Hubbry Logo
GuntherGuntherMain
Open search
Gunther
Community hub
Gunther
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Gunther
Gunther
Gunther
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
According to the Nibelungenlied (1859) by Peter von Cornelius, Gunther orders Hagen to drop the hoard into the Rhine.

Gundaharius or Gundahar (died 437), better known by his legendary names Gunther (Middle High German: Gunther) or Gunnar (Old Norse: Gunnarr), was a historical King of the Burgundians in the early 5th century. Gundahar is attested as ruling his people shortly after they crossed the Rhine into Roman Gaul. He was involved in the campaigns of the failed Roman usurper Jovinus before the latter's defeat, after which he was settled on the left bank of the Rhine as a Roman ally. In 436, Gundahar launched an attack from his kingdom on the Roman province of Belgica Prima. He was defeated by the Roman general Flavius Aetius, who destroyed Gundahar's kingdom with the help of Hunnish mercenaries the following year, resulting in Gundahar's death.

The historical Gundahar's death became the basis for a tradition in Germanic heroic legend in which the legendary Gunther met his death at the court of Attila the Hun (Etzel/Atli). The character also became attached to other legends: most notably he is associated with Siegfried/Sigurd and Brunhild, and is implicated in Sigurd's murder. He also appears as an adversary in the legend of Walter of Aquitaine. It is generally assumed that Gunther's involvement in these other legends, in which he plays a secondary or antagonistic role, is a later development.[1] Gunther's importance in the story of the destruction of the Burgundians also waned with time.[2]

Gunther appears as a legendary character in Latin, Middle High German, Old Norse, and Old English texts, as well as in various pictorial depictions from Scandinavia. Most significantly, he plays a role in the German Nibelungenlied, the medieval Latin Waltharius, and the Old Norse Poetic Edda and Völsunga saga. He also plays an important role in Richard Wagner's operatic Ring cycle, which is based on the medieval legends of Sigurd.

Etymology

[edit]

The first element of Gunther's name is Proto-Germanic *gunþ-, meaning war or conflict.[3] The second element is Proto-Germanic *-hari, meaning army.[4]

The name of the historical Gundahar is attested in the primary sources as Latin Gundaharius or Gundicharius and Greek Γυντιάριος (Gyntiarios).[5] Medieval Latin gives the name of the legendary figure as Guntharius, while Anglo-Saxon has Gūðhere, Old Norse has Gunnarr, and Middle High German has Gunther.[6]

Historical Gundahar

[edit]
See also: Burgundian Revolt of Gunther

Gundahar is the first king of Burgundy to be historically attested.[5] It is unclear if he ruled alone or if he may have ruled together with brothers, as occurs in the heroic tradition; the title φύλαρχος (phylarchos) given to him by Olympiodorus of Thebes may suggest he was not the sole ruler.[5] In Prosper of Aquitaine he is identified as rex (king).[7]

A majority of the Burgundians crossed the Rhine in 406/407, together with numerous other Germanic tribes.[8] Their king Gundahar is first attested in 411 as cooperating with Goar, king of the Alans, to proclaim Jovinus as a new emperor in the province Germania Inferior on the lower Rhine.[5] He is attested as being involved in Jovinus's campaigns in southern Gaul.[5] Following Jovinus's defeat in 413, the Roman magister militum Constantius settled the Burgundians on the left bank of the Rhine as Roman foederati.[5] Based on the later heroic tradition, many scholars identify their area of settlement as around Worms, though some scholars have argued in favor of other locations.[5][9]

In the 430s, the Burgundians came under increasing pressure from the Huns; likely as a reaction to this Gundahar attacked the Roman province Belgica Prima (based around Trier) in 435.[7] The Burgundians were defeated by the Roman general Flavius Aetius, who nevertheless confirmed Gundahar and his people's rights to their kingdom.[7] However, the next year (436) Aetius, accompanied by Hunnish mercenaries, attacked and destroyed the Burgundian kingdom. According to Prosper of Aquitaine, Gundahar and the majority of his people found their deaths in Aetius's attack.[7][10]

Aetius resettled the survivors of the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom in Savoy on the upper Rhone.[10] The memory of Gundahar and his downfall was likely preserved by these survivors, as well as by observers from neighboring Germanic tribes.[11]

The late fifth-/early-sixth century Lex Burgundionum, produced by the Burgundian king Gundobad at the Burgundians' new kingdom, mentions four older Burgundian kings: Gibica, Gundomar, Gislaharius, and Gundahar. It makes no mention of any familial relationship between the kings, however.[12] In the heroic tradition, Gibica (Gibeche/Gjúki) appears as Gundahar's father, while Gundomar (Guthorm/Gernot) and Gislaharius (Giselher) appear as his brothers and co-kings.[12]

Anglo-Saxon traditions

[edit]

Waldere

[edit]

In the fragmentary Old English poem Waldere (c. 1000), the Old English attestation of the story of Walter of Aquitaine (see Waltharius under Continental traditions), Guðhere (Gunther) is preparing to attack Waldere (Walter). He refuses the gifts that Walther offers him to make peace and is portrayed as boastful.[13] It appears that Guðhere wishes to take the gold that Waldere has with him.[14]

Widsith

[edit]

The narrator of the Old English poem Widsith reports that he was given a ring by Guðhere when he visited the Burgundians (Burgendas).[13]

Continental traditions

[edit]

Waltharius

[edit]

The Waltharius is a Latin epic that reworks the legend of Walter of Aquitaine; it is conventionally dated to around 1000, but some scholars argue that it was produced in the Carolingian period.[15]

In Waltharius, Gunther (as Guntharius) appears as a king of the Franks with his capital at Worms.[16] At the beginning of the poem, Gunther's father Gibeche (Gibico) has sent his vassal Hagen (Hageno) to the Huns as a hostage because Gunther is still too young. Hagen later flees back to Gibeche's kingdom.[17] When Walter and his love Hiltgunt flee the Huns, taking much treasure, they enter into Gunther's kingdom by crossing the Rhine by Worms. They sell the ferryman fish they had brought with them in exchange for passage, and the ferryman brings these fish, which do not live in the area, to the king. Hagen tells Gunther that this must be Walter, and Gunther declares that now he can reclaim the gold that his father had paid to Attila in tribute. Although Hagen advises against it, the king sets out with some warriors to apprehend Walter and Hiltgunt. When Gunther finds the pair, he demands that Walter give him Hiltgunt and the gold. Walter refuses and kills Gunther's warriors as they attack, despite Gunther's encouragements. Finally, only Gunther and Hagen are left alive; they allow Walter to leave, then attack him from behind. Walter cuts off Gunther's leg, but Hagen saves the king's life when Walter wishes to kill him. After both Hagen and Walter have maimed each other, the fighting stops and Hiltgunt tends the warriors' wounds. The warriors then part in friendship.[18]

The story presents a contrast to Gunther's destruction in that he is attracted by the Huns' gold rather than the other way around.[19] Like Gunther's role in the death of Siegfried, his role in the legend of Walter places him in a negative light.[20]

Nibelungenlied

[edit]
Gunther and the Burgundians prepare to leave for Etzel's court. Hundeshagenscher Kodex

