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Ding Darling
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Ding Darling
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Jay Norwood Darling (October 21, 1876 – February 12, 1962), better known as Ding Darling, was an American cartoonist who won two Pulitzer Prizes. He was an important figure in the 20th century conservation movement and founded the National Wildlife Federation. In addition, he was known to be close friends with Walt Disney.

Key Information

Early life

[edit]
Jay N. "Ding" Darling's parody of Richard F. Outcault's popular cartoon character the "Yellow Kid", published in the 1899 Codex yearbook of Beloit College

Darling was born in Norwood, Michigan, where his parents, Clara R. (Woolson) and Marcellus Warner Darling, had recently moved so that Marcellus could begin work as a minister.[3] In 1886, the family moved to Sioux City, Iowa, where Darling developed an early appreciation for nature and wildlife during days spent wandering the prairie. He began to learn the importance of conservation as a youth after an uncle admonished him for shooting a wood duck during nesting season.[4]

Darling began college in 1894 at Yankton College in South Dakota and moved to Beloit College in Wisconsin the following year, where he began his studies in pre-medicine and became a member of Beta Theta Pi.[5] While at Beloit he became art editor of the yearbook and began signing his work with a contraction of his last name, D'ing, a nickname that stuck.[4]

Editorial cartoons

[edit]

In 1900, Ding became a reporter for the Sioux City Journal. Following his marriage to Genevieve Pendleton in 1906, he began work with the Des Moines Register and Leader. In 1911, he moved to New York and worked with the New York Globe but went back to Des Moines in 1913. Three years later, in 1916, he returned to New York and accepted a position with the New York Herald Tribune.

Self-portrait, 1919

By 1919, Darling returned a final time to Des Moines where he continued his career as a cartoonist, winning the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1924 and again in 1943.[6] His cartoons were published from 1917 to 1949 in the New York Herald Tribune.

Wildlife conservation

[edit]
First duck stamp, designed by Darling

Darling penned some conservation cartoons, and he was an important figure in the conservation movement. President Franklin Roosevelt appointed him to a blue-ribbon Committee on Wildlife Restoration in 1934. FDR sought political balance by putting the Hoover Republican on the committee, knowing he was an articulate advocate for wildlife management.[7]: 268 

Following the passage of the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act in 1934, which required waterfowl hunters to purchase a Federal Duck Stamp before hunting, Darling designed the first Federal Duck Stamp that year and was appointed Director of the Bureau of Biological Survey, a forerunner of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.[8][7]: 280-285 

The National Wildlife Refuge System logo, also designed by Darling

The J. N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge on Sanibel Island in southwest Florida is named after him, as is the Lake Darling State Park in Iowa that was dedicated on September 17, 1950. Lake Darling, a 9,600-acre lake at the Upper Souris National Wildlife Refuge is also named in his honor.[9] More recently a lodge at the National Conservation Training Center near Shepherdstown, West Virginia was named in his honor.[10]

Darling was elected as a member of the Boone and Crockett Club, a wildlife conservation organization, on December 13, 1934.[11]

He was instrumental in founding the National Wildlife Federation in 1936, when President Franklin Roosevelt convened the first North American Wildlife Conference (now the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference), administered by the American Wildlife Institute (now Wildlife Management Institute).[12]

Awards

[edit]
"In Good Old U.S.A.", for which Darling received the 1924 Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning

Darling twice received the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning for his work with the Register & Tribune. Darling was first awarded the prize in 1924 for his work "In the Good Old USA" and again in 1943 for "What a Place For a Waste Paper Salvage Campaign".[6]

He was awarded the Audubon Medal in 1960 by National Audubon Society for "outstanding achievement in the field of conservation and environmental protection".[13]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ding Darling

