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H-II
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H-II
H-II rocket at Tsukuba science museum & planetarium
FunctionMedium-lift launch vehicle
Manufacturer
Country of originJapan
Size
Height49 m (161 ft)
Diameter4 m (13 ft)
Mass260,000 kg (570,000 lb)
Stages2
Capacity
Payload to LEO
Mass10,060 kg (22,180 lb)
Payload to GTO
Mass3,930 kg (8,660 lb)
Associated rockets
FamilyH-II family
Based onH-I
Derivative workH-IIA
ComparableAriane 4, LVM3
Launch history
StatusRetired
Launch sitesTanegashima, LA-Y1
Total launches7
Success(es)5
Failure1
Partial failure1
First flight3 February 1994
Last flight15 November 1999
Boosters
No. boosters2
Maximum thrust1,540 kN (350,000 lbf)
Specific impulse273 s (2.68 km/s)
Burn time94 seconds
First stage
Powered by1 × LE-7
Maximum thrust1,078 kN (242,000 lbf)
Specific impulse446 s (4.37 km/s)
Burn time346 seconds
PropellantLH2 / LOX
Second stage
Powered by1 × LE-5A
Maximum thrust121.5 kN (27,300 lbf)
Specific impulse452 s (4.43 km/s)
Burn time600 seconds
PropellantLH2 / LOX
[edit on Wikidata]

The H-II (H2) rocket was a Japanese satellite launch system, which flew seven times between 1994 and 1999, with five successes. It was developed by NASDA in order to give Japan a capability to launch larger satellites in the 1990s.[1] It was the first two-stage liquid-fuelled rocket Japan made using only technologies developed domestically.[2] It was superseded by the H-IIA rocket following reliability and cost issues.

Background

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Prior to H-II, NASDA had to use components licensed by the United States in its rockets. In particular, crucial technologies of H-I and its predecessors were from the Delta rockets (the manufacturer of the Delta rockets, McDonnell Douglas, later Boeing and the United Launch Alliance, would later use the H-IIA's technologies (the rocket itself is the successor to the H-II) to create the Delta III, albeit short lived). Although the H-I did have some domestically produced components, such as LE-5 engine on the second stage and inertial guidance system, the most crucial part, the first stage engine, was a licence-built version of the Thor-ELT of the US. By developing the LE-7 liquid-fuel engine and the solid booster rockets for the first stage, all stages of H-II had become "domestically developed".

The H-II was developed under the following policies, according to a NASDA press release:[1]

  1. Develop the launch vehicle with Japanese space technology.
  2. Reduce both development period and costs by utilizing developed technologies as much as possible.
  3. Develop a vehicle which can be launched from the existing Tanegashima Space Center.
  4. Use design criteria which allows sufficient performance for both the main systems and subsystems. Ensure that development will be carried out properly, and safety is taken into account.

The H-II was new, incorporating larger LH2/LOX tanks, and a new upper stage, consisting of a cylindrical LH2 tank with a capsule-shaped LOX tank. The LH2 tank cylinder carried payload launch loads, while the LOX tank and engine were suspended below within the rocket's inter-stage. The second stage was powered by a single LE-5A engine.[3]

History

[edit]

Development of the LE-7 engine which started in 1984 was not without hardships, and a worker died in an accidental explosion. The first engine was completed in 1994, two years behind the original schedule. The Rocket Systems Corporation (RSC), a consortium of 74 companies including Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Nissan Motors, and NEC, was established in 1990 to manage launch operations after the rockets' completion. In 1992, it had 33 employees.[4]

In 1994, NASDA succeeded in launching the first H-II rocket, and succeeded in five launches by 1997. However, each launch cost 19 billion yen (US$190 million), too expensive compared to international competitors like Ariane. (This is in part due to the Plaza Accord's changes to the exchange rate, which was 240 yen to a dollar when the project planning started in 1982, but had changed to 100 yen a dollar by 1994.) Development of the next-generation H-IIA rockets started in order to minimize launch costs.