Gunther's story next appears in writing in the Nibelungenlied from c. 1200. In it, Gunther is the king of the Burgundians with a capital at Worms. He is the son of King Dancrat and Queen Ute and rules together with his royal brothers Giselher and Gernot, and his sister is named Kriemhild.[13] When Siegfried comes to Worms to woo Kriemhild, he first challenges Gunther as king before the situation is resolved peacefully. Gunther subsequently relies on Siegfried to defeat his enemies the Saxons and Danes. Eventually, Gunther offers to allow Siegfried to marry Kriemhild if Siegfried first helps him woo the queen of Iceland, Brunhild. Brunhild has set various martial and physical challenges that any suitor must accomplish, or else she will kill him. Siegfried uses his cloak of invisibility (Tarnkappe) to allow Gunther to accomplish each challenge, and Brunhild is forced to marry Gunther. She refuses, however, to sleep with Gunther on her wedding night, tying him up and hanging him from a hook. Gunther again enlists Siegfried's help, who takes Gunther's shape and overpowers Brunhild so that Gunther can then sleep with her.[21]

Some time later, Kriemhild and Brunhild quarrel, and Kriemhild tells Brunhild that Siegfried and not Gunther took her virginity. Brunhild complains to Gunther, who causes Siegfried to publicly swear that this is not true. Brunhild and Gunther's vassal Hagen, however, are not satisfied, and convince Gunther to have Siegfried murdered while on a hunt. Hagen kills Siegfried, taking possession of his sword Balmung, and later arranges to steal the hoard of the Nibelungs that rightfully belongs to Kriemhild as Siegfried's widow. After some time, Kriemhild is persuaded to be reconciled with Gunther, but not with Hagen. After she has been married to King Etzel (Attila) of the Huns, she invites her brothers to visit, plotting revenge. Gunther accepts this invitation despite Hagen's warning, and the Burgundians trek from Worms to Etzelburg (Buda). Gunther can be said to play a secondary role to Hagen in the conclusion of the Nibelungenlied.[22] When fighting begins, Gunther fights bravely. When only he and Hagen are left alive, Dietrich von Bern defeats and captures the two after his offers to surrender are rejected. Told by Hagen that he will only reveal the location of the hoard of the Nibelungs once Gunther is dead, Kriemhild has her brother beheaded.[23]

Þiðrekssaga

[edit]

Although the Þiðrekssaga (c. 1250) is written in Old Norse, the majority of the material is translated from German (particularly Low German) oral tales, as well as possibly some from German written sources such as the Nibelungenlied.[24] Therefore, it is included here.

Gunnar (Gunther) is a king of the Niflungs who live in northern Germany at Niflungaland,[25] with a capital at Verniza (Worms).[26] He is the son of King Aldrian and Queen Oda and brother of Grimhild (Kriemhild), Gernoz (Gernot), and Gisler (Giselher), and half-brother of Högni (Hagen).[25] In another version of the saga, his father is Irung.[27]

Gunnar first appears when he takes part in the expedition of twelve heroes to Bertangenland organized by Thidrek (Dietrich von Bern). He loses in combat against one of King Isung's sons, but is freed once Thidrek defeats Sigurd (Siegfried).[25][28] Thidrek and Sigurd then accompany Gunnar back to his court, and Sigurd marries Gunnar's sister Grimhild. Sigurd suggests that Gunnar should marry Brunhild, and Gunnar agrees. Although Brunhild is initially reluctant, saying Sigurd had promised to marry her, she eventually agrees. However, she refuses to sleep with Gunnar and overpowers him with her immense strength when he tries to. Gunnar then tells Sigurd to take Gunnar's shape and deflower Brunhild for him. This takes away Brunhild's strength; after this, Brunhild is brought back to Gunnar's court.[29][28]

After some time conflict erupts between Brunhild and Grimhild over their respective statuses at court. The quarrel causes Grimhild to reveal to Brunhild that Sigurd took her virginity, not Gunnar. When Gunnar hears of this, he and Högni decide to kill Sigurd. Högni then kills Sigurd on a hunt, and Gunnar and he place the corpse in Grimhild's bed.[30] Later, Grimhild is married to Atli (Attila), and she invites her brothers to visit her and her new husband's court at Susat (Soest). She intends to kill them, while Atli desires the hoard they had taken from Sigurd. Gunnar agrees to come despite Högni's warnings. As in the Nibelungenlied, Gunnar plays a secondary role to Högni in the action at Atli's court.[31] Once fighting breaks out at the Hunnish court, Gunnar is taken captive. Grimhild tells Atli to throw him into a tower full of snakes, where he dies.[32]

The author of the saga has made a number of changes to create a more or less coherent story out of the many oral and possibly written sources that he used to create the saga.[33] The author mentions alternative Scandinavian versions of many of these same tales, and appears to have changed some details to match the stories known by his Scandinavian audience.[34][35] The saga's version of the downfall of the Burgundians represents a unique mix of elements known from the Norse and continental traditions.[36] Some elements that are closer to the Norse version may reflect genuine Low German traditions: a "snake tower" (Schlangenturm) is attested as having existed in Soest until the end of the eighteenth century.[37]

Scandinavian traditions and attestations

[edit]

The Poetic Edda

[edit]

The Poetic Edda, a collection of heroic and mythological Nordic poems, appears to have been compiled around 1270 in Iceland, and assembles mythological and heroic songs of various ages.[38] As elsewhere in the Scandinavian tradition, Gunnar is the son of Gjuki and the brother of Gudrun and Högni. Depending on the poem Guthorm is either his full brother, step-brother, or half-brother.[39] A sister Gullrönd also appears in one poem.[40]

Generally, none of the poems in the collection is thought to be older than 900 and some appear to have been written in the thirteenth century.[41] It is also possible that apparently old poems have been written in an archaicizing style and that apparently recent poems are reworkings of older material, so that reliable dating is impossible.[42]

Grípisspá

[edit]

In Grípisspá, a prophecy that Sigurd receives about his future life and deeds, Sigurd learns of his future marriage to Gudrun and his role taking Gunnar's place in his wooing of Brunhild, followed by his murder.[43]

The poem is probably not very old.[44]

Brot af Sigurðarkviðu

[edit]

Brot af Sigurðarkviðu is only preserved fragmentarily: the surviving part of the poem tells the story of Sigurd's murder. The fragment opens with Högni questioning Gunnar's decision to have Sigurd murdered, believing that Brunhild's claim that Sigurd slept with her might be false. Soon after the murder occurs, Gunnar shows himself to be deeply concerned about the future, while Brunhild admits that she lied to have Sigurd killed.[45] Gunnar plays only a supporting role in the surviving portion of the poem, with Brunhild and Gudrun being the more important characters.[46]

Sigurðarkviða hin skamma

[edit]

Sigurðarkviða hin skamma retells the story of Sigurd's life from his arrival at Gunnar's court to his murder. On account of its content, which dwells on psychological motivation, and its style, this poem is generally not thought to be very old.[46]