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Jay Norwood "Ding" Darling (October 21, 1876 – February 12, 1962) was an American editorial cartoonist and wildlife conservationist whose incisive syndicated drawings critiqued politics and social issues while advocating for environmental protection. Working primarily for the Des Moines Register from 1906 until his retirement in 1949, Darling produced nearly daily cartoons that reached millions through national syndication, earning him two Pulitzer Prizes for editorial cartooning in 1924 for "In Good Old U.S.A."—depicting post-World War I disillusionment—and in 1943 for "The Senate's 'Gift' to the U.N."—satirizing isolationism. His conservation efforts, sparked by the 1930s waterfowl crises from drought and overhunting, led to his appointment by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as director of the Bureau of Biological Survey (1934–1935), where he reorganized it into the modern U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and spearheaded the acquisition of millions of acres for refuges. Darling's most enduring innovation was sketching the design for the first Federal Duck Stamp in 1934, a $1 permit required for migratory bird hunters that has since generated over $1 billion for wetland conservation, funding the expansion of the National Wildlife Refuge System to protect habitats critical for ducks and other species. Darling's cartoons often blended humor with urgent calls for habitat preservation, influencing public policy during a era of rapid industrialization and , and his legacy endures in institutions like the J.N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge on Sanibel Island, . He championed pragmatic, science-based approaches to balancing human needs with ecological integrity, drawing from firsthand observations of declining bird populations to lobby for federal action without romanticizing nature or ignoring economic realities.

Early Life

Upbringing and Formative Influences

Jay Norwood Darling was born on October 21, 1876, in Norwood, Michigan, to Reverend Marcellus Warner Darling, a Congregational minister and educator who acquired the nickname "Ding," and Clara R. Woolson Darling. The family resided briefly in Cambria, Michigan, and Elkhart, Indiana, before relocating in 1885 to Sioux City, Iowa, where Darling's father assumed the ministry at the First Congregational Church. This Midwestern upbringing in a religious household instilled values of discipline and moral rectitude that later informed his editorial work. In Sioux City, Darling spent his formative years exploring the local prairies, including the tall grass fields of , and the and Big Sioux Rivers, activities that cultivated a deep affinity for the natural landscape. These outdoor pursuits, involving and amid Iowa's expansive waterways and undeveloped terrains, exposed him to in its native habitat and highlighted the vulnerabilities of ecosystems to human encroachment, experiences that profoundly shaped his lifelong conservation ethos. Darling's early exposure to the American heartland's rural rhythms and natural bounty contrasted with the industrial changes of the era, fostering a realist perspective on rooted in personal observation rather than abstract theory. His father's clerical role emphasized and ethical responsibility, influences that intertwined with Darling's innate artistic inclinations, evident in his youthful sketches of local scenes, laying the groundwork for his later fusion of cartooning and advocacy.

Education and Initial Career Steps

Darling attended in , graduating in 1900 a year behind his class after initially intending to pursue a medical career like his uncle. During his time there, he developed an interest in drawing, contributing cartoons to the college yearbook , including a parody of the popular character in 1899. Following graduation, Darling took a position as a reporter at the Sioux City Journal in 1900 to fund potential medical studies, but his sketching skills soon shifted his focus to illustration and cartooning. This early experience at the Journal marked the beginning of his transition from to political cartooning, as he began producing drawings that complemented his reporting. In 1906, Darling joined the and Leader as a full-time , a role that solidified his career trajectory and led to his eventual national prominence. By 1913, the Register increased his salary to double his prior earnings at the Journal, reflecting the growing recognition of his work.

Editorial Cartooning Career

Entry into Journalism and Style Development

Darling began honing his cartooning skills during his time at , where he enrolled around 1896 and graduated in 1899. While studying pre-medicine, he faced academic challenges, including a temporary suspension for poor grades and sketching professors during lectures, which marked his early foray into . He produced illustrations for the college's yearbook, including a parody of the popular comic strip character, and signed his works with "D'ing," a contraction of his surname that evolved into his lifelong professional moniker "Ding." Following graduation, Darling entered journalism as a reporter for the Sioux City Journal in 1900, leveraging his Sioux City, Iowa, roots where his family had settled in 1884. In this role, he occasionally contributed cartoons alongside reporting duties, building experience in visual satire amid local and regional news coverage. By 1904, he was established as a staff reporter, but his artistic inclinations persisted, setting the stage for a shift toward full-time illustration. In 1906, Darling joined the & Leader—initially as a news editor but quickly transitioning to —where he drew the paper's inaugural editorial and became Iowa's first daily . This period solidified his professional style: bold, economical lines emphasizing political and social critique, often featuring a self-caricature as a bespectacled, pipe-smoking observer to inject humor and personal perspective into commentary. His approach prioritized clarity and impact over ornate detail, appealing to broad audiences through witty, accessible rather than complexity, which facilitated national syndication by the 1910s.