In 1996, RSC signed a contract with the Hughes Space and Communications Group to launch 10 satellites. The successive failure of flight 5 in 1998 and flight 8 in the following year brought an end to the H-II series and the contract with Hughes.[5] To investigate the cause of the failure and to direct resources into the H-IIA, NASDA cancelled flight 7 (which was to be launched after F8 due to changes in schedule), and terminated the H-II series.[2]

Launch history

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Main article: List of H-II series and H3 launches
Flight No. Date / time (UTC) Rocket,
Configuration 		Launch site Payload Payload mass Orbit Customer Launch
outcome
TF1 (Test Flight) 3 February 1994
22:20 		H-II Yoshinobu Launch Complex OREX (Orbital Re-entry Experiment), VEP (Vehicle Evaluation Payload) LEO / GTO Success
Ryūsei, Myōjō
TF2 28 August 1994
07:50 		H-II Yoshinobu Launch Complex ETS-VI (Engineering Test Satellite-VI) GEO Success
Kiku 6
TF3 18 March 1995
08:01 		H-II Yoshinobu Launch Complex GMS-5 (Geostationary Meteorological Satellite-5) / SFU (Space Flyer Unit) GEO / LEO Success
Himawari 5
F4 17 August 1996
01:53 		H-II Yoshinobu Launch Complex ADEOS I (Advanced Earth Observing Satellite) / Fuji OSCAR 29, JAS-2 LEO Success
Midori, Fuji 3
F6 November 27, 1997
21:27 		H-II Yoshinobu Launch Complex TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) / ETS-VII (Engineering Test Satellite-VII) LEO Success
Kiku 7 (Orihime & Hikoboshi)
F5 February 21, 1998
07:55 		H-II Yoshinobu Launch Complex COMETS (Communications and Broadcasting Engineering Test Satellites) GEO Partial failure
Kakehashi, Faulty brazing in second-stage engine cooling system caused engine burn through and cable damage resulting in shutdown midway through the upper stage's second burn, leaving spacecraft in elliptical LEO instead of GTO. Spacecraft thrusters raised orbit enough to complete some communications experiments.
F8 November 15, 1999
07:29 		H-II Yoshinobu Launch Complex MTSAT (Multi-functional Transport Satellite) GEO Failure
Cavitation in the first stage hydrogen turbopump impeller caused an impeller blade to fracture, resulting in loss of fuel and rapid shutdown of the engine at T+239 s. The vehicle impacted the ocean 380 km NW of Chichijima.
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See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

H-II

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from Grokipedia
The H-II was a two-stage expendable launch vehicle developed by the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA, now part of JAXA) using indigenous technology to place satellites into geostationary transfer orbit or multiple payloads into low- and medium-altitude orbits. Initiated in the late 1980s as Japan's first fully domestically produced rocket, the H-II featured a first stage powered by the LE-7 liquid-propellant engine providing 110 tons of thrust in vacuum, augmented by two solid rocket boosters each delivering 158 tons of thrust at sea level, and a second stage with the reignitable LE-5A engine producing 12 tons of thrust in vacuum. The vehicle measured 50 meters in length, had a diameter of 4 meters, and a total mass of 260 tons excluding payload, with an inertial guidance system incorporating ring laser gyros for precision navigation. It achieved its maiden flight on February 4, 1994, successfully deploying the Orbital Reentry Experiment (OREX), marking a milestone in Japan's space launch capabilities. Over its operational life, the H-II conducted seven launches between 1994 and 1999, carrying notable payloads such as the Engineering Test Satellite VI (ETS-VI) in 1994, the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) in 1997, and the Communications and Broadcasting Engineering Test Satellite (COMETS) in 1998, though it encountered failures in its fifth launch in 1998 and final mission in November 1999, leading to the program's termination. The H-II's technologies, including its engines and structures, directly influenced the development of its successor, the more reliable H-IIA rocket, which debuted in 2001 and continues to support Japan's space endeavors.

