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A 6-car Siemens Nexas EMU arrives at Flinders Street station on the Upfield service in Melbourne, Australia.
A DART 8500 class commuter EMU at Howth Junction railway station, Ireland.

An electric multiple unit or EMU is a multiple-unit train consisting of self-propelled carriages using electricity as the motive power. An EMU requires no separate locomotive, as electric traction motors are incorporated within one or a number of the carriages. An EMU is usually formed of two or more semi-permanently coupled carriages. However, electrically powered single-unit railcars are also generally classed as EMUs. The vast majority of EMUs are passenger trains but versions also exist for carrying mail.

EMUs are popular on intercity, commuter, and suburban rail networks around the world due to their fast acceleration and pollution-free operation,[1] and are used on most rapid-transit systems. Being quieter than diesel multiple units (DMUs) and locomotive-hauled trains, EMUs can operate later at night and more frequently without disturbing nearby residents. In addition, tunnel design for EMU trains is simpler as no provision is needed for exhausting fumes, although retrofitting existing limited-clearance tunnels to accommodate the extra equipment needed to transmit electric power to the train can be difficult.

History

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A Liverpool Overhead Railway carriage in the Museum of Liverpool. The first EMUs in 1893.
The prototype unit of JNR 201 series on public display at Harajuku Station in Tokyo, 13 May 1979. Next to it, a Yamanote Line's 103 series train can be seen passing through

Multiple unit train control was first used in the 1890s.

The Liverpool Overhead Railway opened in 1893 with two-car electric multiple units,[2] controllers in cabs at both ends directly controlling the traction current to motors on both cars.[3]

The multiple unit traction control system was developed by Frank Sprague and first applied and tested on the South Side Elevated Railroad (now part of the Chicago 'L') in 1897. In 1895, derived from his company's invention and production of direct current elevator control systems, Frank Sprague invented a multiple unit controller for electric train operation. This accelerated the construction of electric traction railways and trolley systems worldwide. Each car of the train has its own traction motors: by means of motor control relays in each car energized by train-line wires from the front car all of the traction motors in the train are controlled in unison.

As technology improved with more compact and reliable electrical systems becoming available, EMUs became more common and supplanted locomotive hauled stock on many networks. This process was accelerated on crowded networks with frequent trains, as the operational advantages in using EMUs outweighed the initial cost.

Types

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A 3rd-generation MEMU train produced by RCF and BHEL (India)
Metro-North Railroad M8 married pairs in Port Chester, New York

The cars that form a complete EMU set can usually be separated by function into four types: power car, motor car, driving car, and trailer car. Each car can have more than one function, such as a motor-driving car or power-driving car.

  • A power car carries the necessary equipment to draw power from the electrified infrastructure, such as pickup shoes for third rail systems and pantographs for overhead systems, and transformers.
  • Motor cars carry the traction motors to move the train, and are often combined with the power car to avoid high-voltage inter-car connections.
  • Driving cars are similar to a cab car, containing a driver's cab for controlling the train. An EMU will usually have two driving cars at its outer ends. These can have gangway connections to provide more operational flexibility, along with convenience for passengers.
  • Trailer cars are any cars (sometimes semi-permanently coupled) that carry little or no traction or power related equipment, and are similar to passenger cars in a locomotive-hauled train.
kitmasterbloke - https://www.flickr.com/photos/58415659@N00/53150386060/ CC BY 2.0 File:350231 Siemens Desiro EMU.jpg Created: 29 August 2023 Uploaded: 14 January 2024 Location: 53° 5′ 35.87″ N, 2° 26′ 8.11″ W
Coupled BR Class 350 EMUs on the lines outside Crewe Heritage Centre. Note the gangway connection on the driving car.

On third rail systems, the outer vehicles usually carry the pick up shoes with the motor vehicles receiving the current via intra-unit connections. This helps avoiding 'gapping' events where the unit is not in contact with the third rail and needs rescuing. For modern EMUs that operate on AC overhead systems, the traction motors have often moved from the power car to separate motor cars. The power car retains the transformer and sends the required energy via connectors to the motor cars. This helps to distribute weight along the length of the EMU and reduces the maximum axle load and track access/maintenance costs. This is not a consideration with DC powered sets as no transformer is required and any other conversion equipment is lighter.

The majority of EMUs are set up as twin/"married pair" units or longer sets. In addition to the traction motors, the ancillary equipment (air compressor and tanks, batteries and charging equipment, traction power and control equipment, etc.) are shared between the cars in the set. Since no car can operate independently, such sets are only split at maintenance facilities. For longer length EMUs (8+ cars) the unit will often have duplicate power, traction & braking systems in two halves of the set, providing redundancy for increased weight and cost.