Sigurd and Gunnar become friends when Sigurd comes to Gunnar's court, and Sigurd aids Gunnar in his wooing of Brunhild. Sigurd marries Gudrun, but Brunhild desires him for herself. In her jealousy, she threatens to leave Gunnar if he does not have Sigurd murdered. Gunnar and Högni decide that the death of Sigurd is not as bad as losing the queen, so they have their brother Guthorm murder him in his bed. Brunhild laughs loudly when she hears Gudrun's wailing, and Gunnar insults her and makes accusations against her when he hears her laugh. Brunhild tells him that she never wanted to marry him, but was forced to by her brother Atli. She then kills herself in spite of Gunnar's attempts to change her mind.[47]

Dráp Niflunga

[edit]

The Dráp Niflunga is a short prose section connecting the death of Sigurd to the following poems about the Burgundians (Niflungs) and Atli (Attila). Atli, who is Brunhild's brother, blames Gunnar for Brunhild's death, and in order to placate him Gunnar marries Gudrun to Atli. Gunnar desires to marry Brunhild and Atli's sister Oddrun, but Atli refuses, so Gunnar and Oddrun become lovers. Some time later, Atli invites Gunnar and Högni to visit him, and they go despite a warning from Gudrun. Gunnar and Högni are taken prisoner, and Gunnar is thrown into a snake pit: he puts the snakes to sleep with his harp, but in the end one bites him in the liver, and he dies.[48]

Oddrúnargrátr

[edit]

In Oddrúnargrátr, Atli's sister Oddrun narrates the story of her love for Gunnar. She tells how Atli refused to marry her to Gunnar after her sister Brunhild's death. She and Gunnar nevertheless begin an affair, sleeping together until one day they are discovered. In anger, Atli then murders Gunnar and Högni, throwing Gunnar into a snake pit. Oddrun says that she tries to help Gunnar escape the snake pit, but by the time she got there he was already dead, as her mother had turned into a snake and bitten him.[49]

Oddrun appears to be a late addition to the legend, perhaps created so that the poet could "tell the story of the fall of the Nibelungs from a different point of view."[50] She also provides an additional reason for enmity between Gunnar and Atli besides Atli's lust for treasure in Gunnar's role as Oddrun's lover.[49]

Atlakviða

[edit]

In Atlakviða, Atli invites Högni and Gunnar to his hall, claiming to wish to offer them great riches, but actually intending to kill them. Gunnar decides to come although Gudrun has sent them a warning. They cross through Myrkviðr (mirkwood) on their way to Atli's court. Once they arrive, Atli captures Gunnar and Högni. He demands Gunnar's hoard of gold, but Gunnar says he will not tell Atli until Högni is dead. Atli then kills Högni and brings his heart to Gunnar, who laughs and says now only he knows the secret of the hoard's location. He refuses to tell Atli, so Atli has him thrown into a snake pit. Gunnar plays his harp there until he is bitten by a snake and dies.[51]

Atlakviða is commonly supposed to be one of the oldest poems in the Poetic Edda, possibly dating from the ninth century.[52] The poem is particularly notable in that Sigurd is not mentioned at all.[53] The presence of the forest Myrkviðr and the timelessness of the story show the poem to have moved into the realm of myth rather than historical legend.[54] Alternatively, Myrkviðr could refer to the Ore Mountains, which are called Miriquidui by the historian Thietmar of Merseburg in the eleventh century.[55]

Atlamál hin groenlenzku

[edit]

Atlamál hin groenlenzku tells the same story as Atlakviða with several important differences. When Gunnar receives Atli's invitation, he and Högni shrug off the warning sent by Gudrun. They then ignore the runes read by Högni's wife Kostbera telling them not to go, and an ominous dream by Gunnar's wife Glaumvör. When they arrive at Atli's court, Atli's messenger, who has accompanied them, announces that they must die. Gunnar and Högni kill him. Gudrun attempts to negotiate between the two sides but is unsuccessful; she fights with her brothers until they are captured. Atli then has Gunnar and Högni killed in order to spite Gudrun. Gunnar is thrown into a snake pit, where he plays the harp with his toes as his hands are bound. He is bitten and dies.[56]

Völsunga saga

[edit]

The Völsunga saga tells a longer prose version of Gunther's life and deeds. It follows the plot given in the Poetic Edda fairly closely, although there is no indication that the author knew the other text.[57] The author appears to have been working in Norway and to have known the Thidrekssaga (c. 1250), a translation of continental Germanic traditions into Old Norse (see Þiðrekssaga above). Therefore the Völsunga Saga is dated to sometime in the second half of the thirteenth century.[58]

Gunnar is portrayed as the son of Gjúki and Grimhild and brother of Högni, Gudrun, and Guthorm. After Sigurd's arrival at the Burgundian court, Gunnar is encouraged by Grimhild to marry Brynhild. Brynhild, however, refuses to marry any man but the one who can ride through a wall of flame. Gunnar is unable to do this, and so Sigurd takes his shape and performs the action for him. Brynhild is thus forced to marry Gunnar. Some time later, Gudrun and Brynhild quarrel about whether Sigurd or Gunnar has the highest rank at the court. Gudrun then reveals the deception to Brynhild, who demands vengeance from Gunnar. He is unable to change her mind, and she demands that he kill Sigurd. Gunnar and Högni decide that their younger brother Guthorm, who has not sworn any oaths to Sigurd, should perform the murder. They feed him with wolf meat to make him more ferocious, then send him to kill Sigurd in his bed. After the murder, Brynhild commits suicide and prophesies Gunnar's fate.[59]

In order to be reconciled to Brynhild's brother Atli for her death, Gunnar arranges for Sigurd's widow, his sister Gudrun, to marry Atli. He also seeks to marry Atli's other sister Oddrun, but Atli refuses and the two begin an affair.[60] Gunnar instead marries the woman Glaumvör.[61] After some time, desiring to avenge his sister and to gain Gunnar's treasure, Atli invites Gunnar and Högni to his court, intending to kill them. Gunnar is suspicious and Gudrun has tried to warn them not to come, but once he and Högni are drunk, Atli's messenger convinces them to accept the invitation. In spite of the warnings of their wives, Gunnar and Högni set out for Atli's court. Once they arrive the messenger reveals that it is a trap, and they kill him. Atli demands the treasure that Gunnar took for Sigurd, and when Gunnar refuses, they begin to fight. Eventually, Gunnar and Högni are captured. Gunnar says he will not tell Atli where the hoard is unless he sees Högni's heart. When he is finally shown the heart, Gunnar laughs and says that now only he knows where the hoard is and he will never tell. Atli then orders Gunnar thrown into a snake pit, where he plays the harp with his toes as his hands are bound. In the end, the snakes kill him.[62]

Pictorial depictions

[edit]
Gunnar in snakepit at Hylestad stave church, c. 1200. The instrument played is glossed "harp" today, but in Old Norse hǫrpu could apply to the Germanic lyre as well, which is depicted in this relief.