Background and Development

Origins and Objectives

The National Space Development Agency (NASDA) was established on October 1, 1969, under the National Space Development Agency Law, with the primary mandate to conduct integrated, systematic, and effective space development activities, thereby reducing Japan's reliance on foreign launch services such as the U.S. Delta rockets for its satellite programs. This creation marked a foundational step toward building domestic space capabilities, initially focused on technology acquisition and international collaboration, but evolving to emphasize self-reliance as Japan's space ambitions grew. In the , Japan's space policy underwent a significant shift toward greater , driven by , technological maturity, and a desire to participate more actively in global activities without dependency on U.S. technology transfers. This context prompted the government to prioritize indigenous launch systems, with NASDA leading efforts to develop vehicles capable of supporting national constellations and international missions. Budget allocations for space development, including preliminary studies for advanced launchers, began in fiscal year , reflecting this policy pivot and allocating resources to foster a robust national aerospace industry. The H-II program originated from a 1984 governmental decision to pursue a fully domestic next-generation launcher, with NASDA initiating basic studies in 1986 to meet strategic goals of launching heavy payloads independently. Key objectives included achieving a payload capacity of approximately 4 tons to (GTO), enabling reliable access for geostationary missions, and promoting cost efficiency through reusable technologies and industry partnerships. These aims were tied to supporting upcoming domestic satellites, such as the Engineering Test Satellite VI (ETS-VI), a 2-ton-class platform for advanced and communication tests, to demonstrate Japan's technological prowess in space applications. This initiative built on the partially imported H-I program, transitioning to full domestic development under H-II to solidify Japan's launch sovereignty and economic competitiveness in the international space market.

Development Process

The development of the H-II was approved by Japan's National Space Development Agency (NASDA) in 1985, with formal work commencing in August 1986 following the initiation of launch facility construction at the previous year. The program aimed to create a fully indigenous heavy-lift capability, building on prior H-I efforts, and progressed through key phases including design feasibility studies from 1984 to 1987 and prototype engine development starting in 1986. By the late , prototype assembly and initial testing were underway, with the static firing test facility for the first-stage engine completed at in 1988. Qualification for the first flight was originally targeted for 1992 but delayed to 1994 due to technical hurdles, culminating in the vehicle's readiness for its inaugural launch on February 4, 1994. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) served as the lead integrator for the H-II, overseeing overall vehicle assembly and systems integration, while Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries (now IHI Aerospace) developed the engine and its turbopumps, and contributed to structural components, including the . These collaborations emphasized domestic technology transfer, with MHI anticipating significant contracts totaling over $700 million from 1987 to 1989 for core development work. Technological advancements included the adoption of lightweight composite materials for the , such as reinforced plastic (GFRP) panels with aluminum honeycomb cores and a silicone resin insulator mixed with glass microballoons to enhance thermal protection and reduce mass. Structural integrity checks incorporated aluminum-lithium alloys for the first-stage tanks to optimize strength-to-weight ratios, aligning with the program's objectives for improved capacity to . Extensive ground testing at validated the vehicle's components, including hot-fire trials of the engine that accumulated over 16,600 seconds across 254 tests using 10 engines. These efforts encompassed dynamic evaluations—reaching 46,130 RPM for the unit and 20,000 RPM for the unit—and structural load assessments to ensure reliability under operational stresses. However, the program faced significant challenges, particularly with the 's staged-combustion cycle, which encountered combustion instability, turbine blade cracking from resonant vibrations, and transient issues like a 3% shortfall in fuel pump head rise. Early tests in 1989 produced multiple fires and explosions, including a gas incident in May 1991 and a explosion in August 1991, delaying qualification by up to three years and straining test facilities. These problems were resolved by 1993 through redesigns, such as replacing blisk turbine blades with fir-tree configurations using directionally solidified MAR-M-247 material and shifting the LOX turbine to full admission to mitigate dynamic loads, enabling stable operation and paving the way for flight certification.

Design and Technology

Overall Configuration

The is configured as a two-stage expendable optimized for medium-to-heavy lift missions, with an overall of 50 m, a core diameter of 2.5 m for both stages, and a total liftoff mass of approximately 260 tons. The first stage core measures 17.8 m in length and integrates with two solid rocket boosters for initial ascent thrust, while the second stage spans 14.0 m and provides orbital insertion capability. The , which encloses the satellite and separates after passing through the atmosphere, offers versatile options with diameters ranging from 4 m to 5.1 m to accommodate various sizes. This configuration supports satellites up to 4,000 kg in geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) through standardized adapter interfaces that ensure secure mounting and separation. Assembly occurs via at the Yoshinobu Launch Complex on Island, where stages and the are stacked atop a in a dedicated before transport to the pad; notably, the design omits additional strap-on boosters beyond the baseline pair, distinguishing it from certain predecessors that relied on more complex booster arrangements. Guidance is achieved through an employing a strapped-down with three ring laser gyroscopes and an onboard computer for real-time trajectory corrections.