Advantages of married pair or longer sets include weight and cost savings over single-unit cars (due to reducing the ancillary equipment required per set) while allowing multiple cars to be powered, unlike a motor-trailer combination. Each EMU has only two control cabs, located at the outer ends of the set. This saves space and expense over a cab at both ends of each car and provides more capacity. Disadvantages include a loss of operational flexibility, as trains must be multiples of a set length, and a failure on a single car could force removing the entire set from service.

In rare circumstances EMUs can operate like locomotives, hauling push-pull sets of trailer coaches. The BR class 432 was an example of this, hauling TC trailer units on services on the South West Main Line.

As high-speed trains

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A lineup of JR East Shinkansen trains in October 2012
APT-P (Class 370) at Carlisle, 1983
A China Railway High-speed CR400BF-G, in 2021

Some of the more famous electric multiple units in the world are high-speed trains, including the:

Fuel cell development

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EMUs powered by fuel cells are under development. If successful, this would avoid the need for an overhead line or third rail. An example is Alstom’s hydrogen-powered Coradia iLint.[4] The term hydrail has been coined for hydrogen-powered rail vehicles.[citation needed]

Battery electric multiple unit

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Main article: Battery electric multiple unit
A Stadler Flirt Akku NAH.SH BEMU operated in Germany

Many battery electric multiple units are in operation around the world, with the take up being strong. Many are bi-modal taking energy from onboard battery banks and line pickups such as overhead wires or third rail. In most cases the batteries are charged via the electric pickup when operating on electric mode.[citation needed]

Comparison with locomotives

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EMUs, when compared with electric locomotives, offer:[5]

  • Higher acceleration, since there are more motors sharing the same load, more motors allows for a higher total motor power output
  • Braking, including eddy current, rheostatic and/or regenerative braking, on multiple axles at once, greatly reducing wear on brake parts (as the wear can be distributed among more brakes) and allowing for faster braking (lower/reduced braking distances)
  • Reduced axle loads, since the need for a heavy locomotive is eliminated; this in turn allows for simpler and cheaper structures that use less material (like bridges and viaducts) and lower structure maintenance costs
  • Reduced ground vibrations, due to the above
  • Lower adhesion coefficients for driving (powered) axles, due to lower weight on these axles; weight is not concentrated on a locomotive
  • A higher degree of redundancy – performance is only minimally affected following the failure of a single motor or brake
  • Higher seating capacity, since there is no locomotive; all cars can contain seats.

Electric locomotives, when compared to EMUs, offer:

  • Less electrical equipment per train resulting in lower train manufacturing and maintenance costs
  • Allows for lower noise and vibration in passenger cars, since there are no motors or gearboxes on the bogies below the cars
  • Greater flexibility in use, can haul freight and passenger services

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Electric multiple unit

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
An electric multiple unit (EMU) is a passenger rail vehicle consisting of self-propelled cars equipped with distributed electric traction motors, allowing the entire train to be operated and controlled from a leading cab without a separate locomotive. EMUs draw electrical power primarily from overhead catenary wires using pantographs or from a third rail, enabling efficient operation on electrified tracks. The technology's development accelerated in the late 19th century, with inventor Frank J. Sprague patenting multiple-unit train control in 1895, which permitted a single operator to manage propulsion across multiple cars simultaneously. This innovation was first installed on the South Side Elevated Railroad in Chicago in 1897 and entered commercial service there on April 17, 1898, marking a pivotal advancement in urban rail transport. Today, EMUs form the backbone of many commuter, suburban, regional, and networks worldwide due to their rapid acceleration, capabilities, and lower emissions compared to diesel alternatives. For instance, , projects like Caltrain's in have introduced EMUs to enhance service frequency and reduce travel times by enabling quicker starts and stops. Globally, modern EMUs often incorporate advanced inverter-based control systems for variable voltage and frequency, improving energy efficiency and performance on diverse routes. These trains typically range from 2 to 16 cars in length, with configurations optimized for high passenger volumes in metropolitan areas.