Gunnar's death in the snake pit is well attested in pictorial depictions. Not all images of a man in a snake pit can be identified as Gunnar: the image appears to predate the story of Gunnar's death.[63] Although only images that also depict a harp can be securely identified as depicting Gunnar, Aðalheiður Guðmundsdóttir argues that the presence of a harp appears to have originally been a variant of the story of Gunnar's death, and that images that do not depict a harp can therefore also depict Gunnar.[63]

Only one potential depiction is located outside of Scandinavia, on the Isle of Man: the Kirk Andreas cross (c. 1000) shows a bound figure surrounded by snakes who has been identified as Gunnar. An alternative interpretation is that the figure is meant to represent Loki.[64]

The earliest depiction that has been relatively securely identified as Gunnar is the picture stone Södermanland 40, from Västerljung, Sweden. Guðmundsdóttir argues that the presence of several Sigurd stones nearby make an identification of the bound figure on the stone with Gunnar very likely.[65]

Gunnar can be securely identified on a number of church portals and baptismal fonts in Norway or areas formerly under Norwegian control in Sweden (see the Norum font), with the earliest dating to the twelfth-century and most dating to around 1200 or later. In all of these images, Gunnar is shown with a harp.[66] The presence of Gunnar's death in Christian religious contexts shows that a Christian interpretation was common: his death was seen as typologically related to the story of Daniel in the lions' den.[67]

Seven additional images from Norway, Sweden, and the island of Gotland have been proposed to depict Gunnar in the snake pit, but without a harp: these images date from between the ninth and the eleventh centuries, and thus predate the secure attestations considerably.[68] The earliest of these proposed identifications are the carvings on the cart found with the ninth-century Oseberg Ship burial.[69] This identification is very controversial.[70] Guðmundsdóttir suggests that the picture stone Klinte Hunninge I from Gotland (ninth/tenth century) may depict a version of the story of Oddrun's aid to Gunnar, as it shows an unidentified female figure by the snake pit.[68] She argues in favor of identifying the figure in the snake pit in all of these images with Gunnar, noting their apparent shared iconography.[71] Guðmundsdóttir nevertheless dismisses a number of other proposed images of Gunnar, on the grounds that they are not clear.[72]

Wagnerian mythology

[edit]

Here Gunther is ruler of the Gibichungs, son of Gibich and Grimhilde. Hagen is his younger half-brother, Hagen's father being the villainous dwarf Alberich. Hagen convinces Gunther and Gutrune to respectively wed Brunhilde and Siegfried, using a love potion on Siegfried to make him forget Brunhilde. After Hagen murders Siegfried, he and Gunther argue over the ring and Hagen kills Gunther.

See also

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Millet 2008, p. 118.
  2. ^ Guðmundsdóttir & Cosser 2012, p. 1015.
  3. ^ Gillespie 1973.
  4. ^ Gillespie 1973, p. 136.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Anton 1999, p. 193.
  6. ^ Nedoma & Anton 1998, p. 67.
  7. ^ a b c d Anton 1999, p. 194.
  8. ^ Anton 1981, p. 238.
  9. ^ Anton 1981, pp. 238–240.
  10. ^ a b Anton 1981, p. 241.
  11. ^ Nedoma & Anton 1998, p. 69.
  12. ^ a b Nedoma & Anton 1998, p. 68.
  13. ^ a b c Gillespie 1973, p. 54.
  14. ^ Millet 2008, p. 109.
  15. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 105–106.
  16. ^ Rosenfeld 1981, p. 233.
  17. ^ Millet 2008, p. 106.
  18. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 108–109.
  19. ^ Millet 2008, p. 117.
  20. ^ Millet 2008, p. 198.
  21. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 181–182.
  22. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 78.
  23. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 183–185.
  24. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 270–273.
  25. ^ a b c Gillespie 1973, p. 55.
  26. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 103.
  27. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 50.
  28. ^ a b Millet 2008, p. 264.
  29. ^ Haymes & Samples 1996, p. 114.
  30. ^ Millet 2008, p. 266.
  31. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 76.
  32. ^ Millet 2008, p. 267.
  33. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 273–274.
  34. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 271–272.
  35. ^ Haymes 1988, pp. xxvii–xxix.
  36. ^ Uecker 1972, p. 42.
  37. ^ Gillespie 1973, p. 55 n. 9.
  38. ^ Millet 2008, p. 288.
  39. ^ Gillespie 1973, p. 50.
  40. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 75.
  41. ^ Haymes & Samples 1996, p. 119.
  42. ^ Millet 2008, p. 294.
  43. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 295–296.
  44. ^ Millet 2008, p. 301.
  45. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 296–297.
  46. ^ a b Würth 2005, p. 426.
  47. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 297–298.
  48. ^ Millet 2008, p. 298.
  49. ^ a b Millet 2008, p. 306.
  50. ^ Haymes & Samples 1996, p. 124.
  51. ^ Millet 2008, p. 49-50.
  52. ^ Millet 2008, p. 48, 51.
  53. ^ Beck 1973, p. 466-467.
  54. ^ Millet 2008, p. 58-59.
  55. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 101.
  56. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 299–300.
  57. ^ Millet 2008, p. 319.
  58. ^ Millet 2008, p. 313.
  59. ^ Millet 2008, p. 316.
  60. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 105.
  61. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 73.
  62. ^ Millet 2008, p. 317.
  63. ^ a b Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 352.
  64. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 353.
  65. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 355.
  66. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, pp. 355–358.
  67. ^ Millet 2008, p. 169.
  68. ^ a b Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 360.
  69. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 358.
  70. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 364.
  71. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, pp. 368–370.
  72. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, pp. 370–371.

General and cited references

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Gunther

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Gunther (: Gunther, : Gunnarr) is a legendary king of the in . He appears in various medieval texts, including the Latin epic Waltharius, the , the and , as well as in Richard Wagner's operatic cycle . In these stories, Gunther is typically portrayed as the brother of Kriemhild (or ) and a rival or ally to the hero (), often meeting his death at the court of the Hun (Etzel/Atli). The name Gunther derives from the Proto-Germanic elements gunþ- ("war" or "battle") and -hari ("army"), meaning "warrior" or "battle-army." It corresponds to the historical Burgundian king Gundahar (Latin: Gundaharius), who ruled in the early 5th century and led his people across the Rhine into Roman Gaul around 406–407 CE. Gundahar allied with Rome but was defeated and killed by the Roman general Flavius Aetius, with Hunnish assistance, in 436 or 437 CE near Worms. This historical event forms the basis for the legendary traditions surrounding Gunther's demise.

Name and Historical Origins

Etymology

The name Gunther originates from the Old High German Gundahar, a compound of gund ("battle" or "war") and hari ("army" or "warrior"), translating to "battle-army" or "warrior of battle." This structure traces back to Proto-Germanic roots gunþaz ("battle") and harjaz ("army" or "host"), reflecting the dithematic naming conventions common in early Germanic languages where personal names often combined elements denoting martial prowess. Linguistic variations appear across related Germanic branches, including Old English Guðhere (with guð for "battle" and here for "") and Old Norse Gunnarr (gunnr ""). These forms demonstrate typical phonetic evolutions, such as the fronting of vowels in North Germanic and the retention of harder consonants in West Germanic. Early attestations of cognate names occur in historical records from the , with the form Gundahar documented in Latin sources referring to a 5th-century Burgundian . In medieval contexts, the name and its variants are frequently recorded in charters and legal documents across Frankish and Germanic territories, indicating widespread use among and warriors from the 8th to 13th centuries. This prevalence highlights its enduring appeal, tied to symbolic associations of martial valor and royal authority in early Germanic heroic traditions. Over time, it evolved into the modern German Günther, with the umlaut on the u and a softened , continuing as a in German-speaking regions today.

