offered food or water, with the beak opening and closing in a natural rhythm that invited spectator participation, such as handing grains for the Duck to ingest.[20] In a typical demonstration, these animations unfolded in a choreographed sequence lasting several minutes, combining wing flapping, leg waddling, head turning, quacking, and water interactions to portray a duck foraging, drinking, and resting in its environment. The full performance integrated these behaviors seamlessly with the feeding process, captivating viewers by mimicking the complete lifecycle of a living bird over the course of the show.[19] The automaton was powered by a weight-and-pulley system that drove a central cylinder equipped with cams activating approximately 30 levers, allowing for the synchronization of all motions through a single mechanical input. Following its unveiling in Paris in 1739, the Duck toured public venues across Europe, including fairs and exhibitions, from 1739 into the 1750s, where operators could adjust the pace of the crank or winding to suit audience engagement.[4] This portability and adaptability made it a highlight of Enlightenment-era spectacles, drawing crowds to witness its blend of artistry and engineering.[1]

Significance

Contemporary Reception

Upon its unveiling in 1738, Vaucanson's Digesting Duck garnered immense public acclaim across Europe, drawing large crowds that marveled at its lifelike motions and apparent biological functions. The automaton was first exhibited during the winter of 1738 at the grand salle des quatre saisons of the Hôtel de Longueville in Paris alongside Vaucanson's other creations, charging an admission of three livres—equivalent to a week's wages for many—and quickly recouping multiple times the investment through enthusiastic attendance. It subsequently toured major cities, including London in 1742 where it was displayed at the Opera House in Hay-Market, solidifying its reputation as a pinnacle of French engineering and elevating Vaucanson to celebrity status among artisans and the elite.[16][1] In scientific circles, the Duck was praised by Enlightenment thinkers for its potential to challenge vitalist theories positing a non-mechanical life force, instead demonstrating that complex organic processes like digestion could be mimicked through intricate machinery. Figures such as Voltaire lauded it effusively; in 1740, he remarked that "without the voice of le Maure and Vaucanson's duck, you would have nothing to remind you of the glory of France," highlighting its cultural and intellectual prestige. The device sparked discussions in academies, including the French Academy of Sciences—which in 1738 commended Vaucanson's mechanical ingenuity—and broader European forums like the Royal Society in London, where its mechanisms were analyzed as innovative contributions to physiology and automation.[13][16] While generally embraced as a groundbreaking invention, the Duck faced some early skepticism regarding the authenticity of its digestion simulation, with critics like a 1755 commentator likening it dismissively to a "coffee-grinder" for oversimplifying chemical processes. Nonetheless, such doubts were overshadowed by widespread acceptance of its technical novelty, positioning it as a symbol of mechanistic philosophy during the Enlightenment.[16]

Philosophical Implications

The Digesting Duck played a pivotal role in 18th-century mechanism philosophy by embodying René Descartes' animal-machine hypothesis, which posited that animals operate as complex automata without souls, their behaviors reducible to mechanical principles. Jacques de Vaucanson's automaton, with its simulated ingestion and excretion, dramatized this idea, suggesting that vital processes like digestion could be fully mechanized through intricate gears, levers, and hydraulic systems, thereby blurring the line between organic life and artificial contrivance. This echoed Descartes' views in works like De Homine (1662), where animals were depicted as self-moving machines, and positioned the Duck as a tangible demonstration of iatromechanics—the medical theory treating the body as a hydraulic engine to explain physiological functions such as circulation and digestion.[14][18] Vaucanson's creation sparked broader discussions on artificial life, as he explicitly aimed to replicate digestion mechanically to advance physiological understanding and counter vitalist notions of an irreducible life force. The Duck was referenced in treatises from the 1739 unveiling through the 1780s, including Vaucanson's own 1738 description of related automata and contemporary reviews in the Journal des sçavans, which highlighted its implications for anatomical research and debates between mechanists, who saw life as explicable via physics, and vitalists, who argued for non-mechanical principles animating organisms. In medical contexts, it aligned with iatromechanical approaches, such as those of Claude Gendron and Friedrich Hoffmann, by modeling digestion as a chemical-mechanical process amenable to simulation, influencing efforts to mechanize therapeutic interventions. These references underscored the Duck's role in shifting philosophical inquiry toward empirical testing of life's boundaries, though they also revealed tensions in reducing complex biology to clockwork analogies.[18][21] The philosophical narrative surrounding the Duck shifted dramatically with the 1844 revelation by illusionist Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin, who, while repairing the automaton, discovered that no true digestion occurred; instead, the excreta consisted of pre-loaded breadcrumb pellets dyed green to mimic digested matter. This exposure debunked Vaucanson's claims of mechanical verisimilitude, recasting the Duck not as proof of life's reducibility to mechanics but as a masterful illusion that exploited spectators' willingness to suspend disbelief in vital processes. Consequently, it prompted reevaluation in mechanism-vitalism debates, highlighting the limitations of 18th-century automata in genuinely replicating organic functions and reinforcing vitalist critiques that true life eludes pure mechanization.[22][18]