Overview

Definition and Characteristics

An electric multiple unit (EMU) is a type of multiple-unit consisting of self-propelled passenger carriages powered by , where traction motors are distributed across the cars to enable operation without a separate . Unlike locomotive-hauled trains, EMUs integrate motive power directly into the passenger vehicles, allowing for more efficient acceleration and deceleration through coordinated control of multiple motors. Key characteristics of EMUs include their power collection systems, which typically use a to draw from overhead wires or a contact shoe from a for underfoot . Common electrification voltages are 25 kV AC at 50 or 60 Hz for high-speed and mainline services, and 750 V DC or 1.5 kV DC for urban and suburban networks, ensuring compatibility with regional infrastructure standards. Traction motors, often AC induction or synchronous types mounted under powered cars, provide propulsion, with configurations typically featuring motor cars equipped with these motors interspersed with unpowered trailer cars to balance load and capacity. EMUs employ multiple-unit control systems, connected via electrical jumper cables between cars, to synchronize acceleration, braking, and other functions across the formation for seamless operation as a single unit. Power from the collection system is distributed to the motors through inverters or resistance-based controllers, enabling precise torque management and regenerative braking to recover energy during deceleration. These features distinguish EMUs from early electric locomotives, which centralized power in a dedicated unit rather than distributing it throughout the train.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Electric multiple units (EMUs) provide significant operational benefits in , primarily stemming from their distributed traction systems. These systems enable faster acceleration, typically achieving rates of 1 to 1.5 m/s², which reduces dwell times at stations and improves overall journey efficiency on urban and suburban routes. Additionally, EMUs maximize passenger capacity by eliminating the space required for a separate , allowing the full length of the to be used for seating and standing areas without compromising performance. Energy efficiency is another key advantage, facilitated by that recovers up to 20-30% of braking energy, depending on operational conditions and system design. This recovery contributes to lower overall , with typical usage ranging from 5-10 kWh per train-kilometer, compared to higher rates for locomotive-hauled equivalents that lack and efficient recuperation. Over the lifecycle, integrated designs lead to reduced costs, with operating expenses often 20-30% lower than those of locomotive-hauled trains due to fewer mechanical interfaces and centralized diagnostics. Despite these strengths, EMUs present notable limitations. The requirement for electrification infrastructure imposes high initial , often making deployment uneconomical on low-traffic or remote lines where overhead wiring or third-rail systems must be installed. Operational flexibility is restricted, as EMUs cannot operate on non-electrified tracks without additional equipment like battery supplements, limiting their use in mixed networks. Furthermore, the complexity of multi-unit control systems, which synchronize power distribution across multiple cars, increases the risk of single-point failures that could sideline an entire formation. Weight distribution challenges arise from underfloor motors and equipment, potentially impacting ride quality through uneven loading and higher noise levels in passenger areas.

History

Early Developments

The development of electric multiple units (EMUs) emerged in the late amid the rapid advancement of electric traction technologies, driven by the limitations of in densely populated urban environments where frequent stops and high passenger volumes demanded more efficient, cleaner alternatives. The world's first practical EMU service began on March 6, 1893, with the opening of the in , featuring lightweight two-car sets equipped with series DC motors drawing power from a central at 500 volts. These units, designed for elevated operation over docks, allowed a single motorman to control acceleration, braking, and coupling of multiple cars, marking a pivotal shift toward self-propelled electric trains. Key milestones in the early further propelled EMU adoption, particularly through innovations in s. In the United States, inventor Frank J. Sprague patented the multiple-unit in 1895, enabling synchronized operation of motors across several cars from a single cab, which was first implemented on the Side Elevated Railroad in 1897 with four-car trains operating at 600 volts DC . This breakthrough facilitated the 1904 opening of New York's Interborough Rapid Transit (IRT) subway, where Sprague's system powered the initial fleet of EMUs, carrying over 150,000 passengers on its , with average daily ridership reaching about 300,000 by December 1904 and setting standards for urban . In , adoption accelerated in the with mainline experiments; for instance, the initiated electric trials on the suburban lines in 1900 using 750 volts DC , evolving into full EMU services with the electrification of the S-Bahn network starting in 1924. Technological drivers included the need for reliable power collection and voltage consistency to support , with early systems favoring 600-750 volts DC via for safety and simplicity in enclosed environments. Overhead electrification experiments pushed designs forward; Italy's Valtellina Railway, electrified in as Europe's first mainline electric route, employed an early bow-pantograph collector for 3,000-volt three-phase AC overhead lines, influencing subsequent EMU configurations despite initial locomotive haulage. During the , the UK's Southern Railway advanced EMU technology through extensive , introducing streamlined units like the 1937 4COR class with improved acceleration for suburban services, though remained limited to signaling enhancements rather than full integration until later decades. Regional pioneers highlighted divergent focuses: the emphasized urban elevated and subway EMUs for high-capacity transit, exemplified by Sprague's contributions to over 100 cities by 1910, while European efforts balanced urban systems like London's early tube EMUs with mainline trials, such as Italy's three-phase innovations and Germany's DC suburban , laying groundwork for standardized voltages around 1,200 volts DC by the 1930s.