Historical Gundahar

Gundahar, also known as Gundahar or Gunther, served as king of the during the early , approximately from 407 to 437 AD. He led his people in a significant migration across the River into around 406–407 AD, establishing a kingdom along the river's western bank, with settlements extending from to and the capital at Worms. This movement occurred amid the broader Völkerwanderung, as the sought new territories following pressures from other Germanic groups and the weakening of Roman defenses. Under Gundahar's leadership, the allied with as , receiving lands in exchange for , though tensions arose due to their expansionist ambitions. The pivotal event in Gundahar's reign was the catastrophic defeat of the Burgundians in 436–437 AD by Roman forces under the command of general Flavius Aetius, who employed Hun mercenaries to suppress what Rome viewed as a rebellion. The campaign resulted in the near-total destruction of the Burgundian kingdom, with contemporary chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine recording that "the Huns destroyed Gundicharius, king of the Burgundians, with his people" in 437, estimating massive casualties among the Burgundian warriors. Later historian Jordanes in his Getica corroborated the scale of the devastation, noting the Burgundians' role in Roman service prior to their downfall and the involvement of Hunnic auxiliaries in their annihilation. Gundahar himself perished in the conflict, marking the end of the first Burgundian realm on the Rhine. In the aftermath, surviving Burgundians were resettled by the Romans in Sapaudia, a region encompassing parts of modern-day western and eastern (Savoy area), where they were granted status in 443 AD under a new , Gundioc. This relocation allowed the Burgundians to rebuild, establishing a second kingdom that endured until the Frankish conquests in the . Archaeological findings support this transition, including 5th-century burials in the Rhône Valley containing Germanic-style artifacts such as weapons, jewelry, and pottery indicative of Burgundian elite presence, blending Roman and barbarian elements. The historical annihilation of Gundahar's kingdom profoundly influenced later Germanic legends, mythologizing the event as a tale of treachery, heroic resistance, and inevitable doom. The by Roman-Hunnic forces evolved into epic narratives of by the , with Gundahar's death inspiring the figure of Gunther in medieval works, where the Burgundians' fate symbolizes the tragic fall of a proud people amid alliances gone awry.

Anglo-Saxon Traditions

Waldere

The Waldere is a fragmentary Old English epic poem preserved in two leaves containing approximately 63 lines, discovered in 1860 as part of the binding of an early modern book in the Royal Library of (Ny kgl. s. ms. 167b 4to). The manuscript's handwriting dates to around 1000 CE, though linguistic analysis suggests the poem's composition occurred between the 8th and 10th centuries, making it one of the earliest vernacular treatments of the Walter legend in Germanic tradition. These fragments, written in late West Saxon with some Anglian influences, exhibit strong ties to continental Germanic heroic motifs, sharing vocabulary and themes with Latin and versions of the tale while adapting them to Anglo-Saxon poetic conventions. In the poem, Guthere (also spelled Guðhere), king of the , emerges as a central who leads a pursuit against the hero (Walter of ) and his companion Hildegyð (Hildegund) as they flee with treasure from the court of the Hun. Accompanied by his Hagan and eleven retainers, Guthere seeks to seize the gold and jewels, driven by a sense of entitlement and the heroic imperative to claim worthy spoils. Despite their opposition, Guthere is depicted not as a mere villain but as a formidable warrior-king whose actions embody the code of loyalty to his kin and realm, contrasting with the exiles' desperate flight. His role underscores the tragic feud arising from past alliances turned sour, as Waldere and Hagan had once served together under Attila, highlighting Guthere's position as a wise but implacable ruler enforcing Burgundian honor. A pivotal scene unfolds in Fragment II (lines 1–31), where Guthere confronts in single combat on the banks of the , just before their , in a dialogue rich with boasts and reminiscences of shared history. addresses Guthere directly, praising his bravery and : "Lo, great was thy faith, '-friend, / that Hagen's hand would hold me to warfare; / yet the atheling famous with edge of / should spill the life from many a !" (translation adapted from Gummere). Guthere responds with defiance, boasting of his own prowess and vowing to avenge his fallen men, while counters by invoking the legendary Mimming—forged by the smith Weland and concealed in a stone vessel—emphasizing its role in the impending clash as a symbol of unmatched heroism. This exchange, laced with irony given their former camaraderie, elevates Guthere as an equal in valor, yet positions him as the avenger whose pursuit forces the exiles into mortal combat. Guthere's characterization as a balances regal with the raw demands of vengeance, portraying him as astute in rallying his forces but ultimately vulnerable to the heroic code's inexorable toll. The fragments imply his defeat through severe wounding in the melee—alongside and Hagan—leading to a hard-won where the battered warriors share drink and peace, underscoring the futility of endless feud. This resolution tempers Guthere's image as a relentless pursuer with a capacity for magnanimous closure, aligning with Anglo-Saxon ideals of comitatus bonds enduring beyond battle. Thematically, Waldere through Guthere explores honor amid exile, the clash between loyalty to lord and old friendships, and the heroic ethos of pre-Norman English literature, where treasures like Mimming represent not just wealth but the perilous allure of glory. Guthere's brief mention in the catalog poem as a renowned Burgundian ruler further attests to his stature in Anglo-Saxon oral traditions.

Widsith

The poem , preserved uniquely in the (a tenth-century anthology of Anglo-Saxon verse compiled around 975 CE), consists of 143 lines and takes the form of a first-person travelogue narrated by the (poet) Widsith, whose name means "wide journey" or "far-traveler." The work is structured as a series of catalogs enumerating the tribes, nations, and rulers encountered during Widsith's fictional wanderings, interspersed with personal anecdotes that highlight the rewards of poetic service to generous lords. Scholars generally date its composition to the late sixth or early seventh century, based on linguistic, metrical, and onomastic evidence, though debates persist regarding whether the core material reflects oral traditions from the (fourth to sixth centuries) or later Christian-era interpolations. In lines 57–71, Widsith recounts his visits to various northern European peoples, culminating in his time among the (Burgendas), where he names Guthhere as their ruler and praises him for exemplary . Guthhere is depicted rewarding the with a resplendent ring and in exchange for a song, portraying the king as "no sluggish" or miserly patron who embodies the ideal of royal generosity toward bards. This episode underscores themes of reciprocity in heroic society, with Guthhere's gifts symbolizing the cultural value placed on as a means of preserving fame. Earlier in the poem (lines 35–44), Widsith mentions (Ongle) as a brave ruler who, while young, defended his borders against invaders and secured a lasting , ruling for fifty winters as the wisest and most generous of kings—though no direct feud between Guthhere and Offa is detailed here. The portrayal of Guthhere draws on both historical and legendary elements, linking him to the real king Gundahar (died 437 CE), leader of the during their conflicts with the , while elevating him to an archetypal figure of kingship in Germanic lore. Scholarly analysis highlights ongoing debate over the poem's blend of verifiable history—such as references to tribes and rulers from the fifth and sixth centuries—with mythic embellishments, suggesting served to map a shared heroic geography for Anglo-Saxon audiences, influencing their conception of continental legends and the interconnected world of early medieval . This catalogic style not only preserves fragments of lost oral traditions but also reflects the scop's role in bridging past glories with contemporary identity.

