Hubbry Logo
KaragandaKaragandaMain
Open search
Karaganda
Community hub
Karaganda
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Karaganda
Karaganda
Karaganda
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Karaganda[a] or Karagandy[b] is a major city in central Kazakhstan and the capital of the Karaganda Region. It is the fifth-most populous city in the country, with a population of 497,777 as of the 2020 Census, marking an increase from 459,778 in 2009 and 436,864 in 1999. Karaganda is located approximately 230 kilometers (140 miles) southeast of Kazakhstan's capital city, Astana.

Key Information

Historically, Karaganda has been a central hub for coal mining, which has shaped its economy and development. The city saw significant growth during the Soviet Union, driven by the expansion of its coal industry. Coal remains a key sector in the city's economy, with mining continuing to be a significant contributor to its industrial base.

In addition to its industrial roots, Karaganda is home to a growing population and a rich cultural heritage. The city hosts several educational institutions, such as Karaganda State University, which support its role as an academic and research center in central Kazakhstan. Karaganda’s infrastructure and economy have been evolving, with modernization efforts in various sectors, including transportation, healthcare, and housing.

Karaganda is also known for its historical significance, having played an important role in the industrial development of the Soviet Union. Today, it stands as a key city in Kazakhstan, contributing to the country’s economy while maintaining its historical and cultural heritage.

Etymology

[edit]

The name Karaganda is derived from "caragana" bushes (Caragana arborescens, Caragana frutex), which are abundant in the area.[citation needed]

History

[edit]

Old Town

[edit]
Saint Joseph Cathedral

Modern-day Karaganda dates back to 1833, when local shepherd Appak Baizhanov [ru] allegedly found coal on the site of the city, prompting a coal mining boom.[3][4]: 30  By the late 19th century, the local mines had attracted workers from nearby villages, Russian merchants, and entrepreneurs from France and England.[3] After this initial boom, the mines were abandoned; they are often still labeled on city maps as the "Old Town", but almost nothing remains on that site.[citation needed]

20th century

[edit]

In the late 1920s, Soviet geologists examined the region's coal deposits, prompting Soviet authorities to establish the Karaganda Coal Trust, and plan for the creation of coal mines and a mining town in the area.[4]: 25  Planners set out to create a dozen coal mines, and drafted blueprints for a city to house an estimated 40,000 workers.[4]: 25  Coal mining in the area resumed in 1930, and temporary structures were built for miners and their families.[3] The new area for the city was to the south of the initial mines.[citation needed] Initially, Karaganda suffered from an inadequate amount of supplies, and living conditions in the settlement were often poor.[4]: 25–26  In 1930, coal production was below expectations.[4]: 26  In February 1931, the area was connected via railroad, bringing in a wealth of supplies and highly-qualified personnel.[4]: 26  Later that year, NKVD officials established the Karlag Prison.[4]: 26  Upon the establishment of the Karlag Prison, authorities began to import labor into the region en masse.[4]: 26  During the 1930s, the area experienced rapid growth.[4]: 17  In 1931, Karaganda was incorporated as a village, and in 1934, was declared a city.[3] Led by planner Alexander Ivanovich Kuznetsov, masters plans for Karaganda were laid out from 1934 until 1938.[3] During the Stalinist purges, peoples from many different nationalities, including Germans, Karachais, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Greeks, and Crimean Tatars were sent to Karlag.[3] By 1939, Karaganda had a population of about 100,000, about half of which were prisoners.[4]: 17 

In the 1940s, up to 70% of the city's inhabitants were ethnic Germans.[citation needed] Most of the ethnic Germans were Soviet Volga Germans who were collectively deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan on Stalin's order when Hitler invaded Soviet-annexed eastern Poland and the Soviet Union proper in 1941.[citation needed] Until the 1950s, many of these deportees were interned in labor camps, often simply because they were of German descent.[citation needed] The population of Karaganda fell by 14% from 1989 to 1999 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union; it was once Kazakhstan's second-largest city after Almaty.[citation needed] Over 100,000 people have since emigrated to Germany. There is also a concentration of ethnic Poles in the city.[citation needed]

Robert F. Kennedy (later US Attorney General and US Senator), alongside US Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, visited "five Soviet Central Asian Republics": Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tadzhikistan, Kirghizia, and Kazakhstan. While on the six week trip (e.g., Bukhara, 300 to 1 mosque after Soviet rule),[clarification needed] his biographers reported that their delegation was not allowed to visit the city of Karaganda which was one of the sites of the most notorious labor camps within the confines of the Soviet Union. The delegation was diverted to Siberia after four denials of visas.[5]

1962 electromagnetic pulse incident

[edit]
Nurken Abdirov Street at the corner of Gogol Street.

Karaganda suffered the most severe electromagnetic pulse effects ever observed when its electrical power plant was set on fire by currents induced in a 1,000 km (620 mi) long shallow buried power cable by Soviet Test ‘184’ on 22 October 1962.[citation needed] The test was part of the Soviet Project K nuclear tests (ABM System A proof tests), and consisted of a 300-kiloton high-altitude nuclear explosion at an altitude of 290 km (180 mi) over Zhezkazgan.[citation needed]

Prompt gamma ray-produced EMP induced a current of 2,500 amps measured by spark gaps in a 570 km (350 mi) stretch of overhead telephone line to Zharyq, blowing all the protective fuses.[citation needed] The late-time MHD-EMP was of low enough frequency to enable it to penetrate 90 cm (35 in) into the ground, overloading a shallow buried lead and steel tape-protected 1,000 km (620 mi) long power cable between Aqmola (now called Astana) and Almaty.[citation needed] It fired circuit breakers and set the Karaganda power plant on fire.[citation needed]

Late 20th century

[edit]

Kuznetsov's master plan for the city was intended to accommodate 300,000 inhabitants, which was surpassed by the late 1960s.[3] This prompted planners to devise a new plan with the goal of accommodating 600,000 people.[3] By the 1980s, the city's population surpassed 600,000 people, creating the need for further expansion.[3] In 1983, the Karaganda Circus was constructed, which was criticized for its high cost.[3]

In the early 1990s, Karaganda was briefly considered as a candidate for the capital of the (then) newly independent Republic of Kazakhstan, but its bid was turned down in favour of Astana.[citation needed]

21st century

[edit]

2019 archaeological findings

[edit]

In July 2019, remains of a young couple buried face to face dated 4,000 years back were unearthed in Karaganda region in central Kazakhstan by a group of archaeologists led by Igor Kukushkin from Saryarka Archaeological Institute in Karaganda. It is assumed that the Bronze Age couple were 16 or 17 years old when they died. Kukushkin supposes that they were from a 'noble family' thanks to the buried gold and jewelry artifacts, ceramic pots, woman's two bracelets on each arm beads, remains of horses and knives found in the grave.[6][7][8]

2023 Kostenko mine fire

[edit]
Main article: Kostenko mine disaster

On 28 October 2023 the Kostenko mine, a coal mine in Karaganda run by ArcelorMittal Temirtau, the local unit of ArcelorMittal, caught fire, killing at least 32 people.[9] In weeks prior to the fire, the Kazakhstani government announced it was in talks to take over part of ArcelorMittal Temirtau's operations, in part due to its dissatisfaction by ArcelorMittal's failure to invest more in its operations, including equipment upgrades and safety precautions.[9]

Geography

[edit]

Karaganda is located in a steppe area of the Kazakh Uplands at an elevation of 546 m (1,791 ft). To the northeast flows the Nura river and to the west the Sherubainura, its main tributary. In the southern part of the city lies the Fedorov Reservoir, built in 1941 by filling a coal mine pit with the water of river Sokyr that flows along the southern limit. The Bugyly Range (Бұғылы), reaching a height of 1,187 m (3,894 ft), rises about 60 km (37 mi) to the south of the city. The Bugyly Nature Reserve is located in the range.[10][11]