Modern Expansion and Innovations

Following , the 1950s marked a boom in worldwide, driven by national efforts to modernize aging infrastructure and meet rising passenger demand. In the , British Rail's 1955 Modernisation Plan outlined ambitious electrification schemes for key routes, including the London suburban network, leading to the deployment of the Class 501 electric multiple units in 1955–1956 to enhance suburban services on the former lines. Similarly, in , economic revitalization prompted companies to introduce high-performance electric multiple units starting around , improving efficiency and capacity on densely populated urban corridors. The 1960s and 1970s saw the Shinkansen's debut in 1964 exert profound influence on global electric multiple unit design, pioneering aerodynamic profiles, distributed electric propulsion, and high-speed capabilities that inspired subsequent developments in and for both and commuter applications. Standardization efforts during this era, led by the (UIC), solidified the 25 kV 50 Hz AC overhead system as the prevailing European norm by the mid-1960s, enabling cross-border compatibility and scalable electric multiple unit production for mainline routes. By the 1980s, microprocessor-based control systems emerged, enhancing operational precision through automated acceleration, braking, and energy optimization, with initial implementations in the mid-1980s adapting proven electronics from freight applications to passenger electric multiple units for smoother performance. Innovations accelerated in the with the shift to asynchronous AC motors over traditional DC types, facilitated by advanced that reduced maintenance and improved efficiency; Japan's Series 300 in 1992 exemplified this through its gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor PWM converter-inverter setup, a precursor to widespread adoption. The 2000s integrated tilting mechanisms into electric multiple units to navigate curves at higher speeds without track upgrades, as demonstrated by the UK's Class 390 Pendolino, which utilized Fiat's active tilting technology upon entering service in 2001 on the . Global expansion intensified in during the 1970s, with Metro's network growth—including the Yūrakuchō Line extension—relying on new electric multiple unit fleets to accommodate surging ridership in Japan's capital. By the , China's rapid advancements positioned it as a leading exporter of high-speed electric multiple units, achieving net exporter status in 2010 and delivering technology to projects in , , and beyond, thereby influencing international standards. In the , EMU innovations have focused on , with battery-electric hybrids like the FLXdrive entering trials in by 2023 and hydrogen-powered units tested in since 2022, aiming for zero-emission operations.

Technical Design

Power Supply and Traction Systems

Electric multiple units (EMUs) primarily rely on overhead systems for power collection in mainline applications, where a standard 25 kV, 50 Hz AC supply is widely adopted in and to enable efficient long-distance transmission with minimal losses. In contrast, urban and metro EMUs often use third-rail systems delivering 750 V DC, which provide a compact and protected contact method suitable for enclosed environments, though limited to shorter distances due to higher transmission losses. The , mounted on the roof, maintains continuous contact with the catenary wire, applying a controlled uplift force typically between 70 N and 120 N to ensure stable current collection while minimizing wear and arcing. Historically, EMU traction systems employed DC series motors, valued for their high starting proportional to the product of (Φ) and armature current (I_a), as expressed in the T=kΦIaT = k \Phi I_a, where kk is a machine constant. Contemporary EMUs have shifted to AC induction or synchronous motors paired with variable frequency drives (VFDs), which adjust voltage and frequency to optimize speed control and achieve efficiencies exceeding 90%, reducing compared to earlier DC configurations. These AC systems distribute motors across bogies for balanced , enhancing overall performance. Onboard conversion equipment transforms the collected power for motor operation, including traction transformers that step down high-voltage AC to intermediate levels, followed by rectifiers—often four-quadrant pulse types—to convert AC to DC for intermediate circuits. Choppers then regulate the DC output to precise levels for the inverters feeding AC motors, enabling smooth acceleration and precise control. Regenerative braking circuits integrate into this setup by inverting motor-generated power during deceleration, recovering kinetic energy E=12mv2E = \frac{1}{2} m v^2 (where mm is train mass and vv is velocity) and feeding it back to the or onboard storage, potentially recapturing up to 70% of braking energy in rail applications. Safety features in EMU power systems include circuit breakers that interrupt fault currents to prevent damage from short circuits or faults, and overload protection relays that monitor motor currents and trip contactors during excessive loads. Earthing systems ground high-voltage equipment directly to the vehicle body, providing a low-impedance path for fault currents and ensuring rapid disconnection per standards for electrical control apparatus. These protections collectively mitigate risks of electrical hazards in dynamic rail environments.