Continental Traditions

Waltharius

The Waltharius is a 10th-century Latin epic poem, traditionally attributed to Ekkehard I, a and dean of the at St. Gallen who died around 973, although modern scholarship often regards the work as anonymous due to lack of definitive evidence linking it directly to him. Composed in 1,456 lines, the poem draws on pre-existing oral Germanic traditions, including legends from the Merovingian era, to narrate the exploits of the Visigothic hero Walter (Waltharius) following his escape from captivity under the Hun. Manuscripts of the text survive primarily from the St. Gallen , with the earliest complete version dating to the , reflecting its circulation in monastic scholarly circles during the Ottonian period. In the Waltharius, Gunther serves as the antagonistic king of the , whose envy of Walter's substantial gold hoard—acquired during his time among the —drives the central conflict. Upon learning that Walter is traveling through Frankish territory with his betrothed Hildegund and their treasure, Gunther assembles a force including his advisor to intercept them, demanding the gold as tribute and effectively plotting an ambush to seize it. This leads to a climactic battle in the dense Wasgenwald ( forest), where Walter single-handedly defends himself against Gunther's warriors, ultimately severing the king's right arm in a fierce before escaping with Hildegund. Gunther is depicted as an ambitious and treacherous ruler, whose actions stem from unchecked greed rather than honorable warfare, standing in stark contrast to Walter's embodiment of chivalric honor and loyalty. His cunning advisor , a fellow former captive of the who shares a past camaraderie with Walter, reluctantly aids the plot but ultimately withdraws from , highlighting Gunther's isolation and the internal tensions within his . This portrayal underscores Gunther's role as a foil to the heroic , emphasizing his willingness to betray alliances for personal gain. The poem's textual history reveals its roots in earlier Germanic oral narratives, adapted into a framework that imitates Virgilian epic style while incorporating elements of Merovingian royal lore, such as the historical Gundahar's conflicts with the . Preserved in several medieval codices from St. Gallen and related abbeys, the Waltharius exemplifies the fusion of pagan heroic motifs with Christian monastic learning, with no major variants altering Gunther's characterization across surviving copies. Underlying the narrative are moral undertones critiquing royal avarice, as Gunther's survival despite his maiming serves as a divine for his , sparing him only to leave him physically and symbolically diminished. This theme of retribution through personal loss reinforces the poem's exploration of revenge's corrosive effects, positioning Gunther's downfall as a against the perils of unchecked ambition in leadership.

Nibelungenlied

The Nibelungenlied, an anonymous epic poem composed around 1200, centers as the king of Worms and ruler of the , portraying him as the eldest son of King Dancrat and Queen Ute, and brother to Kriemhild, Gernot, and Giselher. In the narrative's first half, Gunther emerges as a noble yet ambitious leader seeking to expand his realm through strategic marriage, dispatching emissaries to to woo the formidable queen , whose superhuman strength and trials deter lesser suitors. Unable to prevail alone, Gunther enlists the aid of the hero , who uses a magical to perform the feats of throwing the , bounding the distance, and subduing Brunhild in bed, allowing Gunther to claim victory and secure the alliance. This deception binds the Burgundian court in a fragile web of obligations, with Siegfried rewarded by marriage to Kriemhild, Gunther's sister. Tensions escalate when Brunhild, humiliated upon learning of the ruse through Kriemhild's boastful revelation during a quarrel over precedence at church, demands justice from Gunther, who, torn between loyalty to his wife and fear of exposure, reluctantly consents to Hagen of Tronege's plot to assassinate Siegfried. Hagen tricks Kriemhild into revealing Siegfried's vulnerable spot—a mark from a dragon's blood bath—leading to the hero's murder during a hunt, an act that stains Gunther's honor and ignites the epic's cycle of vengeance. In the poem's second half, years later, Kriemhild remarries Etzel (the historical Attila), king of the Huns, and invites the Burgundians to Etzel's court under pretense of reconciliation. The visit erupts into carnage as old grudges resurface; Gunther and his kin fight valiantly but are overwhelmed, resulting in their captivity. Desperate to reclaim the Nibelung treasure—sunken in the Rhine by Hagen after Siegfried's death to thwart her—Kriemhild orders Gunther's beheading by her Hungarian guards, presenting his head to Hagen in a futile bid to extract the hoard’s location, only for Hagen to defy her to the end. Gunther's arc traces a tragic descent from a heroic, alliance-forging to a figure ensnared by fate, his initial prowess overshadowed by moral failings and dependence on vassals like , underscoring the epic's exploration of loyalty's fragility and 's inexorable consequences. Early depictions emphasize his courtly valor and familial devotion, as he hosts grand tournaments and protects his siblings, yet his complicity in Siegfried's reveals a prioritizing personal security over ethical bonds, accelerating the Burgundian downfall. By the finale, Gunther embodies the Nibelungs' doomed , his death symbolizing the annihilation of an entire lineage amid themes of wîl (fate) and retribution, where even kings cannot evade the poem's inexorable . Scholars note this development reflects the anonymous poet's of feudal hierarchies, where kingship demands unyielding resolve absent in Gunther's wavering decisions. The poem survives in over 30 manuscripts, with notable variants like the Codex Sangallensis 857 (manuscript B, ca. 1250–1270) from St. Gallen, which preserves a complete text emphasizing courtly elegance and includes illuminations depicting Gunther's enthronement and the Burgundian retinue's splendor. Composed during the Hohenstaufen dynasty's zenith under emperors like Frederick I Barbarossa, the mirrors contemporary imperial politics, with Gunther's Burgundian realm evoking the valley's strategic importance and the epic's portrayal of centralized kingship versus intrigue paralleling tensions between the and papal authority. Symbolically, the Nibelung treasure—a vast hoard of gold and gems seized by Siegfried and later controlled by the Burgundians—fuels Gunther's tragedy, representing both unparalleled wealth and a curse that invites greed and destruction. After Siegfried's slaying, Hagen sinks it to safeguard Burgundian sovereignty, but its loss becomes the catalyst for Kriemhild's revenge, as her unfulfilled claim drives the Etzel invitation and final bloodbath, illustrating how material allure erodes the bonds of kinship and honor central to Gunther's realm. This motif echoes earlier Latin tales like Waltharius, where greed motifs foreshadow the epic's downfall, but in the Nibelungenlied, it uniquely amplifies the king's fatal entanglement in cycles of possession and loss.