Climate

[edit]

Karaganda has a Continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with warm summers and very cold winters. Precipitation is moderately low throughout the year, although slightly heavier from May to July. Snow is frequent, though light, in winter. The lowest temperature on record is −42.9 °C (−45.2 °F), recorded in 1938, and the highest temperature is 40.2 °C (104.4 °F), recorded in 2002.[12]

Climate data for Karaganda (1991–2020, extremes 1932–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 6.2
(43.2) 		7.0
(44.6) 		22.3
(72.1) 		30.8
(87.4) 		35.6
(96.1) 		39.1
(102.4) 		39.6
(103.3) 		40.2
(104.4) 		37.4
(99.3) 		27.6
(81.7) 		18.4
(65.1) 		11.5
(52.7) 		40.2
(104.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −9.2
(15.4) 		−7.6
(18.3) 		−0.6
(30.9) 		12.9
(55.2) 		20.4
(68.7) 		25.4
(77.7) 		26.4
(79.5) 		25.5
(77.9) 		19.0
(66.2) 		10.9
(51.6) 		−0.6
(30.9) 		−7.1
(19.2) 		9.6
(49.3)
Daily mean °C (°F) −13.4
(7.9) 		−12.5
(9.5) 		−5.4
(22.3) 		6.4
(43.5) 		13.5
(56.3) 		18.8
(65.8) 		20.0
(68.0) 		18.6
(65.5) 		12.1
(53.8) 		4.8
(40.6) 		−5.0
(23.0) 		−11.2
(11.8) 		3.9
(39.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −17.7
(0.1) 		−17.2
(1.0) 		−9.8
(14.4) 		0.8
(33.4) 		6.9
(44.4) 		12.3
(54.1) 		13.9
(57.0) 		12.1
(53.8) 		5.9
(42.6) 		−0.1
(31.8) 		−8.7
(16.3) 		−15.3
(4.5) 		−1.4
(29.5)
Record low °C (°F) −41.7
(−43.1) 		−41.0
(−41.8) 		−34.7
(−30.5) 		−23.9
(−11.0) 		−9.5
(14.9) 		−2.3
(27.9) 		3.2
(37.8) 		−0.8
(30.6) 		−8.4
(16.9) 		−19.3
(−2.7) 		−38
(−36) 		−42.9
(−45.2) 		−42.9
(−45.2)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 25.1
(0.99) 		23.6
(0.93) 		27.0
(1.06) 		30.1
(1.19) 		36.8
(1.45) 		43.3
(1.70) 		51.4
(2.02) 		28.6
(1.13) 		20.6
(0.81) 		29.5
(1.16) 		32.8
(1.29) 		30.8
(1.21) 		379.6
(14.94)
Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) 21
(8.3) 		26
(10) 		17
(6.7) 		1
(0.4) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		4
(1.6) 		13
(5.1) 		26
(10)
Average rainy days 1 1 4 9 14 12 14 10 9 9 6 2 91
Average snowy days 20 19 15 6 1 0 0 0 1 7 15 19 103
Average relative humidity (%) 79 78 78 61 54 50 55 52 53 66 77 78 65
Mean monthly sunshine hours 106 142 189 231 297 335 330 303 247 141 108 99 2,528
Mean daily sunshine hours 3.4 5.0 6.1 7.7 9.6 11.2 10.7 9.8 8.2 4.6 3.6 3.2 6.9
Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net[12]
Source 2: NOAA (sun, 1961–1990),[13] Deutscher Wetterdienst (daily sun 1961-1990)[14]

Pollution

[edit]

Due to the prominence of heavy industry in Karaganda, the city experiences a high level of air pollution.[15] Air pollution tracking company IQAir found it to have Kazakhstan's highest level of PM2.5 concentration among cities measured from 2017 to 2022, and the 23rd highest in the world among cities measured.[16]

According to the World Air Quality Report 2024, Karaganda is one of the world's most polluted cities.[17]

Economy

[edit]

Karaganda is a largely industrial city, and coal mining is a major component of its economy.[18] As of 2023, the city hosts 8 coal mines, and during the times of the Soviet Union, hosted as many as 26.[18]

Since local water resources are not sufficient for the needs of a major industrial city, the Irtysh–Karaganda Canal was constructed in the 1960s, to supply the Karaganda metropolitan area with water from the Irtysh River more than 400 kilometres (250 mi) away.

Culture

[edit]

Religion

[edit]
Russian Orthodox Church in Karaganda

The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Karaganda. In 2012, the Catholic Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Fatima was opened.[18]

Theater

[edit]

The city is home to the Miners' Palace of Culture, a large theater.

Sports

[edit]
FC Shakhter Karagandy players

FC Shakhter Karagandy is a football club based in the city who play at Shakhtyor Stadium. They finished 7th in the Kazakhstan Premier League in 2022. They last won the competition in the 2012 season and also won the Kazakhstan Cup in 2013. One of the biggest accomplishments of the club is a victory against Celtic from Scotland in the Champions League qualifying rounds in 2013. The score was 2–0. Saryarka Karagandy is an ice hockey team which competes in the Kazakhstan Hockey Championship, and used to play in the Russian-based Supreme Hockey League (VHL)

Monuments

[edit]

On 28 May 2011 a monument to a popular catchphrase "Where-where? In Karaganda!" was created.[19]

On 31 May 2022, the Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions in the Karaganda Ethnopark, a new monument to the victims of the Holodomor was opened.[20] The monument is located near the mosque on the territory of the Ethnopark, created from granite by Zharmukhamed Tlegenuly. The height of the monument on the pedestal is 1.2 m.

Parks

[edit]

The Central Park serves as Karaganda's main park.[18] It was built from 1935 to 1941 and covers an area of 150 hectares (370 acres).

Other

[edit]

Education

[edit]

Transport

[edit]

Sary-Arka Airport is 20 kilometers south-east of the city. The city is also served by trains with all of them stopping at Karaganda railway station.

[edit]

Karaganda was often used as the punchline in a popular joke in the former Soviet Union. Karaganda is fairly isolated in a vast area of uninhabited steppe, and is thought by many to be "the middle of nowhere". When used in the locative case (Караганде), the final syllable rhymes with the Russian word for "where" (где), as well as with a Russian obscenity used to answer to an unwanted question "Where?". Thus the exchange: "Где?" — "В Караганде!" ("Where?" — "In Karaganda!").[21] In 2011 an art-installation was installed in Karaganda, dedicated to this phrase.[22]

Author Flora Leipman, a British resident who moved to the Soviet Union during the 1930s, wrote about her time in the Karlag Prison near Karaganda, and her subsequent decades where she lived in Karaganda, in her book The Long Journey Home.[23] The labor camp described in One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich where the author Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn had served some time was located near Karaganda.[citation needed]

Notable residents

[edit]
Gennady Golovkin, 2017
Russian Kazakhstani athlete Dmitriy Karpov

Sister cities

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Karaganda

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Karaganda is a city in central , serving as the administrative center of and functioning as a major industrial hub primarily driven by coal extraction from the Karaganda Coal Basin. As of April 1, 2024, the city's population stands at 521,847 residents. The Karaganda Coal Basin ranks among the world's largest, with substantial reserves of high-quality coking coal essential for steel production, supporting Kazakhstan's metallurgical sector and contributing significantly to national energy needs. The city originated in the mid-19th century when initial commenced in 1857 to supply a nearby copper smelter, though operations were limited until the Soviet era. Rapid industrialization in transformed Karaganda into a cornerstone of the USSR's production, with output expanding dramatically to meet demands for and power generation. Today, it remains a center for , , and machine-building, though environmental challenges from combustion and pose ongoing concerns amid Kazakhstan's efforts. Karaganda also hosts educational institutions, including universities, and has produced notable figures such as boxer , underscoring its role beyond industry in Kazakh society.