Configurations and Formations

Electric multiple units (EMUs) are typically assembled in fixed formations ranging from 2 to 12 , depending on operational requirements such as route length and passenger demand. These consists often follow a modular , with a combination of powered motor cars (Mp), which house traction equipment, and unpowered trailer cars (T) that provide additional passenger space. A common arrangement is the basic three-car unit comprising a driving trailer, a motor car, and another trailer, which can be coupled to form longer rakes; for instance, 9-car or 12-car formations are standard in many suburban networks. The proportion of powered cars usually ranges from 25% to 60%, balancing power distribution for efficient while minimizing costs, though high-speed EMUs may incorporate more motor cars for enhanced performance. Fixed formations are prevalent in EMUs to ensure consistent performance and simplify maintenance, but variable consists allow operators to couple multiple units for peak-hour services, enabling flexible lengths up to 15 cars in some systems. Powered cars are distributed throughout the consist to optimize weight balance and traction, often with motor cars at both ends for bi-directional operation. This setup contrasts with locomotive-hauled by integrating directly into the cars, reducing the need for separate power units. Coupling mechanisms in EMUs facilitate both mechanical and electrical connections between cars, typically using automatic couplers that engage upon impact to secure the consist. These couplers incorporate electrical jumpers to transmit control signals, power, and communication lines, ensuring seamless integration of the train's systems. The UIC 558 standard (formerly UIC 568 until 1994) specifies 13-conductor connectors for remote control of functions like lighting, doors, and public address systems, promoting across European networks. Gangway designs, often featuring flexible or articulated connections, maintain passenger flow between cars while providing safety barriers and weather protection. Control hierarchies in EMUs rely on a master-slave architecture, where the leading cab acts as the master unit, issuing commands to slave units via wiring for synchronized operation. This system uses multi-wire harnesses, such as 27-point or 28-wire configurations, to propagate signals for , braking, and auxiliary functions across the consist, allowing a single operator to control the entire . Electro-pneumatic controls further enable precise coordination of traction and braking, with jumper cables ensuring reliable transmission even in extended formations. Customization of configurations often includes bi-level (double-decker) designs to boost capacity on congested routes, offering approximately 20% more seating compared to single-deck equivalents without extending length. These units stack two passenger levels, maximizing vertical space while adhering to platform and clearance constraints. features, such as low-floor designs with floor heights around 57 cm, incorporate wide doors, ramps, and dedicated spaces for wheelchairs and bicycles, facilitating level boarding and compliance with inclusive mobility standards. Retractable steps and modular interiors further enhance usability for diverse passengers.

Types and Variants

Commuter and Suburban EMUs

Commuter and suburban electric multiple units (EMUs) are optimized for high-frequency, short-distance services in densely populated urban and suburban areas, where rapid and deceleration are essential to handle frequent stops at closely spaced stations. These trains prioritize efficient passenger throughput over long-distance comfort, typically featuring systems that allow for quick starts from standstill, achieving acceleration rates of 1.2 to 1.5 m/s² to minimize dwell times at platforms. Design priorities for these EMUs emphasize short consists of 4 to 8 cars to match platform lengths in urban networks, enabling agile operation in constrained . A key feature is the multiple-door arrangement per car, often 4 doors on each side, which facilitates rapid boarding and alighting for high volumes of standing passengers during peak hours. This configuration reduces average journey times by streamlining passenger flow, particularly in systems with headways as short as 2-3 minutes. Typical specifications for commuter and suburban EMUs include top speeds of 80 to 120 km/h, sufficient for routes spanning 20-50 km, with passenger capacities ranging from 500 to 1,000 per unit depending on seating and standing arrangements. For instance, the German ET 420 class (), introduced in the 1970s for networks, exemplifies this with its 4-car formation carrying up to approximately 450 passengers at 120 km/h maximum speed, influencing similar designs across . Operational features of these EMUs incorporate automatic train protection (ATP) systems to ensure safe adherence to tight schedules and signal compliance in congested corridors. Integration with is common in modern examples, enhancing safety by preventing falls and allowing for climate-controlled waiting areas, as seen in systems like Singapore's MRT. is tailored for stop-go cycles, averaging 4-6 kWh/km due to that recovers up to 30% of energy during frequent decelerations. Regional variations highlight adaptations to local demands, such as in Mumbai's suburban network, where EMUs handle extreme densities with 12-car rakes serving over 7 million daily riders across the network, with the Western and Central lines handling the majority. These units feature reinforced structures for overcrowding and are powered by 25 kV AC overhead lines to maintain reliability amid monsoon conditions and high humidity. In 2025, launched a tender for new EMUs as successors to the Class 420, with approximately 600 passenger capacity per unit, emphasizing improved accessibility and energy efficiency.