Legacy

Fate of the Original

Following Jacques de Vaucanson's death on November 21, 1782, his extensive collection of over 300 mechanical devices, tools, and models was bequeathed to King Louis XVI of France.[23] This bequest formed the foundational holdings of the newly established Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris, housed at the Priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs, where the items were preserved and occasionally studied as exemplars of mechanical ingenuity.[23] Vaucanson's renowned automata, however, had been sold in 1743 and were not part of this collection. Over time, the automata passed into private collections, reflecting the era's interest in antiquarian mechanical curiosities among collectors and showmen.[5] The Digesting Duck continued to be exhibited publicly through the early 19th century, though its condition deteriorated significantly due to wear, poor storage, and repeated handling. By 1805, the German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe observed the automaton during a visit to Helmstädt, Germany, describing it as "utterly paralyzed" and noting that while it could still ingest oats, its simulated digestion mechanism no longer functioned.[5] In an effort to revive it, the Duck underwent restoration in 1844 by the French magician and automaton expert Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin, who repaired its mechanisms and exterior to allow further demonstrations.[5] Despite these interventions, ongoing exhibitions into the mid-19th century exposed it to additional damage from fires and makeshift repairs, gradually eroding its intricate copper and brass components.[13] The original Digesting Duck is believed, according to some accounts, to have met its end in a devastating fire that engulfed a private museum in Kraków, Poland, in 1879, where it had been housed as part of a traveling collection of curiosities; other reports suggest the incident occurred at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris.[5][13] No confirmed surviving parts from the automaton exist today, with contemporary accounts confirming the complete loss of Vaucanson's intricate internal mechanisms, including the bellows and levers that simulated feeding and excretion.[5] This destruction marked the irreversible end of the original device, leaving only illustrations, descriptions, and later replicas to convey its mechanical sophistication.[13]

Modern Replicas

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, several attempts were made to recreate Vaucanson's Digesting Duck, often by clockmakers and inventors drawing on historical descriptions and diagrams, though few achieved full functionality or public recognition. A significant 20th-century reconstruction was undertaken by British automaton maker David Secrett, who built a privately commissioned functional replica based on Vaucanson's original diagrams, emphasizing anatomical accuracy in its mechanisms. Secrett's version, noted for its detailed craftsmanship, was showcased to scholars and remained a point of reference for automaton enthusiasts before and after his death in 1981.[24][25] In the late 20th century, French artisan Frédéric Vidoni produced a highly regarded reconstruction in 1998, using materials such as polished steel, brushed brass, iron, plexiglass, and marble to create a life-sized automaton measuring 50 × 40 × 58 cm and weighing 20 kg. This version faithfully replicated the duck's feeding, digestion simulation (using pre-loaded elements for the illusion), wing-flapping, and defecation actions through intricate mechanical linkages. Vidoni's replica was exhibited at the Museum of Automatons in Grenoble, France, where it drew visitors until the museum's closure around 2020; as of 2025, its current location is unknown and it is no longer on public display.[26][3][5] Contemporary recreations, including Vidoni's, prioritize mechanical purity to mirror Vaucanson's innovative use of brass, leather, and gears, incorporating modern fabrication techniques only for precision and longevity while eschewing electronics to maintain historical authenticity. These efforts have enabled broader access to the Digesting Duck's legacy through museum displays and private collections, inspiring ongoing interest in mechanical simulation of biological processes.[5][3]