Propulsion and Stages

The H-II launch vehicle's propulsion system relied on cryogenic (LOX) and (LH2) s for both stages, providing high for efficient ascent. This bipropellant combination, with its low molecular weight exhaust, enabled the rocket to achieve the velocity increments necessary for orbital insertion. The first stage was augmented by two solid rocket boosters (SRBs), each producing approximately 1,550 kN of at using polybutadiene composite solid , with a propellant mass of 62.5 tons per booster and a burn time of about 94 seconds. The first stage was powered by the engine, a domestically developed /LH2 engine producing 1,078 kN of vacuum . Gimbaled for three-axis control, the incorporated two LOX/LH2 turbopumps (one for each ) to deliver propellants at high pressure to the , supporting a total first stage capacity of 107.5 tons. This configuration contributed approximately 3.5 km/s of delta-v during ascent, propelling the vehicle through the dense lower atmosphere. The second stage employed the restartable LE-5A engine, an LOX/LH2 unit with 122 kN vacuum , allowing multiple burns for precise orbital maneuvers such as circularization or plane changes. With a propellant capacity of 14 tons, the stage provided about 4.5 km/s of delta-v, completing the velocity buildup to or beyond. Stage separation between the first and second stages utilized pneumatic pushers combined with pyrotechnic devices, ensuring a clean jettison at approximately 140 km altitude to minimize interference with the continuing ascent.

Launch Operations and Performance

Launch Sites and Infrastructure

The H-II launch vehicle utilized the Yoshinobu Launch Complex at the in , , as its primary launch site. This facility, located on the southeastern coast of Island, was designed to support large-scale orbital launches and served as the exclusive base for all seven H-II missions between 1994 and 1999. The dedicated , designated as Pad 1 (also referred to as Complex 1B), was constructed specifically for the H-II and completed in September 1991 following initial work that began in 1986. Key infrastructure elements at the Yoshinobu Complex included the Pad Service Tower (PST), a 61-meter-high mobile steel structure weighing approximately 1,000 tons, which facilitated vertical assembly, payload integration, and access for technicians during pre-launch preparations. Cryogenic propellant farms supplied (LOX) and (LH2) to the via dedicated pipelines, with storage facilities including a 1,000 kiloliter LH2 tank and a 2,500 kiloliter LOX tank to accommodate the H-II's propellant needs. and tracking stations, integrated with the site's control systems, enabled real-time data acquisition and monitoring from ground-based antennas. The assembled vehicle was transported to the pad on a along a rail system compatible with the H-II's 4-meter diameter and overall configuration. Launch campaigns for the H-II typically lasted about 30 days within a designated launch period, beginning with payload arrival and testing at the Second Spacecraft Test and Assembly Building, followed by integration with the vehicle in the , and culminating in rollout to the pad. This process incorporated protocols overseen by the Takesaki Range Control Center, ensuring compliance with flight termination criteria and ground assessments. systems featured a flight termination system (FTS) with onboard destruct charges activated automatically or by command if the vehicle deviated from its trajectory, supported by exclusion zones extending over the to protect maritime and terrestrial assets. Given its coastal location amid sensitive ecosystems, the site employed noise suppression measures, including a deluge system at the to mitigate acoustic impacts from the H-II's engine ignition, which generated over 1 million pounds of . Wildlife mitigation efforts addressed local species such as sea turtles and birds, involving seasonal monitoring and restricted access zones during launch windows to minimize disturbance.