Thidrekssaga

The Þiðrekssaga, a 13th-century Old Norse prose narrative compiled in Norway, draws from Low German oral traditions and contemporary German heroic lays to recount the exploits of the Ostrogothic king Þiðrekr af Bern (Dietrich von Bern), integrating Gunnar (Gunther), the Burgundian ruler of the Niflungar, as a prominent secondary figure who alternates between ally and adversary. Written around 1250, the saga adapts these continental sources into a cohesive biography of Þiðrekr, embedding the Niflungar cycle within his broader heroic world rather than centering on Burgundian tragedy as in the contemporaneous Nibelungenlied. Preserved primarily in the Norwegian parchment manuscript known as the Membrame (Ms. Mb, Perg. fol. nr 4) from c. 1275–1300 and later redactions, it reflects a synthesis of Low German storytelling transmitted northward, possibly originating in regions like Westphalia during the late 12th century. Gunnar's role unfolds through key plot integrations that highlight his valor and entanglements with Þiðrekr's campaigns. Early on, he joins Þiðrekr's expedition of twelve heroes to Bertangenland, where Gunnar engages in fierce combats but ultimately yields to superior foes, underscoring his prowess as a steadfast companion. Later, Gunnar features prominently in the battle of the Rosengarten at Worms, a pivotal clash where Þiðrekr's forces, including the hero (), confront twelve invading knights from the Schanzbachtal region who seek to claim the Burgundian queen; Gunnar fights valiantly alongside his kin and the Niflungar, defending their realm against this external threat and forging temporary alliances with Þiðrekr's band. In the saga's adaptation of the Niflungar legend, Gunnar's personal arcs emphasize familial bonds and rivalries, particularly his marriage to Brynhildr (Brunhild), facilitated by Sigurd's invisible aid during her trials, and the ensuing feuds sparked by Brynhildr's discovery of the deception. Sigurd, in turn, weds Gunnar's sister Grimhildr (Kriemhild), binding the heroes through kinship while sowing discord; this betrayal culminates in Sigurd's slaying by the Niflungar at Grimhildr's urging, after which Gunnar inherits the cursed Niflungar treasure—won by Sigurd from dwarf kings Nyr and Lynung—and becomes its guardian amid escalating conflicts. Unique to the Þiðrekssaga's variants, Gunnar faces direct confrontation with Þiðrekr during the final Hunnic wars under Atli (Attila), where in some manuscript traditions, Þiðrekr captures and executes Gunnar personally after the Burgundians' defeat, portraying him as a tragic foil to the saga's invincible protagonist rather than its emotional core. Compared to the , the Þiðrekssaga subordinates Gunnar's narrative to Þiðrekr's overarching dominance, depicting the Burgundian king as a valiant but ultimately peripheral warrior whose ambitions and treasures serve to elevate the exiled hero's triumphs, with less focus on internal Niflungar vendettas and more on pan-Germanic heroic solidarity.

Scandinavian Traditions

In the , Gunnar, king of the Niflungar (or Gjúkungar), emerges as a central figure in several heroic lays, portraying him as a noble yet doomed ruler ensnared by familial loyalties, oaths, and the inexorable pull of fate. These 9th- to 10th-century Icelandic poems, preserved primarily in the manuscript, depict Gunnar through terse, dramatic stanzas that emphasize emotional turmoil, betrayal, and heroic defiance rather than linear narrative. His story intertwines with Sigurd's legacy, the cursed hoard of gold, and conflicts with kin, underscoring themes of tragic kingship across the cycle. The prophetic poem Grípisspá (Grípir's Prophecy) introduces Gunnar's future woes through the seer Grípir's visions to , foretelling the hero's arrival at Gunnar's court, his to Gunnar's Guðrún, and the ensuing betrayals that doom the Niflungar line. Grípir warns of Sigurd's slaying at 's behest, driven by Brynhildr's jealousy, and the subsequent vengeance that will engulf Gunnar in sorrow and death. This lay establishes Gunnar's role as a host bound by yet complicit in tragedy, highlighting the prophetic inevitability of his downfall. In Brot af Sigurðarkviðu (Fragment of Sigurd's Lay) and Sigurðarkviða hin skamma (The Short Lay of Sigurd), Gunnar is shown as actively complicit in 's , urged by his Brynhildr after she discovers Sigurd's prior in wooing her for Gunnar. Gunnar and his brothers Hǫgni and Guthormr ambush and kill Sigurd in his bed, an act that stains their honor and invites the curse of the dragon's gold into their lives, leading to endless guilt and familial strife. These fragments capture Gunnar's , as he weighs the loss of Brynhildr against blood-brotherhood oaths, ultimately choosing that seals his doomed fate. The brief Dráp Niflunga (Slaying of the Niflungar) recounts the acquisition of 's by Gunnar and Hǫgni after 's , emphasizing the gold's cursed nature originating from the dragon , slain by , which binds the brothers to a legacy of greed and destruction. The poem links this treasure—paid as wergild for the otter and tainted by Andvari's curse—to the Niflungar's ultimate ruin, portraying Gunnar as the guardian whose possession of the invites inevitable strife and , metaphorically chaining him to the dragon's lingering malice. Oddrúnargrátr (Oddrún's Lament) adds depth to Gunnar's character through his forbidden affair with Oddrún, sister of Atli and Brynhildr, thwarted by Atli and their mother Grímhildr despite mutual love. While aiding the laboring Borgny, Oddrún reveals their secret intimacy, spied upon in a hidden grove, which fuels Atli's rage and contributes to Gunnar's later torment. This lay humanizes Gunnar with layers of passionate defiance against kin prohibitions, contrasting his heroic stature with personal vulnerability. The climactic Atlakviða (Lay of Atli) and Atlamál hin grœnlenzku (The Greenland Lay of Atli) depict Gunnar's final defiance against his brother-in-law Atli (modeled on Attila the Hun), who lures him and Hǫgni to his hall coveting the hoard. Gunnar refuses to reveal the treasure's location in the , even after witnessing Hǫgni's heart ritually excised alive—a brutal carving evoking torment—to break his will. Thrown into a snake-filled pit, Gunnar plays a with his toes to repel the adders, dying unyieldingly as the sole survivor of his line, his blood staining the waters. These poems portray Gunnar's unbreaking resolve, prioritizing Niflungar honor over survival. Across these lays, recurring themes of (fate), vengeance, and the curse of Fáfnir's gold dominate Gunnar's arc, illustrating how prophetic inevitability and the tainted treasure propel cycles of and retribution among kin. The gold, cursed to bring to its possessors, symbolizes the inescapable doom binding , while his choices—oaths broken, loves forbidden—amplify themes of heroic in the Norse worldview.