Etymology

Origins of the name

The name Qaraghandy (Kazakh: Қарағанды; Russian: Караганда), transliterated as Karaganda, originates from the Kazakh term qaraǵan (қараған), referring to the caragana shrub (Caragana spp.), a hardy perennial bush common in the Central Kazakh steppe. This plant, also known locally as yellow steppe acacia or Siberian peashrub, thrives in the arid, sandy soils of the region, symbolizing the sparse vegetation that characterized the area's pre-industrial geography. The term qaraǵan itself may incorporate qara ("black" in Kazakh), possibly alluding to the shrub's dark bark or seed pods, though the primary association remains with the flora itself rather than unsubstantiated interpretations like "black handful" or references to wild melons, which lack linguistic or historical corroboration in Kazakh toponymy. Prior to coal prospecting in the mid-19th century, the locale denoted by this name functioned as open steppe pasture for Kazakh nomadic herders, with no permanent settlements recorded; Russian surveys from the 1830s onward noted the site's coal outcrops amid this grazing terrain, but the toponym predates such documentation and ties directly to the endemic shrubbery observed by early travelers. This ecological linkage underscores the name's roots in the natural features of the Kazakh Uplands, distinct from later industrial connotations.

History

Early settlement and Old Town

The territory encompassing modern Karaganda was historically part of the Kazakh steppe, primarily utilized by nomadic Kazakh herders for grazing lands prior to Russian imperial expansion in the 19th century. Russian colonization of the region intensified following the abolition of serfdom in 1861, drawing peasant migrants and merchants to the steppe frontiers, though permanent settlements remained minimal until resource exploitation began. Initial settlement in the area stemmed from coal prospecting in the mid-19th century, with legends attributing the first outcrop discovery to a local Kazakh shepherd, Appak Baizhanov, in 1833 near the village of Maikuduk. Geological surveys followed in the 1850s, leading to the opening of small-scale mines, including the Ivanovo mine in 1857, which supplied coal for nearby industrial uses such as the Spassky Copper Smelter through artisanal extraction. These operations attracted a handful of Russian entrepreneurs and local laborers, forming rudimentary mining outposts rather than fortified military presence, distinct from Cossack stanitsas established elsewhere in the Kazakh steppes for border defense. The nascent core of Karaganda, later known as Stary Gorod (Old Town), emerged around these early mining sites as a sparse cluster of workers' and merchant dwellings, with the total remaining under 1,000 inhabitants until systematic coal development in the late . This pre-industrial hamlet served as the foundational urban nucleus, reliant on limited open-pit operations and transient nomadic interactions for provisioning, before the influx of foreign capital and labor transformed the area.

Soviet era industrialization and Karlag Gulag

The Soviet industrialization of Karaganda began in the early 1930s as part of the USSR's First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932), which prioritized rapid development of , including coal extraction in the resource-rich Karaganda Basin to fuel national economic expansion. Geological surveys had identified substantial coal reserves in the region since the 1890s, but systematic exploitation accelerated under Stalin's directives, transforming the sparsely populated steppe into a key hub that became the Soviet Union's third-largest coal producer by the late 1930s. This growth relied heavily on forced labor from the system, as the remote, harsh environment deterred voluntary migration and free workers were insufficient for the scale of infrastructure required, including shafts, railways, and worker settlements. Karlag, established in 1931 as the Karaganda Corrective Labor Camp and operating until 1959, emerged as one of the largest complexes, with its headquarters in Dolinka, 45 kilometers southeast of Karaganda city. Over its existence, more than one million prisoners passed through Karlag, where they were compelled to perform grueling tasks such as in the Karaganda Basin, railway construction to connect remote sites, and building administrative centers and housing. Peak prisoner numbers in the system reached tens of thousands during and , contributing directly to the city's expansion from a minor settlement of around 17,000 residents in 1930 to approximately 100,000 by 1939, with nearly half comprising prisoners or deportees integrated into the labor force. This coerced workforce was indispensable for meeting Five-Year Plan quotas, as evidenced by the basin's output surging to support Soviet steel and power production, though at the cost of extreme human exploitation in unmechanized, dangerous conditions. Karlag's inmate population consisted predominantly of political prisoners convicted under Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code as "enemies of the people," alongside ethnic deportees including displaced from lands earmarked for camps, resettled en masse in the , and others such as Poles and targeted in Stalin's nationality policies. Mortality rates were extraordinarily high, driven by starvation during the overlapping , and other diseases exacerbated by and overcrowding, and brutal work regimes; general data from the era indicate death rates exceeding 10–15% annually in peak repression years, with Karlag's remote isolation amplifying vulnerabilities like exposure and inadequate medical care. Children born to incarcerated mothers or accompanying deportees faced rates up to 30–50% in camp facilities during the , reflecting systemic neglect rather than isolated incidents. The camps' role in industrialization thus exemplified causal realism in Soviet planning: repression supplied the labor surplus needed for accelerated growth, but empirical records reveal it as a mechanism of demographic devastation, with local Kazakh populations forcibly evicted and over 4,000 families displaced to make way for facilities.

World War II and post-war growth

During , Karaganda's coal mines played a critical role in the Soviet war effort, ramping up production to supply fuel to northern regions despite harsh climatic conditions and labor constraints. The introduction of mechanized equipment, such as early Makarov coal combines adapted from pre-war models, enabled output increases even as traditional mining faced disruptions from the conflict. This resilience stemmed partly from the 1941 deportation of over 1 million ethnic Germans from European Soviet territories, with 225,000 to 350,000 relocated specifically to the , where many were mobilized into labor armies for mining and related industries. In the immediate years, Karaganda experienced accelerated demographic expansion driven by continued influxes of deportees and voluntary workers attracted to industrial opportunities. constituted a substantial portion of the local population in the , bolstering the labor force amid ongoing coal extraction demands. This period saw the construction of worker housing, new shafts, and basic infrastructure to accommodate growth, transitioning from wartime exigencies to peacetime industrialization. By the early , these developments positioned Karaganda as Kazakhstan's second-largest city, with its coal basin solidifying as a cornerstone of Soviet in . The post-war push included reconversion of facilities for civilian output and expansion of support networks, though living conditions remained austere, often relying on and rudimentary settlements for miners.

Late Soviet period and 1962 electromagnetic pulse incident

During the late Soviet period from the to the 1980s, Karaganda experienced peaking at over 600,000 residents by the mid-1980s, driven by continued industrialization and migration to its hub. However, the broader Soviet manifested locally through declining coal output efficiency, with underground mining conditions deteriorating due to exhausted shallow seams, aging equipment, and insufficient in modernization, resulting in stagnant production growth averaging under 2% annually in the sector nationwide. These inefficiencies contributed to heightened risks, as evidenced by the Soviet coal industry's overall lag in compared to Western standards, with labor productivity falling behind targets by the . A notable technological disruption occurred on October 22, 1962, during the Soviet Project K high-altitude nuclear test series (Test 184, or K-3), involving a 300-kiloton thermonuclear detonation at approximately 290 km altitude over . The resulting (EMP), particularly its E3 component mimicking a , induced currents in long power lines, causing a blackout in Karaganda roughly 1,000 km from the burst site; this overloaded the local power plant, igniting a , burning out fuses and transformers, and disrupting supply across the . Empirical effects included no widespread damage to vacuum tube-based of the era due to their relative hardness, but the incident highlighted vulnerabilities in unshielded power grids, with recovery requiring manual fuse replacements and lasting several hours to days for full restoration. , conducted amid the Cuban Missile Crisis, underscored the unintended domestic consequences of nuclear testing for anti-ballistic missile research, though details remained classified until declassification efforts revealed the grid failures. Cultural dynamics in Karaganda reflected intensified policies, with Russian speakers comprising a majority in urban areas by the 1970s due to influxes of Slavic migrants for mining work, promoting Russian as the in industry and administration. This shifted daily life toward Russian cultural dominance, yet subtle undercurrents of Kazakh persisted among indigenous groups, manifesting in private linguistic preservation and resistance to full assimilation amid the Soviet emphasis on proletarian unity over ethnic distinctions.