Intercity and Regional EMUs

Intercity and regional electric multiple units (EMUs) are designed for medium-distance passenger services, typically operating at balanced speeds of 120-200 km/h to optimize efficiency and comfort on routes spanning 100-300 km. These trains prioritize passenger amenities such as onboard facilities, connectivity, power sockets, and USB ports at seats, alongside and systems to enhance the travel experience during longer journeys. Configurations often feature longer consists of 6-12 cars to accommodate higher passenger volumes, with interiors engineered for quieter operation through low-noise materials and vibration-dampening designs that reduce interior sound levels to create a more serene environment compared to urban commuter trains. Key specifications emphasize aerodynamic profiling to minimize drag at operational speeds and advanced suspension systems to ensure stability and ride comfort on varied track conditions. For instance, the UK's , introduced in 1990, exemplifies early regional design with a maximum speed of 160 km/h and dual-voltage capability for flexible operations across electrified networks. These features allow for smoother high-speed travel while maintaining energy efficiency, with typical consumption rates of 6-8 kWh/km on standard routes, influenced by factors like train length and load. Operationally, intercity and regional EMUs incorporate advanced signaling like the (ETCS) Level 2, which enables continuous radio-based communication between the train and trackside for enhanced safety and optimized spacing on busy corridors. Seat reservations are standard to manage demand and ensure comfort, particularly on popular routes. Variations include tilting mechanisms for navigating curvy regional tracks, where an 8° tilt angle compensates for centrifugal forces, allowing speeds up to 30% higher through curves and reducing overall travel times by approximately 20%. In April 2025, Alstom was awarded a contract to supply 35 Coradia Stream interregional EMUs to Bulgaria, featuring speeds up to 200 km/h and advanced passenger amenities for enhanced regional connectivity.

High-Speed Applications

Design Adaptations

Electric multiple units (EMUs) designed for high-speed operations, typically exceeding 250 km/h, incorporate advanced aerodynamic features to minimize air resistance and enhance efficiency. Streamlined nose shapes are a key adaptation, reducing the aerodynamic drag coefficient to below 0.3 by smoothing airflow over the leading end and mitigating pressure drag. These designs often feature elongated, tapered profiles that can decrease overall drag by up to 32.5% compared to less optimized forms, allowing sustained high velocities with lower energy consumption. Structurally, high-speed EMUs utilize lightweight materials such as aluminum alloys and carbon fiber composites to achieve approximately 20% weight reduction relative to traditional steel constructions, improving acceleration and reducing track wear without compromising integrity. Bogie designs further support stability through active suspension systems, which dynamically adjust damping to counteract hunting oscillations and maintain wheel-rail contact at speeds over 300 km/h, ensuring ride comfort and safety. Propulsion systems in high-speed EMUs are upgraded for , with total outputs ranging from 5 to 10 MW distributed across multiple to enable rapid acceleration and maintain top speeds on grades. These , often permanent synchronous types, provide power densities exceeding 5 kW/kg, allowing compact integration within underfloor or end-car configurations. Pantographs are aerodynamically refined with streamlined collectors and fairings to reduce uplift forces and aerodynamic noise, achieving levels below 80 dB at operational speeds through vortex suppression and material damping. Safety adaptations emphasize and mitigation to protect passengers during potential impacts. EMUs adhere to standards like EN 15227, which mandates energy-absorbing front structures capable of withstanding collisions at up to 36 km/h against rigid obstacles, using deformable zones to limit intrusion into occupied spaces. prevention relies on enhanced wheel-rail guidance systems, including profiled wheels with optimized angles and lateral control mechanisms that maintain contact forces below 10% of vertical load, reducing climb risks on curves. High-speed EMUs require dedicated track , such as slab tracks, which embed rails in slabs for superior and reduced compared to ballasted tracks. Geometric tolerances are stringent, with rail and gauge variations limited to less than 5 mm to prevent instability and ensure precise guidance at elevated speeds. These tracks often incorporate continuous welded rails and automated monitoring to maintain alignment within ±2 mm laterally, supporting operational reliability.

Notable Examples and Networks

Japan's Shinkansen network represents one of the earliest and most influential high-speed EMU systems, with the Series 0 trains debuting in 1964 on the Tōkaidō line at an initial maximum speed of 210 km/h, revolutionizing intercity travel by reducing the to journey from over six hours to about four hours. The system has since expanded significantly, carrying over 310 million passengers annually as of recent years, with the - route now taking approximately 2 hours and 21 minutes on the fastest Nozomi services operating at up to 285 km/h. In , the (Train à Grande Vitesse) EMUs, built by , entered commercial service in 1981 on the Paris-Lyon line, achieving operational speeds of 260 km/h from the outset and later exceeding 300 km/h on dedicated tracks, setting a benchmark for European with over 2 billion kilometers traveled by the fleet since inception. A modified set the world speed record for conventional rail at 574.8 km/h in 2007 on the line. China's series debuted in 2008 on the – intercity railway at 350 km/h using CRH3 trains, rapidly expanding the world's largest high-speed network. China exported CRH-based EMUs to in 2015 under the , with the Jakarta-Bandung high-speed line opening in 2023 using CR400AF trains operating at 350 km/h, marking Southeast Asia's first such network and reducing travel time from three hours to 40 minutes. Europe's service, utilizing TGV-derived EMUs, commenced operations in 1994 through the , connecting to and at speeds up to 300 km/h, facilitating 19.5 million passengers in 2024. In , the , a semi-high-speed EMU, was introduced in 2019 with a design speed of 180 km/h (operational maximum 160 km/h), aimed at enhancing regional connectivity; as of November 2025, the fleet has expanded to 80 trainsets, with recent trials of sleeper variants achieving 180 km/h. Post-2020 expansions in have accelerated, with extending its network to approximately 48,000 km by the end of 2024 and surpassing 50,000 km by late 2025, adding multiple Vande Bharat routes, and Indonesia's line serving as a model for further Belt and Road projects despite financial challenges. In 2025, a test train reached 405 km/h during trials for the German ICE fleet, surpassing previous benchmarks and demonstrating ongoing advancements in high-speed EMU performance.