Flight History and Outcomes

The H-II launch vehicle conducted a total of seven flights between 1994 and 1999, with four fully successful in delivering payloads to their intended orbits, two partial successes, and one failure. These missions primarily targeted geostationary transfer orbits (GTO) for communications and meteorological satellites, as well as low Earth orbits (LEO) for scientific observatories, demonstrating Japan's capability for independent space access. Payload masses to GTO typically ranged from 2 to 4 tons, supporting a mix of engineering test satellites and operational spacecraft. Note: Flight numbers were assigned prior to launch; Flight 5F occurred after 6F due to scheduling delays. Multi-orbit missions used payload dispensers for separate deployments. The flight manifest is summarized below:
FlightDate (UTC)ConfigurationPayload(s)OrbitOutcome
1F1994-02-03H-IIOREX (0.865 t), VEP/Myōjō (2.391 t)LEO (OREX) / GTO (VEP)Success
2F1994-08-28H-IIETS-VI/Kiku-6 + LAPS (3.800 t)GTOPartial failure ( failed to ignite, leaving in sub-GTO)
3F1995-03-18H-II + 2 SSBSFU (3.846 t), GMS-5/Himawari-5 (0.747 t)LEO (SFU) / GTO (GMS-5)Success
4F1996-08-17H-IIADEOS/Midori (3.560 t), JAS-2/Fuji (0.020 t)LEO/Sun-synchronousSuccess
6F1997-11-27H-IITRMM (3.620 t), ETS-VII/Orihime & Hikoboshi (1.960 t)LEOSuccess
5F1998-02-21H-IICOMETS/Kakehashi (2.700 t)GTOPartial failure (second-stage premature shutdown)
8F1999-11-15H-IIMTSAT prototype (2.900 t)GTOFailure (vehicle destroyed after deviation)
Payloads exemplified diverse applications, including re-entry technology tests (OREX on 1F), advanced communications engineering (ETS-VI on 2F and COMETS on 5F), microgravity research (SFU on 3F, retrieved by ), (ADEOS on 4F and TRMM on 6F for tropical rainfall mapping), and meteorological services (GMS-5 on 3F). The ETS-VII on 6F demonstrated autonomous satellite docking capabilities in LEO. Notable events included the partial failure on 2F, where the Liquid Apogee Propulsion System (LAPS) failed to , stranding ETS-VI in a low elliptical orbit from which it operated limited experiments before deorbit in 2003. The 3F mission highlighted international cooperation, as SFU conducted experiments and was recovered by NASA's crew. On 5F, a in the second-stage LE-5A engine's cooling circuit caused overheating and early shutdown 258 seconds into the burn, resulting in an elliptical orbit with a 9,300 km apogee instead of the targeted 36,000 km GTO apogee; the COMETS satellite used its onboard propulsion for partial orbit raising and completed most objectives over five years. The program concluded with the catastrophic 8F failure, triggered by a crack in a supply line branch pipe, leading to a , , and flight path deviation that prompted destruction 498 seconds after liftoff. Performance analysis revealed four full GTO successes (adjusted for post-launch corrections in partial missions), with orbit insertion discrepancies generally within 100 km for perigee and apogee in nominal missions, establishing reliable ascent profiles despite the late anomalies. Lessons from the 5F hydrogen leak emphasized improved sealing and cooling system redundancy, influencing successor designs, while the 8F LOX line fracture underscored the need for enhanced vibration-resistant in cryogenic plumbing, prompting a shift to the more robust variant.

Retirement and Legacy

Phase-Out Reasons

The H-II rocket program faced significant reliability challenges that undermined its viability, with one complete and one partial across its seven launches, resulting in five full successes and eroding confidence in the vehicle's performance. The partial failure during Flight 5 in 1998 stemmed from a faulty joint in the second-stage engine causing a cooling and premature shutdown, while the complete failure in Flight 8 in 1999 was attributed to in the first-stage leading to engine shutdown, highlighting persistent problems with the liquid hydrogen-fueled first-stage engine. These incidents contributed to a low overall success rate of approximately 71% for full missions, below the reliability thresholds required for sustained operational use. Economic factors further exacerbated the program's difficulties, as development costs exceeded 270 billion yen, substantially higher than anticipated and straining Japan's space budget. Per-launch costs averaged around 19 billion yen, rendering the H-II uncompetitive against international rivals and limiting its appeal for commercial satellite deployments. These overruns were deemed unsustainable, particularly given the limited number of flights and the need to allocate resources toward more cost-effective alternatives. Technological limitations also played a key role, with the H-II's fixed configuration offering less payload flexibility than contemporaries like the , which supported multiple variants for diverse mission profiles. This rigidity restricted the rocket's adaptability to varying satellite masses and orbits, reducing its market competitiveness in the global launch sector. In response to these issues, the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) conducted reviews throughout the that increasingly emphasized cost reduction, enhanced reliability, and exploration of reusability concepts to align with evolving space policy goals. The turning point came with the failure of Flight 8 in November 1999, prompting a comprehensive reevaluation of NASDA's programs. In 2000, NASDA announced the retirement of the H-II after completing its remaining scheduled launches, redirecting efforts toward evolved designs that addressed these shortcomings.