Major Themes and Political Commentary

Darling's editorial cartoons prominently featured critiques of expansive government intervention, reflecting his conservative Republican belief in limited federal authority and individual self-reliance. He portrayed policies as promoting wastefulness and dependency, often depicting them as inefficient bureaucratic machines that stifled economic recovery and personal initiative. For instance, in cartoons from the 1930s published in the Des Moines Register, he highlighted the perceived extravagance and authoritarian tendencies of Roosevelt administration programs, arguing they undermined the American exemplified in earlier Republican-led prosperity. A hallmark of his commentary was skepticism toward unchecked , as evidenced by his 1942 Pulitzer Prize-winning showing , submerged under mountains of paperwork, symbolizing the administrative overload that he viewed as a byproduct of centralized planning. Darling extended this scrutiny to monopolistic business practices, expressing distrust of corporate trusts while firmly opposing government takeover of private enterprises like farms or factories, a stance that aligned with his advocacy for market-driven solutions over state control. In , Darling's work emphasized pragmatic national preparedness over naive or ; his 1915 cartoons urged military readiness ahead of U.S. involvement in , and by June 1940, he advocated aiding Allied nations against Axis threats, predicting inevitable American entanglement if threats persisted. Conservation emerged as a recurring non-partisan theme, where he lambasted resource exploitation and policy failures harming wildlife, as in his early 1901 support for Theodore Roosevelt's forestry service and later satires on dam projects like Fort Peck that prioritized politics over ecological sustainability. These elements underscored his broader philosophy: government should facilitate, not dictate, human and natural progress.

Notable Works and Pulitzer Recognitions

Jay Norwood "Ding" Darling created nearly 15,000 editorial cartoons over his 49-year tenure at the Des Moines Register and from 1906 to 1949, with his work syndicated to more than 140 newspapers nationwide and reaching an estimated daily audience of 10 million readers. His cartoons addressed domestic politics, , and social issues, often employing bold symbolism and wit to critique policy failures and advocate for individual liberty and fiscal restraint. Conservation emerged as a recurring theme, with illustrations depicting the rapid decline of populations due to habitat loss and overhunting, such as sequences showing dwindling duck flocks across hunting seasons, which heightened public awareness of . Darling's most recognized artistic contribution beyond daily editorials was his hand-drawn design for the inaugural Federal Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp, commonly known as the Duck Stamp, issued on July 1, 1934. This simple yet iconic sketch of a drake in flight generated initial revenue of $55 from 35 stamps sold on the first day, establishing a self-funding mechanism that has since conserved over 6 million acres of wetland habitat through hunter purchases exceeding 100 million stamps by 2020. Darling earned two Pulitzer Prizes in Editorial Cartooning for his incisive commentary. The first, awarded in 1924, recognized "In Good Old U.S.A.", published May 6, 1923, which portrayed the American Dream through a progression from immigrant rags to capitalist riches, emphasizing equal opportunity amid post-World War I prosperity. The second, in 1943, was for "What a Place for a Waste Paper Salvage Campaign", published in 1942, satirizing bureaucratic excess in Washington, D.C., by envisioning the Capitol and White House submerged in paperwork during wartime resource drives, underscoring inefficiencies in government administration. These awards affirmed his status as one of the era's premier cartoonists, with the Pulitzer committee citing his ability to distill complex issues into compelling visuals that influenced public opinion.