Völsunga Saga

The , composed in around 1250, is a prose narrative that weaves together older oral traditions and poetic sources into a cohesive account of the clan's rise and fall. It draws extensively from the , incorporating stanzas and episodes such as those in Grípisspá and Atlakviða to frame key prophecies and events, while adapting them into a chronological story. Written in a Christianized society, the saga reflects subtle moral framing influenced by contemporary ethics, emphasizing the consequences of greed and betrayal as a form of doomed fate. , known as the son of King and Queen Grímhildr of the Gjúkungar, emerges as a central figure and ruler whose alliances define the saga's second half. Gunnar's arc begins with his strategic marriage to the Brynhildr, facilitated by his blood-brother , who slays the Fáfnir and acquires its cursed of Rhine gold. Unable to cross the flames surrounding Brynhildr's hall, Gunnar relies on Sigurd's shape-shifting magic—induced by Grímhildr's potion—to woo her in his guise, securing the union and forging a powerful between the Gjúkungar and Sigurd's lineage. This bond unravels when Brynhildr discovers the deception, inciting Gunnar and his brother Hogni to manipulate their younger brother into slaying Sigurd in his sleep, an act driven by Brynhildr's vengeful rage and the gold's corrupting influence. Brynhildr then immolates herself, cursing the and foretelling the family's doom, which highlights Gunnar's bravery tempered by susceptibility to manipulation by women and fateful oaths. The saga's climax unfolds in the Hunnic wars, where after Sigurd's and Brynhildr's , Gudrun (Gunnar's sister) marries King Atli ( the Hun), who covets the Rhine and invites Gunnar and Hogni to his hall under false pretenses—altered signal danger, but they proceed—leading to a fierce battle where the Gjúkungar suffer heavy losses before capture. Demanding the Rhine , Atli tortures Gunnar after Hogni's heart is cut out alive to test his resolve; yet Gunnar refuses to yield, declaring the treasure belongs to the 's guardians and symbolizing his unyielding honor even as the curse ensures his destruction. Bound in a snake-pit, Gunnar plays a with his toes to charm the serpents, dying only from a fatal bite guided by Atli's watchful gaze, underscoring his doomed heroism amid the gold's inexorable fate.

Pictorial Depictions

Among the earliest Scandinavian pictorial representations of in are 9th-10th century picture stones from , , including Ardre VIII (SHM 11118:8), Klinte Hunninge I (GF C9286), and Stenkyrka Smiss I (GF 3428), which depict a bound man surrounded by serpents without the motif. A vivid later example appears in the Romanesque carvings on the north portal of the Hylestad in , dating to around 1200. In this scene, is portrayed bound and immersed in a pit of writhing serpents, strumming a with his toes in a desperate bid to soothe the creatures before his inevitable death, as inspired by Norse legends like the . The intricate work emphasizes the tension between human ingenuity and fatal peril, with the harp serving as a central icon of defiance. Across these depictions, symbolic motifs recur to convey Gunnar's tragic essence: the snake pit's torment and the harp's musical heroism, evolving stylistically from the symbolic carvings on stones to the narrative-driven Romanesque reliefs at Hylestad.

Wagnerian Tradition

Der Ring des Nibelungen

In Richard Wagner's tetralogy , composed between 1848 and 1874, Gunther serves as the king of the Gibichungs and appears primarily in the final , . He is depicted as a figure of diminished authority, manipulated by his half-brother Hagen to pursue marriage with Brünnhilde through the aid of , who is deceived by a to believe he loves Gutrune, Gunther's sister. This arrangement underscores Gunther's reliance on external forces to achieve his ambitions, highlighting the cycle's exploration of power's corrupting influence. Key scenes involving Gunther emphasize his vulnerability and the tragic unraveling of alliances. In Act I, Gunther swears a blood oath of brotherhood with in the grand hall of the Gibichungs, binding the hero to assist in claiming Brünnhilde. Later, in Act III, following Brünnhilde's funeral pyre and the ensuing catastrophe, Gunther confronts Hagen over the ring, leading to his murder by his half-brother. These moments, set against Wagner's leitmotifs, portray Gunther's murder as a culmination of and downfall, rather than heroic resolve. Wagner alters Gunther's character from his medieval prototypes, presenting him as weak and subservient to , which shifts focus from personal heroism to themes of , fragile treaties, and inevitable ruin. This reinterpretation amplifies the Romantic emphasis on psychological depth and , using Gunther to illustrate the hollowness of worldly power. The draws from the and Scandinavian legends but modifies elements for musical-dramatic effect, such as enhancing the potion's role to heighten irony and manipulation. The tetralogy premiered as a complete cycle at the on August 17, 1876, with concluding the inaugural performances, establishing as a center for Wagnerian . Gunther's portrayal has influenced modern stagings, often emphasizing his in productions that critique , and extended to adaptations, where techniques from the Ring inform epic scores in works like those of Hollywood blockbusters. This legacy underscores the cycle's enduring impact on narrative and multimedia storytelling.

References

  1. https://www.etymonline.com/word/Gunther
  2. https://www.behindthename.com/name/gunther
  3. https://dmnes.org/name/Gunther
  4. http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/BURGUNDY%20KINGS.htm
  5. https://elfinspell.com/Gummere/Waldere.html
  6. https://www.oldenglishaerobics.net/waldere.php
  7. https://oldenglishpoetry.camden.rutgers.edu/widsith/
  8. https://www.cambridge.org/core_title/gb/404110
  9. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11061-012-9308-2
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26889860
  11. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/31172/31172-h/31172-h.htm
  12. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41534214
  13. https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004366374/BP000025.xml
  14. https://waltharius.fas.harvard.edu/Waltharius981English
  15. https://edblogs.columbia.edu/worldepics/project/walthariuslied/
  16. https://research-portal.st-andrews.ac.uk/files/252069476/MacLean_Waltharius_FINAL_final_SM_checked_pdf.pdf
  17. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30159089
  18. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5491/857a9bbc1d3690e998c1065369de077ee4fd.pdf
  19. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7321/7321-h/7321-h.htm
  20. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/bitstreams/1c6dd77b-85f5-4428-a815-a810faa042f1/download
  21. https://users.ox.ac.uk/~fmml2152/publications/Taylorian2024-Epic.pdf
  22. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3218/321827631001.pdf
  23. https://www.manuscripta.se/ms/101252
  24. https://www.academia.edu/31970510/A_Study_of_Gripisspa
  25. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:ee7cc4e6-e835-458f-9aca-90073ef471b1/files/m0dc759ec80dbf4affdd08b7f8eb5a1dc
  26. https://books.openbookpublishers.com/10.11647/obp.0308/ch22.xhtml
  27. https://sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe28.htm
  28. https://sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe36.htm
  29. https://sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe33.htm
  30. https://books.openbookpublishers.com/10.11647/obp.0308/ch27.xhtml
  31. https://books.openbookpublishers.com/10.11647/obp.0308/ch28.xhtml
  32. https://sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe34.htm
  33. https://sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe35.htm
  34. https://www.academia.edu/36942387/Destiny_and_shapings_in_the_poetic_Edda
  35. https://mimameidir.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/the-saga-of-the-volsungs-jackson-crawford.pdf
  36. https://scholarship.shu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3797&context=dissertations
  37. https://sites.pitt.edu/~dash/volsungsaga.html
  38. https://www.academia.edu/18135376/Gunnarr_Gj%C3%BAkason_and_images_of_snake_pits
  39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259429813_Gunnarr_and_the_Snake_Pit_in_Medieval_Art_and_Legend
  40. http://viking.archeurope.com/sigurd-stones/hylestad-stave-church/
  41. https://www.kennedy-center.org/education/resources-for-educators/classroom-resources/media-and-interactives/media/opera/rep/late-romantic/the-ring-of-the-nibelung/
  42. https://www.metopera.org/user-information/synopses-archive/gotterdammerung
  43. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1162
  44. https://americanhistory.si.edu/explore/stories/ecstatic-frenzy-over-wagners-ring-cycle-premieres
  45. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/08/31/how-wagner-shaped-hollywood
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.