Independence and economic transition

Following Kazakhstan's declaration of independence on December 16, 1991, Karaganda faced severe economic dislocation from the , including the abrupt severance of subsidized inputs and export markets for its coal-dependent industries. peaked at approximately 1,400% annually in 1993–1994, eroding and savings, which prompted mass primarily among ethnic and who comprised a significant portion of the city's skilled workforce. The city's declined by 14% between 1989 and 1999, falling to around 400,000, as economic uncertainty drove outflows to and amid the broader national loss of about 15% of its through irregular migration from 1991 to 1998. Privatization of state-owned enterprises, accelerated between 1995 and 1997, marked a pivotal shift from central to market mechanisms, with Karaganda's mines restructured to attract private operators. Fifteen underground mines in the Karaganda basin were sold for $193 million to Ispat-KarMet, a London-based group, exposing the sector's vulnerabilities from over-reliance on uncompetitive Soviet-era output amid fluctuating global and outdated infrastructure. This hyper-dependence on , without diversification, contributed to a low point around 1999, characterized by mine closures, spikes, and persistent inefficiencies inherited from state-directed production quotas that ignored cost realities. Market-oriented reforms, including and foreign entry, proved causally essential for stabilization by incentivizing gains and capital inflows, contrasting with the stagnation under prolonged state dependency seen in other post-Soviet regions. In the 2000s, recovery accelerated through in and , enabling modernization of Karaganda's facilities and partial mitigation of Soviet legacies like rigid labor structures and from inefficient extraction. However, these gains highlighted enduring inequalities, as privatized operations concentrated wealth among foreign firms and local elites while legacy inefficiencies—such as unremedied and worker displacement—sustained socioeconomic divides between urban cores and peripheral settlements. Empirical evidence from the period underscores that competitive pressures from , rather than renewed subsidies, drove rebounds by enforcing accountability absent in the command economy.

21st century developments and challenges

In 2019, archaeologists excavating the Kyzyltau Cemetery in the Karaganda region uncovered a Bronze Age grave containing the remains of a young man and woman buried together, along with gold jewelry and other artifacts dating to approximately 2000 BCE, providing evidence of settled communities predating nomadic traditions in the area. These findings, part of broader surveys of late Bronze Age sites like those associated with the Begazy-Dandybai culture, have contributed to ongoing research into early metallurgy and burial practices in central Kazakhstan. The January 2022 nationwide protests, initially sparked by a sharp increase in liquefied petroleum gas prices and escalating into broader demands against corruption and economic inequality, spread to Karaganda, an industrial hub sensitive to fuel costs for mining operations. Local unrest led to arrests and clashes with authorities, mirroring the national pattern where over 9,900 individuals were detained and 238 deaths occurred amid rioting and security force responses. Official investigations later confirmed at least six torture-related deaths in custody nationwide, underscoring systemic issues in protest handling, though Karaganda-specific fatalities were not separately tallied in public reports. A and subsequent fire at the Kostenko mine on October 28, 2023, killed 46 miners at a depth of around 700 meters, marking one of the deadliest incidents in Kazakhstan's and exposing persistent safety deficiencies in the sector despite prior regulations. The mine, operated by until shortly after, highlighted inadequate ventilation and monitoring, prompting the to terminate cooperation with the company and initiate reforms, including enhanced oversight of hazardous operations. These events have intensified calls for industrial modernization in Karaganda, where extraction remains central but faces demands for safer practices amid economic diversification efforts.

Geography

Location and urban layout

Karaganda is situated in the central region of , approximately 225 kilometers southeast of the capital, . The city's geographic coordinates are roughly 49.8°N and 73.3°E . It occupies an administrative area of about 543 km², encompassing urban and surrounding zones. The topography consists of flat to gently undulating plains characteristic of the Kazakh Uplands in a dry environment, with elevations averaging around 537 meters above . No major rivers flow directly through the city, though it lies within the basin of the Nura River, which supports regional water needs despite its distant course. The urban layout reflects Soviet-era planning, featuring a rectilinear grid of streets organized around central avenues and districts for residential, administrative, and industrial functions. Industrial zones are concentrated on the periphery, with towns such as Shakhtinsk developed as monotowns tied to operations. Post-Soviet development has introduced some sprawl, including informal expansions and modern infill, altering the original rigid structure while preserving core grid patterns.

Climate and topography

Karaganda lies within a continental semi-arid climate zone (Köppen BSk), marked by pronounced seasonal temperature extremes and low humidity. Average temperatures range from -13°C in , with monthly lows often dipping to -17°C, to 20°C in , where highs can exceed 27°C; annual means hover around 4°C. averages 380 mm yearly, concentrated in summer thunderstorms, while winters remain dry with occasional snow cover. These patterns result in short growing seasons and high evaporation rates, limiting natural vegetation to steppe grasses. The city's topography consists of flat to undulating plains at elevations of 500–600 meters, featuring shallow hummocks, dry river valleys, and closed basins prone to water accumulation. This low-relief terrain, part of the vast Kazakh Uplands, exposes the area to persistent westerly winds gusting up to 20–30 m/s, which stir dust storms—especially in spring—reducing visibility and eroding . Seismic risks stem from proximity to regional fault lines, though the area registers low to moderate activity, with magnitudes rarely exceeding 4.5, as evidenced by events in 2024. Observational data show a warming trend since the , with Kazakhstan's average annual temperature rising from 3.5°C to 5°C by 2024, at a rate of 0.36°C per decade—faster than the global mean. In Karaganda, this has manifested as milder winters and increased summer heatwaves, potentially destabilizing margins and complicating through altered frost heave and patterns.

Demographics

The population of Karaganda reached approximately 608,600 in the , reflecting peak Soviet-era industrialization that drew labor to the city's mines and related industries. Following Kazakhstan's in , the city experienced a sharp decline to 436,900 by the 1999 , driven primarily by mass out-migration amid economic disruption, , and the collapse of centralized Soviet planning, which reduced industrial employment opportunities. This post-Soviet exodus, totaling over 14% net loss in the decade, was exacerbated by political instability and the of ethnic groups to their homelands, though the city's core demographic retained a significant urban base. Subsequent censuses indicate stabilization and modest recovery, with the population rising to 459,800 in 2009 and 497,800 in 2020, supported by natural increase and inflows from rural Kazakh areas seeking urban services. The Karaganda region maintains one of Kazakhstan's highest urbanization rates at around 82%, underscoring the city's role as a magnet for internal migrants despite national trends toward southern population shifts. However, industrial hazards, including coal dust exposure and mining-related accidents, have contributed to elevated mortality rates—such as age-standardized rates climbing from 526 to 797 per 100,000 between 2014 and 2022—accelerating an aging demographic profile with implications for dependency ratios. Projections forecast slow growth to approximately 515,000 by 2025, contingent on sustained regional economic output rather than isolated policy interventions, as migration patterns respond to labor in extractive sectors. This trajectory aligns with broader Kazakh demographic shifts, where northern industrial centers like Karaganda face persistent outflows unless tied to viable , contrasting with faster southern .
YearPopulationSource
1989608,600Soviet census data
1999436,900
2009459,800
2020497,800
2023 est.508,000UN-derived estimates