Political Philosophy

Republican Principles and Critiques of Big Government

Darling, a lifelong conservative Republican, championed principles of , fiscal restraint, and individual initiative, viewing excessive federal expansion as a threat to American and economic vitality. He idolized , whose administration he praised for promoting over bureaucratic intervention, and frequently lambasted Democratic policies that enlarged the scope of Washington’s authority. His editorial cartoons sharply critiqued Franklin D. Roosevelt's as an assault on private enterprise, often portraying the programs as inflationary overreach and a slide toward ; one 1933 cartoon depicted FDR as a "mad surgeon" recklessly dissecting the body of the U.S. economy to symbolize the perils of unchecked federal experimentation. Darling argued that such initiatives stifled innovation by supplanting market mechanisms with centralized planning, a view echoed in his broader oeuvre warning against the "desert makers" of wasteful . These depictions aligned with contemporaneous Republican opposition, which saw the New Deal's alphabet agencies—numbering over 100 by 1939—as breeding inefficiency and dependency rather than recovery from the . Even in conservation advocacy, Darling's Republican ethos favored pragmatic, self-sustaining approaches over broad federal entitlements; he designed the in 1934 as a user-fee system, requiring hunters to fund restoration directly, thereby minimizing taxpayer burdens and embodying his distrust of unfunded largesse. This mechanism generated over $1 million in initial revenue for refuges without general appropriations, reflecting his principle that conservation should leverage voluntary contributions from beneficiaries rather than coercive redistribution. Despite periodic bipartisan support—such as backing during —Darling's core critiques remained rooted in a of big 's tendency to erode personal accountability and .

Interactions with Progressive Policies

Darling's editorial cartoons frequently lampooned progressive initiatives, portraying them as overreaching government interventions that stifled individual initiative and economic recovery. During , he targeted Franklin D. Roosevelt's programs, depicting them as bureaucratic excesses that threatened American freedoms, with specific criticisms aimed at efforts under the administration, which he viewed as inefficient and ideologically driven. His cartoon series highlighted concerns that expansive federal relief and regulatory schemes, hallmarks of , prioritized political patronage over practical solutions, aligning with his broader Republican skepticism of centralized planning. As a staunch Hoover Republican, Darling opposed the philosophical underpinnings of , which he saw as fostering dependency and undermining , often using exaggerated imagery of politicians as paternalistic figures burdening citizens with unnecessary reforms. He critiqued early progressive figures and policies through syndication in over 140 newspapers, arguing that measures like expansive social welfare and labor regulations distorted market incentives and invited fiscal irresponsibility, as evidenced in his depictions of "" as a stagnant force impeding genuine advancement. Despite these views, Darling pragmatically accepted a federal appointment in as chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey under the , forgoing his $100,000 annual salary for $8,000 to overhaul conservation practices, demonstrating a distinction between his rejection of broad progressive and support for targeted, evidence-based interventions in . Darling's interactions extended to postwar progressive pushes for internationalism and expanded welfare states, where his cartoons warned against eroding national sovereignty and fiscal discipline in favor of utopian collectivism. He later expressed reservations about organizations like the drifting toward politicized advocacy reminiscent of progressive overreach, underscoring his commitment to apolitical, science-driven policy over ideological mandates. This selective engagement—fierce opposition to systemic expansionism coupled with hands-on reform in aligned domains—reflected Darling's first-principles emphasis on verifiable outcomes over expansive governance.

Government Service and Conservation Advocacy

Appointment to Federal Roles

In early 1934, President appointed Jay Norwood "Ding" Darling as chief of the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey, the federal agency responsible for wildlife research and management that later evolved into the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The appointment, announced on March 10, 1934, came at the recommendation of Secretary of Agriculture and reflected Roosevelt's effort to incorporate Republican conservation expertise into his administration amid the New Deal's expansion of federal environmental programs. Darling, a prominent Republican cartoonist and critic of expansive intervention, accepted the role despite initial reluctance and a significant salary reduction from his private earnings of approximately $100,000 annually to $8,000 in federal pay, viewing it as an opportunity to address pressing wildlife crises caused by drought, overhunting, and habitat loss. Darling's tenure began amid the era's ecological devastation, positioning him to influence federal policy directly; he served for about 20 months until late 1935, when he resigned to pursue broader advocacy. Concurrently, Roosevelt had appointed him earlier that year to the President's Committee on Wild Life Restoration, a blue-ribbon panel tasked with assessing national wildlife conditions and recommending restorative measures, further leveraging Darling's non-partisan reputation in conservation circles. These roles marked Darling's transition from editorial influence to executive authority, enabling him to advocate for practical, science-based interventions over ideological expansions, though he clashed internally with bureaucratic resistance to his reformist agenda.