Cultural and Scientific Influence

The Digesting Duck has appeared in several literary works, serving as a symbol of mechanical ingenuity and the blurred boundaries between artifice and life. In Nathaniel Hawthorne's 1844 short story "The Artist of the Beautiful," the protagonist, a watchmaker aspiring to create a butterfly automaton that embodies the soul, explicitly references Jacques de Vaucanson's Digesting Duck as an exemplar of lifelike machinery, drawing on its fame to illustrate the potential for machines to mimic organic vitality.[27] Thomas Pynchon's 1973 novel Gravity's Rainbow alludes to the Duck in discussions of Enlightenment-era automata, portraying it as a precursor to modern technological paranoia and the simulation of biological processes amid wartime entropy. More recently, Peter Carey's 2012 novel The Chemistry of Tears centers on the reconstruction of a Vaucanson-inspired Digesting Duck automaton, using it to explore themes of grief, fabrication, and the illusion of resurrection through mechanical means.[28] In scientific and artistic contexts, the Digesting Duck has inspired explorations of simulated digestion, influencing contemporary works that challenge perceptions of bodily functions. Belgian artist Wim Delvoye's Cloaca series, debuting in 2000, represents a functional realization of digestive machinery, processing real food through chemical and biological means to produce feces, explicitly echoing Vaucanson's illusory automaton as a historical antecedent in the mechanization of excretion.[29] This installation shifts from the Duck's deceptive mimicry to genuine physiological simulation, prompting reflections on the ethics and aesthetics of replicating human biology in art.[13] The Duck's design principles have positioned it as an early precursor to robotics and biomimicry, where mechanical replication of animal behaviors laid groundwork for automated systems. By employing over 1,000 components—including brass gears, springs, and levers—to imitate feeding, movement, and excretion, Vaucanson's creation anticipated biomimetic engineering, which seeks to derive technological innovations from natural forms, such as in modern soft robotics that emulate organic motion. In debates surrounding artificial intelligence and the simulation of life processes, the Duck exemplifies the historical tension between functional replication and mere illusion, as analyzed in scholarly examinations of automata's role in shaping concepts of artificial life—where early machines like this one fueled arguments over whether computation could authentically reproduce vitality, influencing foundational ideas in AI ethics and synthetic biology.[30] A 2016 article in Hodinkee highlights the Digesting Duck's ties to watchmaking traditions, noting its reliance on horological techniques like mainsprings and pivots—shared with 18th-century clockwork automata—to drive its lifelike actions, thereby underscoring Vaucanson's contributions to precision engineering that bridged entertainment and industrial automation.[5] Analyses from 2022, including video essays on robotics history, further emphasize its pivotal status in the evolution of autonomous machines, portraying the Duck as a foundational artifact that prefigured programmable devices and the quest for machine autonomy.[31]

References

  1. Jacques Vaucanson's Automata: Complex Enough to Provide a ...
  2. Jacques de Vaucanson - Linda Hall Library
  3. Canard Digérateur de Vaucanson (Vaucanson's Digesting Duck)
  4. Jacques de Vaucanson Exhibits Flute-playing Automaton
  5. Watches, Automatons, 'Soul,' And The Digesting Duck Of ... - Hodinkee
  6. [PDF] The Jefferson Performing Arts Society
  7. [PDF] Mentalism Companion 001-119 - Cloudfront.net
  8. [PDF] Mechanical musical automata - MIT OpenCourseWare
  9. The Defecating Duck, or, the Ambiguous Origins of Artificial Life
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1345199
  11. [PDF] Jacques de Vaucanson: The Father of Simulation
  12. February 11, 1738: Jacques de Vaucanson Exhibits Flute-playing ...
  13. A) Reductionism: the Duck of Vaucanson. This engraving of the ...
  14. [PDF] Redalyc.Humans, animals and computers: Minding machines?
  15. None
  16. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Memoirs of Robert-Houdin.
  17. The Defecating Duck, or, the Ambiguous Origins of Artificial Life
  18. 1738: Vaucanson's mechnical crapping duck - Alpha History
  19. https://www.computer-timeline.com/timeline/jacques-de-vaucanson/
  20. [PDF] The Defecating Duck, or, the Ambiguous Origins of Artificial Life
  21. [PDF] The Quest for Artificial Intelligence
  22. Jacques de Vaucanson - Graces Guide
  23. Vaucanson's Mechanical Duck
  24. [PDF] In this issue - Musical Box Society of Great Britain
  25. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226303086-013/html
  26. Automaton "Duck: In Memory of Vaucanson. Museum Collection
  27. The Sources for Hawthorne's "The Artist of the Beautiful"
  28. 'The Chemistry of Tears,' a Novel by Peter Carey
  29. [PDF] Vaucanson's Automata as Devices of Enlightenment
  30. Introduction to Artificial Life for People who Like AI - The Gradient
  31. The Digesting Duck, a weird robot from 1739 - YouTube
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