Ethnic composition and migration

The ethnic composition of Karaganda has undergone significant shifts, reflecting broader demographic patterns in . As of the 2020 census data for the surrounding region, which closely mirrors the city's profile, constituted approximately 52.4%, 35.1%, 2.8%, 2.3%, and 2.2%, with other groups making up the remainder. These figures mark a transition from Soviet-era dominance by Slavic and deported ethnic groups to a Kazakh plurality post-independence, driven by differential birth rates, , and repatriation. In the 1940s, ethnic , largely deported by , comprised up to 70% of the city's population amid forced resettlements to labor in mines and related industries. Soviet policies of industrialization and mass deportations during and earlier collectivization campaigns populated Karaganda with diverse groups, including , Poles, and , fostering a multi-ethnic industrial but also straining local resources. Following 's in 1991, the city's declined by about 14% between 1989 and 1999, largely due to the exodus of ethnic and seeking opportunities in or . Nationally, Russian peaked at 344,000 in 1994, with industrial centers like Karaganda experiencing acute outflows as eroded job security in mining sectors. Concurrently, of ethnic —known as kandas—has bolstered the titular group's presence, with over 1.1 million returning nationwide since 1991, many settling in urban hubs like Karaganda for employment prospects. In the , repatriates have integrated into the local economy, contributing to Kazakh demographic gains amid ongoing national policies prioritizing use in and . These migrations have inverted prior ethnic hierarchies, with Kazakhs achieving majority status in the city by the late , though Russian remains prevalent in daily industrial and commercial interactions. The resulting dynamics in this historically Russified mining city have manifested in observable frictions, including complaints from Russian-speakers over preferential hiring for and the shift toward Kazakh-medium instruction, exacerbating perceptions of marginalization in a post-Soviet context of titular . Despite these, inter-ethnic violence has been limited compared to other , with stability maintained through in coal-dependent sectors.
Year/PeriodKazakh (%)Russian (%)German (%)Other Notable Groups
1940sMinoritySignificant~70Deported Slavs, Koreans
2020~52~35~2Ukrainians ~3, Tatars ~2

Economy

Coal mining and industrial base

The Karaganda Coal Basin, encompassing underground deposits of bituminous and coking coal in central , has historically anchored the region's economy through extraction tied to downstream and chemical industries. Development accelerated in under Soviet planning, establishing the basin as the USSR's third-largest producer by the mid-20th century, with output focused on high-quality coking coal for . Mines in the basin supplied , including integrated plants processing into coke for production, which remains a core linkage today. Active operations center on eight principal underground mines as of 2023, yielding from depths exceeding 500 meters in gassy seams, with individual facilities like Kazakhstanskaya producing 1.17 million tons in 2020 and targeting 1.8 million tons by 2026. The basin's contribution integrates with Kazakhstan's national production of 110-113 million tons annually from 2019-2023, prioritizing grades that feed local steelworks such as those formerly under Temirtau, supporting up to 8.3 million tons of annual input for metallurgical coke. Soviet-era shafts, engineered for deep extraction, enabled this scale, providing a resilient base that sustained industrial output and fiscal revenues during post-1991 economic stabilization when alternative energy transitions lagged. Coal from Karaganda underpins 66.7% of Kazakhstan's and 80% of thermal power needs, with basin output directed domestically to and exports emphasizing varieties. National exports, including basin-sourced , reached 6.1 million tons to the in 2023—54.3% of total coal shipments—via rail transit, generating revenues that reinforced the industrial base amid global energy volatility. This reliance demonstrates 's causal role in maintaining output stability and funding recovery, as disruptions in supply chains highlighted the empirical limits of substituting fossil fuels without equivalent baseload alternatives.

Post-Soviet diversification and recent growth

Following Kazakhstan's independence in 1991, Karaganda's economy underwent market-oriented reforms that spurred diversification beyond its Soviet-era dominance, with private incentives driving expansion into and as central location advantages emerged. Industrial production grew steadily, reflecting responsiveness to global demand over state directives; for instance, output rose 87.8% from 2017 to 2021, reaching 4.4 trillion tenge by emphasizing metals processing alongside . Recent data underscore continued adaptation, with January-September 2025 industrial volume at 3.6 trillion tenge, up 6.2% year-over-year, led by processing sectors like that comprised over 75% of regional output in 2024. Foreign capital facilitated this shift, notably 's pre-2023 investments exceeding $198 million in facilities for modernization and dust reduction, boosting metal exports until amid operational disputes. Logistics growth capitalized on Karaganda's rail hub status, supporting volumes that positioned the region among Kazakhstan's top contributors, though coal's 80% share in thermal power highlights vulnerabilities to global decarbonization pressures. Approximately one-third of the workforce engages in informal as of 2023-2025, limiting formal gains and fueling debates on inequality between urban-industrial cores and peripheral areas. These trends affirm market signals' role in sustaining growth amid constraints, outperforming prior centralized models constrained by inefficiency.

Environmental and safety issues

Pollution and ecological impacts

Karaganda's industrial activities, particularly and metallurgical processing, have resulted in elevated levels of , primarily from particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) and emissions. In 2024, the city's annual average PM2.5 concentration reached 104.8 µg/m³, ranking it among the world's most polluted urban areas and exceeding WHO guidelines by over 20 times. Exceedances of permissible PM2.5 levels were recorded up to 22.6 times in 2023, with further increases noted in 2024, driven by combustion and dust from operations that support the region's and economic output. Methane emissions from the Karaganda coal basin, one of the world's gassiest, add to contributions, with resources estimated at 23-31 trillion cubic feet, though extraction efforts aim to mitigate sudden releases that pose both safety and climatic risks. Soil and water contamination persists from Soviet-era operations, notably mercury discharges into the Nura River from a chlor-alkali plant in nearby , totaling 150-3,000 tons over decades. Sediments in the upper Nura sections contain average total mercury levels of 150-240 mg/kg, decreasing downstream but entering local food chains via in and soils, affecting in the . These legacies stem from essential for wartime and post-war production, yet they illustrate trade-offs where economic imperatives delayed . Health data link chronic exposure to these pollutants with elevated respiratory morbidity; studies in Kazakh industrial cities, including Karaganda, associate PM2.5 levels with increased risks of and lower respiratory infections, contributing to higher admissions amid the city's as a hub employing tens of thousands. Remediation initiatives, such as the World Bank-supported Nura River cleanup project initiated in the 2000s, have targeted mercury removal from 1.5 million m³ of soil containing 9.4 tonnes of the metal, reducing immediate risks while ongoing monitoring addresses diffuse dust and emissions through ventilation and capture technologies. These measures reflect pragmatic responses to industrial necessities, prioritizing verifiable reductions over unattainable zero-impact ideals.