Emerging Technologies

Battery Electric Multiple Units

Battery electric multiple units (BEMUs) represent an evolution in rail propulsion, relying on rechargeable lithium-ion batteries to power electric traction motors without continuous connection to overhead wires. These units store onboard, enabling operation on non-electrified tracks or as a supplement to overhead lines in hybrid configurations. Lithium-ion batteries, the predominant choice for BEMUs due to their balance of , power output, and cycle life, typically offer gravimetric energy densities of 150-250 Wh/kg, allowing for sufficient capacity within the weight constraints of rail vehicles. Charging occurs primarily through pantographs connected to overhead lines during runs on electrified sections or at dedicated stations using high-power plugs or pantographs, with full charges achievable in 8-12 minutes for partial recharges or up to 30 minutes for complete replenishment depending on battery size and charger capacity. In design, BEMUs often feature compact formations of 2-4 cars to minimize mass and optimize use, with batteries integrated into underfloor or end-car modules. This configuration supports ranges of 50-100 km on battery power alone for typical regional services, covering short non-electrified branches or gaps in . systems recapture during deceleration, feeding it back to the batteries with efficiencies reaching up to 80% under optimal conditions, thereby extending operational range and reducing overall energy consumption. Prominent projects in the 2020s highlight BEMU viability for sustainable rail. In , Plus B entered passenger service in 2024 on the Ortenau network, utilizing lithium-ion batteries for up to 120 km of battery-only operation between charges at stations like and Biberach, demonstrating seamless integration with existing overhead infrastructure. introduced its first BEMU in 2025, a two-car unit from local manufacturer KONČAR, and entered passenger service on September 29, 2025, charged via overhead lines or stations to serve low-traffic lines with zero local emissions. In the UK, Great Western Railway's ongoing FastCharge trials, starting in 2024 and continuing into 2025, have tested a modified Class 230 converted to battery operation, achieving rapid 3.5-minute charges at depot stations for short runs and setting a battery distance record of 200.5 miles in August 2025. These initiatives often incur a 20-30% cost premium over conventional EMUs due to battery integration and specialized charging setups, though production scaling is expected to narrow this gap. Despite advantages, BEMUs face challenges including added battery weight, which can increase total by 10-15%, potentially impacting and energy efficiency on longer routes. Battery life cycles are typically rated for 1,500-2,000 full charge-discharge equivalents before significant capacity degradation, necessitating robust management and monitoring systems. Environmentally, BEMUs deliver zero tailpipe emissions on non-electrified segments, reducing local and compared to diesel alternatives, though lifecycle impacts depend on the carbon intensity of charging sources.

Fuel Cell Electric Multiple Units

Fuel cell electric multiple units (EMUs) utilize (PEM) fuel cells to generate from , offering a zero-emission alternative for non-electrified rail lines. These systems typically employ modular PEM fuel cell stacks with individual modules rated at 100-200 kW, scalable to meet trainset demands through parallel configurations. The electrochemical reaction in PEM fuel cells combines and oxygen to produce , with efficiencies ranging from 50-60%, significantly higher than combustion-based systems while emitting only as a . is stored onboard in compressed form at pressures around 350 bar, with capacities of 5-10 kg per car to support extended operations without reliance on overhead systems. In operation, fuel cell EMUs achieve ranges of 600-1000 km on a single fill, depending on configuration and load, with total power outputs from fuel cell stacks reaching up to 1 MW for a typical two-car set. Refueling times mirror those of diesel units, typically 10-15 minutes, enabling seamless integration into existing schedules. The stored feeds the fuel cell stacks, which power electric traction motors directly, supplemented by batteries for peak demands or energy . This setup provides consistent performance across varying terrains, with top speeds up to 140 km/h in regional applications. Key developments include the iLint, unveiled in 2018 and entering commercial service in in 2021 as the world's first hydrogen-powered . Operating at 140 km/h with a range exceeding 800 km, it has been deployed in fleets for regional routes, though expansions to 27 units faced delays until 2026 due to issues. However, as of 2025, operational challenges including supply shortages have led to temporary replacements with diesel units on some routes during modernization, with only a limited number of units currently in active service. In , JR East's HYBARI , a hybrid -battery two-car EMU, began trials in 2022 with a 100 km/h top speed and approximately 140 km range per fill, aiming for broader by 2030 to decarbonize urban lines. In the United States, the Zero-Emission (ZEMU) was unveiled in 2025 and entered passenger service in September 2025 on the San Bernardino Line (Arrow service), integrating hydrogen cells with batteries, marking North America's first such rail application. These units offer advantages such as near-zero emissions and extended range compared to battery-only systems, reducing impacts on non-electrified networks. However, challenges include the need for dedicated hydrogen refueling infrastructure, which remains limited globally, and higher initial costs estimated at 2-3 times those of conventional EMUs due to and storage components. Ongoing advancements in stack durability and aim to address these barriers, with prototypes demonstrating reliable performance in real-world trials.