Technological Influence and Successors

The H-II rocket's innovations, particularly in its liquid-propellant engine technology, directly influenced the development of its successors, establishing a foundation for Japan's advanced launch capabilities. The engine family, central to the H-II's first stage, evolved into the variant for the , which debuted in 2001. This upgrade focused on enhancing reliability and reducing production costs through simplifications such as fewer weld joints, a redesigned main with reduced elements, and an improved using durable materials like MAR M247DS, while maintaining comparable performance levels including a sea-level of 854 kN. These modifications addressed lessons from H-II's operational challenges, enabling the to achieve a 98% success rate across 50 launches by mid-2025, primarily through the addition of solid rocket boosters (SRB-A) that increased payload capacity to (GTO) by approximately 4 metric tons in its baseline configuration. Building on this lineage, the variant, introduced in 2009, served as a heavy-lift precursor to the H3 by incorporating two LE-7A engines on its first stage and four SRB-A boosters, boosting (LEO) capacity to 16.5 metric tons. This design facilitated Japan's (HTV, or Kounotori) missions to the (ISS), completing nine successful cargo deliveries between 2009 and 2020 and demonstrating Japan's ability to support international crewed space efforts with up to 6 metric tons of pressurized and unpressurized payload per flight. The H-II series' emphasis on domestic —achieving nearly 100% indigenous components—fostered a skilled workforce and robust that sustained high levels of in subsequent programs, training engineers in cryogenic and integration techniques critical for ongoing space autonomy. The technological legacy of the H-II extends to the H3 rocket, operational since its successful second flight in 2024 and marking six consecutive successes by October 2025, with launches including the inaugural HTV-X cargo vehicle to the ISS. Drawing from H-II's reliability fixes, such as refined engine controls and structural testing protocols, the H3 incorporates evolved components like the LE-9 engine, which builds on LE-7A principles with an expander bleed cycle for 1.4 times the thrust (1,472 kN at sea level) while reducing part count by 20% for cost efficiency. This progression has positioned Japan to contribute to broader space endeavors, including Artemis program elements through enhanced propulsion expertise and launch services that support lunar Gateway logistics.

References

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  2. https://global.jaxa.jp/about/history/nasda/index_e.html
  3. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/nationalspacelaw/japan/nasda_1969E.html
  4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223633475_Japanese_space_policy_during_the_1980S_A_balance_between_autonomy_and_international_cooperation
  5. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdfplus/10.2514/6.IAC-05-E4.4.07
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  7. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.1994-901
  8. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2005/RAND_TR184.pdf
  9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576599001113
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  11. https://www.gao.gov/assets/nsiad-92-5.pdf
  12. https://www.mhi.com/jp/products/pdf/manual.pdf
  13. https://global.kawasaki.com/en/corp/rd/magazine/179/pdf/n179en06.pdf
  14. http://www.astronautix.com/h/h-ii.html
  15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576501001655
  16. http://www.astronautix.com/l/le-7.html
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  18. https://global.jaxa.jp/countdown/f11/presskit/tnsc_guide_e.pdf
  19. https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/japan/tanegashima.htm
  20. https://www.orbital-velocity.com/htv
  21. https://global.jaxa.jp/about/centers/tnsc/index.html
  22. https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau_fam/h-2.htm
  23. https://www.shippai.org/fkd/en/cfen/CA1000610.html
  24. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/852509
  25. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0011227519300517
  26. https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/japan/h-2.htm
  27. https://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/h2a6/essential_e.html
  28. https://global.jaxa.jp/activity/pr/jaxas/pdf/jaxatoday001.pdf
  29. https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/27/business/hughes-signs-up-to-launch-satellites-on-japan-rockets.html
  30. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2000/05/16/editorials/rockets-under-review/
  31. https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/11/japan-launches-data-relay-satellite/
  32. https://global.jaxa.jp/press/nasda/2000/hyouka_001025_e.html
  33. https://global.jaxa.jp/projects/rockets/h2a/
  34. https://global.jaxa.jp/projects/rockets/h2b/
  35. https://global.jaxa.jp/projects/rockets/h3/
  36. https://www.mhi.com/technology/review/sites/g/files/jwhtju2326/files/tr/pdf/e544/e544032.pdf
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