Mining accidents and labor conditions

On October 28, 2023, a ignited a at the Kostenko mine in the , killing 46 miners out of 252 underground at the time, marking the deadliest mining incident in since independence. The mine, operated by (AMT), a of the Luxembourg-based giant, had experienced prior safety lapses, including a in August 2023 that killed four workers and a in November 2022 that claimed five lives. Investigations revealed inadequate monitoring and ventilation systems, despite the company's substantial production profits exceeding $100 million annually in prior years, underscoring a pattern of underinvestment in safety amid operational pressures. During the Soviet era, Karaganda's mines were plagued by frequent disasters due to rapid expansion, forced labor from prisoners, and prioritization of output quotas over safety protocols. In March 1953 alone, two major accidents killed approximately 200 miners and injured over 1,400, reflecting systemic neglect in a where extraction surged from 41,400 tons annually in the early to millions by under state directives. Post-1991 independence, accidents persisted with at least several deadly events annually, including a 2006 methane explosion at an AMT-operated mine that killed 41 workers, often linked to aging infrastructure, insufficient regulatory enforcement, and reliance on informal or subcontracted labor vulnerable to exploitation without union protections. Labor conditions in Karaganda's mines have deteriorated since the Soviet collapse, shifting from relatively stable state employment with benefits to precarious contracts marked by low wages—averaging under $500 monthly for underground work—and hazardous exposures to dust, gases, and structural risks. A 2017 strike by miners highlighted chronic underpayment and unsafe practices, prompting temporary concessions but exposing weak oversight amid oligarchic control and in licensing. Reforms following major incidents, such as intensified inspections and the 2023 of assets, have been reactive rather than preventive, with root causes traced to entrenched state-business that favors extraction volumes over worker safeguards, perpetuating annual fatalities in the double digits across the sector.

Government and infrastructure

Administrative structure

Karaganda functions as the administrative center of , an in central encompassing approximately 94,000 square kilometers and a population of about 1.13 million residents as of 2023. The regional akimat, the primary executive body, is led by an (governor) appointed directly by the , overseeing local governance, policy implementation, and administrative divisions including districts and cities subordinate to the region. This structure reflects 's highly centralized system, inherited from the Soviet era and maintained post-independence, where local authorities execute national directives with limited independent fiscal or policy discretion. Political control at the local level aligns with national dominance by the Amanat party, which holds near-total sway in maslikhats (local councils) and suppresses meaningful opposition through regulatory barriers and electoral controls. The January 2022 nationwide unrest, triggered by fuel price hikes and escalating into broader socioeconomic grievances, prompted a forceful crackdown involving security forces and over 2,000 arrests across , including in industrial hubs like Karaganda where protests disrupted operations. This response underscored the centralized power's prioritization of stability, deploying presidential decree powers and foreign troop assistance via the to restore order, though it highlighted tensions between authoritarian control and public demands for reform. Fiscal administration reveals heavy reliance on central transfers and resource extraction revenues, with —particularly —accounting for a significant portion of the regional , fostering a dynamic where economic volatility undermines long-term diversification and local autonomy. In 2023, regional revenues totaled around 782.5 billion tenge, over half derived from state allocations tied to commodity outputs, limiting incentives for independent and reinforcing vertical power dependencies. Such dependence sustains short-term stability amid global mineral price fluctuations but constrains adaptive governance in a -dominant economy facing ecological and market transitions.

Transportation network

Karaganda functions as a central rail junction in Kazakhstan's extensive Soviet-era railway system, optimized for heavy of and minerals to support industrial output and regional trade. The city's rail infrastructure connects to the main Trans-Kazakhstan lines, facilitating north-south corridors from southward toward and eastward branches linking to border crossings with , such as Dostyk-Alashankou, where rail freight volumes between Kazakhstan and reached 11.4 million tonnes in January–April 2025, up 13% year-over-year. This positioning enables efficient movement, with over 17 rail routes serving Karaganda for containerized goods en route to and amid rising Eurasian connectivity. Road networks link Karaganda to key cities, including the approximately 216 km route to , rehabilitated as part of national highway upgrades to enhance intercity travel and logistics resilience. Sections of the A-17 highway, such as the 513 km Zhezkazgan-Karaganda segment, support southward connectivity for freight and passenger traffic, with ongoing reconstructions prioritizing durability for industrial loads. Karaganda handles domestic flights to major Kazakh cities and limited international routes, with expansion plans underway to establish it as a regional and passenger hub by enhancing runway capacity and terminal facilities. Urban relies primarily on buses and minibuses, with the fleet renewed by 80% as of 2023, including 195 new vehicles deployed to address demand from the city's exceeding 500,000, though service frequency and coverage remain challenged by peak-hour congestion. Trams, once operational, have faced infrastructure decay, with related systems in nearby slated for revival but currently limited in Karaganda proper. Integration with China's has amplified freight logistics through Karaganda's rail and road nodes, supporting strategic partnerships like the 2025 Kazakhstan-China railway cooperation agreement to streamline trans-Eurasian corridors and boost non-oil export capacities.

Education and healthcare systems

Karaganda's education system features several universities rooted in the Soviet emphasis on technical training for mining and industry. Abylkas Saginov Karaganda Technical University, founded in 1953, enrolls around 12,000 students and specializes in , metallurgy, and related fields essential to the region's sector. Other institutions, such as Karaganda Buketov , provide programs in sciences, economics, and teacher training, contributing to a total of six higher education establishments in the city offering over 140 study programs. Post-Soviet challenges include brain drain, as skilled graduates often emigrate for better opportunities abroad, exacerbating talent shortages despite efforts to retain personnel through international partnerships. The healthcare system grapples with legacies of industrial exposure, with facilities like the Karaganda Regional Clinical Hospital providing essential services amid high rates of pollution-related illnesses. emissions contribute to elevated morbidity from respiratory diseases and other conditions, straining hospital resources in this industrial hub. Air pollution in 's urban areas, including Karaganda, correlates with reduced , estimated at a national loss of 2.2 years due to particulate matter and other pollutants, with industrial regions facing disproportionate impacts on premature mortality. Recent reforms aim to alleviate pressures through infrastructure expansion, including plans for 27 new medical facilities in rural Karaganda areas by late 2024.

Culture and society

Religious composition

The religious composition of Karaganda mirrors its multi-ethnic population, with predominant among ethnic and Orthodox Christianity among and other Slavic groups. According to 2021 census data for the , 66.69% of residents identify as Muslim, primarily Sunni adherents of the , while 19.52% identify as Christian. These figures align closely with the city's demographics, given that over 80% of the region's population resides in urban centers like Karaganda. Christians in Karaganda consist mainly of Russian Orthodox believers, who operate multiple parishes including the prominent Holy Vvedensky Cathedral. Smaller Christian denominations include Catholics, concentrated in communities of ethnic and Poles deported during the Soviet era, and various Protestant groups such as and Evangelicals. The Muslim community, tied to Kazakh ethnic identity, centers around Hanafi mosques built or expanded after Kazakhstan's 1991 independence, reflecting a post-Soviet revival of religious observance. Kazakhstan's Soviet-era promotion of atheism persists in secular attitudes, with 11.18% of the Karaganda Region's population not affiliating with any in the 2021 . Religious minorities such as and Buddhists exist but represent less than 3% combined, often linked to specific ethnic enclaves like or Korean immigrants. Government regulations enforce registration of religious organizations and monitor activities to prevent , particularly among Muslim groups, maintaining state oversight over public religious expression.

Arts, theater, and monuments

The Karaganda Regional Kazakh Drama Theater named after S. Seifullin, founded in 1932 as a workers' and youth theater, stages Kazakh-language plays drawing from national literature and history, earning acclaim for its enduring repertoire and architectural significance as a regional historical site. The K. Stanislavskiy Regional Drama Theater, focused on Russian classics and international works, hosts productions blending traditional and modern elements, including Kazakh and multicultural dance performances in its versatile auditorium spaces. The Miners' Palace of Culture, built in the Soviet era to serve the coal industry's workforce, functions as a hub for concerts, exhibitions, and community events reflecting Karaganda's industrial legacy, with its grand hosting ongoing arts programming. Karaganda preserves Soviet-era such as statues honoring miners' labor and cultural figures like Abay Kunbayev, alongside debated like the Monument near the Technical University, symbolizing educational progress amid the city's planned urban design. The KarLag Museum in Dolinka, 20 kilometers west of the city center, occupies the 1931 administrative headquarters of the Karaganda Corrective Labor Camp—a major site operational until 1959—exhibiting artifacts, photographs, and survivor accounts of forced labor in and , where hundreds of thousands endured under . Central Park of Culture and Leisure serves as a venue for seasonal cultural events, including Nauryz festivals featuring traditional Kazakh music, dances, and communal feasts to celebrate spring renewal and national heritage.