Operations and Comparisons

Global Applications

Electric multiple units (EMUs) are extensively deployed across Europe's rail networks, where approximately 60% of the total track length is electrified, supporting the majority of passenger services. In and , combined electrified routes total approximately 37,000 kilometers, facilitating high-frequency commuter and regional operations primarily using EMUs. Urban systems like the London Underground operate an extensive fleet of over 400 EMU trains, serving millions of daily passengers on fully electrified lines. In , EMU adoption is particularly widespread, with featuring one of the highest electrification rates globally at around 60% of its network, though urban and intercity lines approach 80% electric operation and include over 3,000 EMU units in service. leads in high-speed applications, with its electrified high-speed rail network spanning over 50,000 kilometers as of late 2025 and a fleet exceeding 5,000 EMU trainsets dedicated to these routes. Beyond Europe and Asia, EMU usage varies by region, with Australia employing regional fleets such as the 119-unit Waratah series on Sydney's suburban network for reliable electric services. In Africa, adoption remains limited but includes the in , a 24-train EMU fleet connecting and on an 80-kilometer electrified line. In the Americas, urban rail systems dominate, exemplified by the MTA's subway with approximately 6,712 electric rail cars forming EMU consists across its network. Global trends indicate accelerating EMU deployment driven by electrification expansion, with the International Energy Agency forecasting a roughly 20% increase in electrified rail infrastructure worldwide by 2030 to support decarbonization efforts. Policy initiatives, such as the European Union's Green Deal, target full electrification of the core TEN-T network by 2030, promoting EMUs as a key element in strategies.

Versus Locomotive-Hauled and Diesel Units

Electric multiple units (EMUs) provide superior acceleration compared to locomotive-hauled trains due to their distributed traction systems, which place motors under multiple cars rather than concentrating power in a single , thereby minimizing slip and improving the . This distributed enables EMUs to achieve faster startup and shorter stopping distances, enhancing service frequency on routes with frequent stops. In terms of energy efficiency, EMUs typically consume 5-10% less power than equivalent locomotive-hauled configurations, primarily from reduced mass and optimized traction distribution, though savings can vary with train length and operating conditions. However, EMUs offer less route flexibility than locomotive-hauled electric trains, as they depend entirely on overhead or third-rail , limiting deployment on non-electrified lines. Compared to diesel multiple units (DMUs), EMUs produce tailpipe emissions, contrasting with DMUs that emit approximately 35 grams of CO₂ per passenger-kilometer under typical operations, contributing to lower overall environmental impact when powered by renewable grid . EMUs are also quieter, with external levels around 70-80 dB(A) during pass-by at moderate speeds, versus 85-95 dB(A) for DMUs due to the absence of rumble and exhaust. Additionally, EMUs support higher top speeds—often exceeding 160 km/h—thanks to lightweight construction and , while DMUs are generally capped at 120-140 km/h for efficiency reasons. DMUs remain prevalent on non-electrified tracks, which comprise about 65% of the global rail network, making them a practical choice for low-density or remote routes where is uneconomical. In haulage efficiency, EMUs excel through distributed tractive effort across all axles, enabling uniform acceleration where F=m⋅aF = m \cdot a is applied consistently along the length, reducing energy losses from uneven power delivery seen in locomotive-hauled setups. Economically, converting a kilometer of track to costs $1-2 million, offering long-term savings over purchasing DMUs at $3-5 million per two-car unit, particularly for high-traffic corridors where payback occurs within 10-15 years via lower operating costs. For mixed electrification networks, hybrid electro-diesel multiple units bridge and DMU capabilities, automatically switching propulsion modes to handle transitions between electrified and non-electrified sections without service interruptions, as seen in systems like the UK's Class 800 series. These bi-mode trains reduce the need for full electrification while maintaining -like efficiency on powered segments.

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