Founding of Key Organizations and Programs

During his tenure as director of the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey from March 1934 to December 1935, Jay Norwood Darling spearheaded the establishment of the Program under the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act, enacted on March 16, 1934. This legislation mandated that migratory waterfowl hunters aged 16 and older purchase an annual stamp, with revenue dedicated to acquiring and preserving wetlands for waterfowl habitat within the System. Darling personally designed the inaugural , issued in July 1934, featuring a pair, which raised initial funds despite early sales challenges amid the . Darling also played a pivotal role in creating the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission in 1934, tasked with approving land acquisitions for migratory bird refuges using Duck Stamp proceeds and other federal funds. This body facilitated the purchase of over 1 million acres of habitat during his directorship, marking a foundational step in systematic federal wetland conservation. Complementing these efforts, Darling's advocacy extended to reforming and expanding the nascent National Wildlife Refuge System, though his contributions emphasized program initiation over outright creation of the system itself, which predated his appointment. Post-government, Darling co-founded the General Wildlife Federation in 1936, which evolved into the (NWF), serving as its first chairman to unify thousands of local conservation groups for coordinated . His $9,000 personal pledge in the 1950s further catalyzed the Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Units Program, establishing cooperative research outposts at universities to advance science, now numbering over 40 units nationwide. These initiatives reflected Darling's emphasis on self-funding, hunter-supported conservation mechanisms over expansive federal .

Practical Impacts on Wildlife Management

During his tenure as chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey from February 1934 to December 1935, Jay N. "Ding" Darling focused on practical habitat protection to address declining migratory bird populations amid drought and overhunting. He implemented the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act of 1934, commonly known as the Duck Stamp Act, which mandated that waterfowl hunters aged 16 and older purchase an annual $1 federal stamp. Darling personally sketched the inaugural stamp featuring two mallards, with proceeds earmarked exclusively for acquiring and managing wetland habitats critical for waterfowl breeding, migration, and wintering. The Duck Stamp program established a self-sustaining mechanism for federal land acquisition, bypassing reliance on fluctuating congressional appropriations. By 2011, it had generated over $750 million, enabling the purchase or lease of more than 5.3 million acres of and associated uplands within the System. This habitat expansion directly supported waterfowl management by providing protected breeding grounds and migration corridors, contributing to population recoveries; for instance, numbers, which had plummeted during era, rebounded through enhanced wintering areas funded by the program. Darling also advocated for the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937, or Pittman-Robertson Act, which imposed an excise tax on firearms, ammunition, and archery equipment, directing revenues to state wildlife agencies for habitat restoration, research, and hunter education. This legislation professionalized state-level management by funding surveys, predator control, and land purchases, with over $10 billion allocated to conservation projects by the early 21st century, fostering science-based practices that prioritized habitat over unregulated harvest. His emphasis on permanent refuges influenced the growth of the Refuge System, including efforts to safeguard species like the through targeted acquisitions on Captiva and Sanibel Islands. These initiatives shifted from reactive enforcement to proactive, funded stewardship, establishing precedents for user-pay systems that have sustained North American waterfowl populations and broader without general taxpayer burden.