Sports and public spaces

Shakhtyor Stadium, located on Kazakhstan Street, primarily hosts football matches for FC Shakhter Karaganda, a club emblematic of the city's mining heritage, with the name "Shakhter" denoting "miner" in Russian. The venue, capable of accommodating festivals and concerts alongside sports events, underwent reconstruction in 2020, including geodetic surveys, soil excavation, and football field base preparation to enhance infrastructure. Planned expansions aim to integrate business facilities, positioning it as a central hub in Karaganda's evolving sports landscape. Ice hockey facilities include the Karagandy-Arena at 13 Respublika Avenue, home to the Saryarka Karagandy club, supporting professional games, competitions, and public skating sessions to foster community participation. These venues reflect post-Soviet investments in multi-purpose arenas, adapting Soviet-era emphasis on mass to modern recreational needs amid industrial worker demographics. Public spaces emphasize green recreation amid the steppe environment, with the Central Park of Culture and Rest extending over two kilometers, featuring tree-lined alleys, benches, a central lake for jogging, and zones for active sports. Geared toward families, it includes Soviet-style children's playgrounds with swings and carousels, alongside rides and occasional live concerts, promoting youth engagement and rest for mining community members. Complementary areas like Victory Park offer additional relaxation spots, while recent additions such as 65 artificial turf sports grounds and 11 multifunctional hockey courts across districts support widespread fitness initiatives. Fountains and squares, including the Fountain Cascade Square, provide urban gathering points tied to local events, enhancing civic identity without overlapping cultural monuments.

Notable residents

[Notable residents - no content]