Legacy and Ongoing Influence

Long-Term Policy and Habitat Effects

Darling's advocacy for the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act of 1934 established the program, requiring waterfowl hunters to purchase an annual stamp that directly funds acquisition and restoration. By 2024, the program had generated over $1.2 billion in revenue, enabling the protection of more than 6 million acres of critical migratory bird across the , including that support waterfowl populations and associated such as amphibians, , and . This self-sustaining model, rooted in user fees from hunters rather than general taxation, has demonstrated long-term efficacy in countering from and drainage, with 98% of proceeds allocated to easements and purchases. As chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey from 1934 to 1935, Darling accelerated the expansion of the National Wildlife Refuge System, adding numerous refuges and introducing the iconic "Blue Goose" emblem to demarcate protected areas, which remains in use today. His efforts secured industry commitments, including from firearms and ammunition manufacturers, to bolster federal wildlife restoration funds under the Pittman-Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937, which he helped shape, channeling excise taxes into habitat management and species recovery programs. These policies have preserved diverse ecosystems, mitigating declines in waterfowl breeding grounds and wintering areas; for instance, refuge expansions under his influence contributed to stabilizing populations of species like the and pintail amid 20th-century overhunting pressures. The enduring habitat effects extend beyond waterfowl to broader ecological benefits, as conserved wetlands filter pollutants, recharge aquifers, and buffer against flooding, with studies attributing reduced and improved to these protected lands. Darling's emphasis on practical, science-driven interventions—such as refuge-based breeding ground protections—has informed ongoing U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service strategies, though challenges persist from urban development and climate-induced sea-level rise threatening coastal refuges like the one named in his honor on Sanibel Island in 1967. Overall, his policies have fostered a legacy of resilient habitats, with annual Duck Stamp sales continuing to acquire approximately 20,000 to 30,000 acres yearly, sustaining in an era of intensifying land-use pressures.

Modern Applications and Challenges to His Approach

The Federal Duck Stamp program, initiated under Darling's advocacy through the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act of 1934, continues to fund wetland acquisition and habitat restoration, having generated over $1.2 billion since inception to conserve more than 6 million acres across the National Wildlife Refuge System as of 2023. Annual sales exceed 1.5 million stamps, with 98% of proceeds directed to the Migratory Bird Conservation Fund, demonstrating the enduring viability of Darling's user-pays principle where hunters directly finance conservation efforts. This mechanism underpins practical wildlife management in the expanded refuge network, now comprising over 570 units, where Darling's designed "Blue Goose" emblem delineates boundaries and symbolizes federal commitment to habitat protection. Darling's pragmatic emphasis on science-driven policies and stakeholder involvement persists in the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation, which prioritizes ownership of , democratic rule-making, and opportunity for all citizens, crediting hunter excise taxes and stamps for species recoveries like waterfowl populations depleted during the era. Modern implementations include refuge-specific successes, such as the J.N. "Ding" Darling on Sanibel Island, renamed in his honor in 1967 and ranking among the system's most visited sites, supporting protection and generating significant local economic benefits through . These applications reflect Darling's causal focus on habitat incentives over regulatory mandates, aligning with empirical outcomes in restoring migratory bird flyways. Challenges to Darling's approach arise from declining hunter participation, which has reduced license sales and strained agency revenues traditionally reliant on such sources, leaving state wildlife programs underfunded for both game and non-game species management as of the 2020s. Demographic shifts toward urbanization and alternative recreation erode the hunter base essential to his self-sustaining funding model, prompting concerns over agency relevancy and insufficient budgets amid expanding mandates like climate adaptation. Additionally, threats to the North American Model include pushes for wildlife privatization, unregulated commercial exploitation, and overly restrictive prohibitions that undermine public trust principles, complicating pragmatic habitat-focused strategies with ideological debates over access and use. These pressures test the model's resilience against broader policy shifts favoring centralized interventions over Darling's decentralized, evidence-based incentives.

References

  1. https://www.fws.gov/staff-profile/jn-ding-darling-1876-1962
  2. https://digital.lib.uiowa.edu/ding
  3. https://library.syracuse.edu/digital/guides/d/darling_j.htm
  4. https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/about-us-stamps-special-use-stamps-hunting-permit-duck-stamps-duck-stamp-artists-and
  5. https://www.drake.edu/darling/about/legacy/
  6. https://www.boone-crockett.org/bc-member-spotlight-jay-n-ding-darling
  7. https://riveraction.org/sites/default/files/Ding%2520-%2520The%2520Life%2520of%2520Jay%2520Norwood%2520Darling.pdf
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  10. https://npshistory.com/brochures/nwr/jn-ding-darling-1998.pdf
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  47. https://www.fws.gov/node/262619
  48. https://www.fws.gov/refuge/jn-ding-darling
  49. https://www.fws.gov/program/federal-duck-stamp
  50. https://www.regulations.gov/document/FWS-HQ-MB-2024-0042-0001
  51. https://wildlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/North-American-model-of-Wildlife-Conservation.pdf
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