References

  1. https://karagandy.invest.gov.kz/about/
  2. https://astanatimes.com/2023/08/karagandy-heartland-of-kazakhstans-coal-mining-industry/
  3. https://stat.gov.kz/api/iblock/element/185113/file/en/
  4. https://caneecca.org/en/karaganda-coal-basin-is-swallowing-kazakhstans-climate/
  5. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00809A000700130573-0.pdf
  6. https://unctad.org/system/files/information-document/unda2030d26-kazakhstan-coal_en.pdf
  7. https://histecon.fas.harvard.edu/1800_histories/sites/karaganda.html
  8. https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/qazalem/activities/27975?lang=en
  9. https://www.mindat.org/loc-420195.html
  10. https://www.wisdomlib.org/cities/qaraghandy-1373
  11. https://eurasia.travel/kazakhstan/karaganda/history/
  12. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184789
  13. https://e-history.kz/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/474/474292128b6ec6bf5766fb7da909bea1.pdf
  14. https://timesca.com/karaganda-the-black-heart-of-kazakhstan/
  15. https://lib.kstu.kz/en/the-history-of-karaganda/
  16. https://www.belovo42.ru/shahter/2011/07/01/4634-2765429.html
  17. https://revistas.uva.es/index.php/invehisto/article/download/8912/6317/25623
  18. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400838615-005/html
  19. https://www.dark-tourism.com/index.php/509-karlag-memorial-dolinka-kazakhstan
  20. https://thediplomat.com/2017/05/dark-tourism-in-kazakhstans-gulag-heartland/
  21. https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/kazakhstan-remembers-karlag-horrors/
  22. https://historycooperative.org/journal/gridded-lives-why-kazakhstan-and-montana-are-nearly-the-same-place/
  23. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226242828-006/html
  24. https://astanatimes.com/2023/08/to-forget-is-to-repeat-karlag-museum-chronicles-dark-legacy-of-political-repression/
  25. https://gulag.online/articles/obeti-stredni-evropa?locale=en
  26. https://academic.oup.com/book/55989/chapter/440092631
  27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387464245_Archival_Materials_as_a_Source_for_Studying_Detention_Conditions_and_Child_Mortality_in_the_Kazakhstani_Gulag_Camps_A_Case_Study_of_Karlag
  28. https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk3/1981/8127/812705.PDF
  29. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp80-00809a000700130573-0
  30. https://e-history.kz/en/news/show/7137
  31. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/700955
  32. https://www.dark-tourism.com/index.php/508-karaganda-kazakhstan
  33. https://e-history.kz/en/news/show/8107
  34. https://bolashaq.edu.kz/en/novosti-en/karaganda-celebrates-its-birthday/
  35. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP83T00853R000100170002-6.pdf
  36. https://www.futurescience.com/emp/test184.html
  37. https://www.thespacereview.com/article/1549/2
  38. https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/News/Loborev.txt
  39. https://www.eurasiantimes.com/project-k-can-nuclear-warheads-destroy-satellites-in-orbit/
  40. https://www.thestandard.com.hk/opinion/article/65122/Russian-language-losing-ground-in-ex-Soviet-states
  41. https://history-philosophy-vestnik.buketov.edu.kz/index.php/history-philosophy-vestnik/article/view/509
  42. https://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Kazakhstan/sub8_4e/entry-4671.html
  43. https://populationstat.com/kazakhstan/karaganda
  44. https://cabar.asia/en/olga-simakova-what-does-net-migration-in-kazakhstan-tell-us-2
  45. https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/toolsres_coal_overview_ch20.pdf
  46. https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/PUB_Restructuring_and_privatizing_coal_in_CIES_2004_WEC.pdf
  47. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/615051550479498194/pdf/Kazakhstan-Reversing-Productivity-Stagnation-Country-Economic-Memorandum.pdf
  48. https://astanatimes.com/2019/08/bronze-age-grave-and-gold-items-found-in-karaganda-region/
  49. https://archaeology.org/news/2019/08/01/190801-kazakhstan-bronze-age-couple/
  50. https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/09/asia/kazakhstan-protests-detentions-intl
  51. https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-unrest-torture-arrests/32240706.html
  52. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67248267
  53. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/death-toll-arcelormittal-mine-fire-kazakhstan-rises-38-officials-2023-10-29/
  54. https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/kazakhstan-46-killed-in-explosion-at-arcelormittal-mine-govt-ends-cooperation-with-co--nationalises-local-branch/
  55. https://www.distancefromto.net/distance-from-karagandy-kz-to-astana-kz
  56. https://www.geodatos.net/en/coordinates/kazakhstan/karagandy
  57. https://elevation.city/kz/d2ev
  58. https://www.britannica.com/place/Qaraghandy-oblast-Kazakhstan
  59. https://silkadv.com/en/content/nura-river-kazakhstan
  60. https://longitudemaps.com/products/karaganda-kazakhstan-2-sheet-set-soviet-military-city-plans_suaa-karaganda-set
  61. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099060925031099787/pdf/P500637-3930e854-ac8b-4fdc-8e17-81272ab2715a.pdf
  62. https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2017/06/oecd-urban-policy-reviews-kazakhstan_g1g74e2b/9789264268852-en.pdf
  63. https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/kazakhstan/karaganda
  64. https://weatherspark.com/y/107797/Average-Weather-in-Karagandy-Kazakhstan-Year-Round
  65. https://en.climate-data.org/asia/kazakhstan/karagandy-province/karaganda-2162/
  66. https://en-us.topographic-map.com/map-8fht14/Karaganda/
  67. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1889/4/042065
  68. https://en.tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/earthquake-in-karaganda-region-why-non-seismic-zones-are-264832/
  69. https://www.worlddata.info/asia/kazakhstan/climate.php
  70. https://caclimate.fund/en/novosti/due-to-global-warming-kazakhstan-is-heating-up-faster-than-the-global-average
  71. https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7418/5/4/55
  72. http://populstat.info/Asia/kazakhst.htm
  73. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/57799/1/675902401.pdf
  74. https://www.mediamatic.net/en/page/40020/karaganda-kazakhstan
  75. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9647624/
  76. https://stat.gov.kz/en/industries/social-statistics/demography/publications/312581/
  77. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12225197/
  78. https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/cities/21687/karaganda/population
  79. https://timesca.com/shifting-populations-the-struggle-to-sustain-northern-and-eastern-kazakhstan/
  80. https://review.gale.com/2024/11/04/how-ussr-policies-reshaped-kazakhstan/
  81. https://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Kazakhstan/sub8_4b/entry-4644.html
  82. https://astanatimes.com/2021/10/major-milestone-of-kazakh-independence-repatriation/
  83. https://history-philosophy-vestnik.buketov.edu.kz/index.php/history-philosophy-vestnik/article/view/1543
  84. https://www.eurasian-research.org/publication/explaining-demographics-of-karagandy-agglomeration/
  85. https://quincyinst.org/research/ethnic-divisions-and-ensuring-stability-in-kazakhstan-a-guide-for-u-s-policy/
  86. https://www.gem.wiki/Kazakhstanskaya_Coal_Mine
  87. https://cajscr.com/wp-content/uploads/Coal-Mine-Methane-in-Kazakhstan-Economic-and-Environmental-Case-Study-_A-Y.pdf
  88. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-03/documents/karaganda.pdf
  89. https://astanatimes.com/2025/07/kazakhstan-secures-exemption-to-continue-coal-exports-to-europe/
  90. https://thecoalhub.com/restrictions-on-kazakhstan-coal-transit-reduce-coal-supplies-to-europe.html
  91. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/445446/kazakhstan-economic-diversification.pdf
  92. https://qazindustry.gov.kz/en/article/2451-promyshlennoe-razvitie-karagandinskoy-oblasti
  93. https://stat.gov.kz/en/region/karagandy/
  94. https://corporate.arcelormittal.com/media/cases-studies/arcelormittal-temirtau-continues-to-implement-its-198m/
  95. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/13/5/131
  96. https://timesca.com/every-third-kazakhstani-works-informally-or-hides-their-income/
  97. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/1000726/kazakhstan-resource-economy.pdf
  98. https://www.iqair.com/us/world-most-polluted-cities
  99. https://www.kt.kz/eng/society/karaganda_records_consistently_high_and_very_high_1377982841.html
  100. https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/toolsres_coal_overview_ch20_updated2020.pdf
  101. https://arnika.org/en/hotspots/kazakhstan/mercury-contamination-of-nura-river
  102. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969700005404
  103. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6838766/
  104. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10962247.2020.1813837
  105. https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2012/04/30/eliminating-mercurys-invisible-threat-in-kazakhstan
  106. https://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/2007/04/mercury-rising-the-world-bank-and-the-nura-river-clean-up/
  107. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/29/kazakhstan-mourns-after-arcelormittal-mine-disaster-kills-45
  108. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP83-00423R000600640004-1.pdf
  109. https://longreads.cabar.asia/kazakh-black-diamonds
  110. https://www.citypopulation.de/en/kazakhstan/admin/07__qarag%25CC%2581andy/
  111. https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/karaganda?lang=en
  112. https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2017/12/decentralisation-and-multi-level-governance-in-kazakhstan_g1g80380/9789264280700-en.pdf
  113. https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/6/9/548599.pdf
  114. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/01/06/kazakhstan-crisis-timeline/
  115. https://economykz.org/?p=14013&lang=en
  116. https://www.railwaypro.com/wp/kazakhstan-china-rail-freight-transport-increases/
  117. https://russiaspivottoasia.com/central-asia-russia-rail-freight-transit-up-50-new-russia-china-rail-connectivity-routes-emerging/
  118. https://www.rome2rio.com/s/Karaganda/Astana
  119. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099072524145034814/pdf/P5005651699f540b61a4b419db9830d8811.pdf
  120. https://cargoforwarder.eu/2025/06/09/karaganda-airport-on-way-to-gaining-hub-status/
  121. https://idfrk.kz/en/pr/news/karaganda-s-public-transport-was-renewed-by-80
  122. https://www.mainspring.co.uk/industry-news/kazakh-tramway-set-to-re-open/
  123. https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/112585/
  124. https://www.ainvest.com/news/kazakhstan-logistics-sector-strategic-bet-infrastructure-air-freight-expansion-2507/
  125. https://smapse.com/karaganda-state-technical-university-karaganda-state-technical-university/
  126. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/karaganda-buketov-university/
  127. https://free-apply.com/en/articles/country/1522867/city/609655
  128. https://thediplomat.com/2024/08/causes-and-consequences-of-kazakhstans-brain-drain/
  129. https://wanderlog.com/place/details/10214342/karaganda-regional-clinical-hospital
  130. https://www.undp.org/kazakhstan/stories/towards-cleaner-air-battlefront-trounce-air-pollution-create-healthier-human-capital
  131. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273121877_Human_Health_Cost_of_Air_Pollution_in_Kazakhstan
  132. https://qazinform.com/news/27-new-medical-facilities-to-open-in-karaganda-region-c3f8bd
  133. https://cabar.asia/en/how-the-number-of-believers-changed-in-kazakhstan
  134. https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2023-09/WS6BauzhanENG.pdf
  135. https://www.pillarcatholic.com/p/dont-forget-us-the-catholic-church
  136. https://astanatimes.com/2022/08/evolution-of-islam-in-kazakhstan-how-modern-kazakh-muslims-balance-their-religious-identity-the-soviet-legacy-and-national-traditions/
  137. https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan
  138. https://welcome.kz/en/info-cities/karaganda-region/karaganda/karaganda-kazakh-theater
  139. https://silkadv.com/en/content/theatre-named-after-seifullin
  140. https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g608513-d6502333-Reviews-K_Stanislavskiy_Drama_Theatre-Karaganda_Karagandy_Province.html
  141. https://aroundus.com/p/8382834-karaganda-regional-drama-theater-named-after-stanislavsky
  142. https://wanderlog.com/list/geoCategory/1586620/top-things-to-do-and-attractions-in-karaganda
  143. https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attractions-g608513-Activities-c47-t26-Karaganda_Karagandy_Province.html
  144. https://welcome.kz/en/info-cities/karaganda-region/karaganda/must-visit-karaganda
  145. https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/karlag-memorial-museum
  146. https://www.lonelyplanet.com/kazakhstan/northern-kazakhstan/karaganda/attractions/karlag-museum/a/poi-sig/1384370/356867
  147. https://aroundus.com/p/8375729-shakhtyor-stadium
  148. https://kff.kz/en/news/23137
  149. https://www.loging.si/en/news/sports-facility-in-karaganda-kazakhstan/
  150. https://www.apartamenty.kz/en/karaganda/posts/sports-in-karaganda-sports-in-kazakhstan.html
  151. https://eurasia.travel/kazakhstan/karaganda/central-park/
  152. https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/karaganda/activities/370?lang=en
  153. https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attractions-g608513-Activities-c57-Karaganda_Karagandy_Province.html
  154. https://izi.travel/sv/c37e-shady-alleys-fountains-and-parks-karaganda/en?lang=en
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.