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Lokapala
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Lokapāla (Sanskrit: लोकपाल, Tibetan: འཇིག་རྟེན་སྐྱོང་བ, Wylie: 'jig rten skyong ba), Sanskrit, Pāli, and Tibetan for "guardian of the world", has different uses depending on whether it is found in a Hindu or Buddhist context. In Hinduism, lokapāla refers to the Guardians of the Directions associated with the eight, nine and ten cardinal directions. In Buddhism, lokapāla refers to the Four Heavenly Kings, and to other protector spirits, whereas the Guardians of the Directions are referred to as dikpāla.
In Hinduism
[edit]In Hinduism, the guardians of the cardinal directions are called dikapāla. The four principal guardians are:[citation needed]
In Buddhism
[edit]In Buddhism, lokapāla are one of two broad categories of dharmapāla (protectors of the Buddhist religion) -the other category being Wisdom Protectors. In China, "each is additionally associated with a specific direction and the Four Heraldic Animals of Chinese astronomy/astrology, as well as playing a more secular role in rural communities ensuring favorable weather for crops and peace throughout the land...Easily identified by their armor and boots, each has his own magic weapon and associations."[1] Their names are (east) Dhrtarastra, (west) Virupaksa, (north) Vaishravana, and (south) Virudhaka.
In Tibetan Buddhism, many of these worldly protector deities are indigenous Tibetan deities, mountain gods, demons, spirits or ghosts that have been subjugated by Padmasambhava or other great adepts and oath bound to protect a monastery, geographic region, particular tradition or as guardians of Buddhism in general. These worldly protectors are invoked and propitiated to aid the monastery or Buddhist practitioner materially and to remove obstacles to practice. However, since they are considered to be Samsaric beings, they are not worshiped or considered as objects of refuge.[citation needed]
According to Tripitaka Master Shramana Hsuan Hua of the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas, all of these beings are invoked (hooked and summoned) and exhorted to behave (subdued) and protect the Dharma and its practitioners in the Shurangama Mantra.[2]
References
[edit]- ^ Welch, Patricia Bjaaland. Chinese Art: A Guide to Motifs and Visual Imagery. Vermont: Tuttle, 2008, p. 194.
- ^ Hua, Gold Mountain Shramana Tripitaka Master Hsuan; Bhikshuni Rev. Heng Chih; Bhikshuni Rev. Heng Hsien; David Rounds; Ron Epstein; et al. (2003). The Shurangama Sutra - Sutra Text and Supplements with Commentary by the Venerable Master Hsuan Hua - First Edition. Burlingame, California: Buddhist Text Translation Society. ISBN 0-88139-949-3. Archived from the original on 2009-05-29., Volume 6, Chapter 3: The Spiritual Shurangama Mantra, pp. 87-162, and Chapter 5, The Twelve Categories of Living Beings, pp. 177-191,
Further reading
[edit]- Kalsang, Ladrang (1996) The Guardian Deities of Tibet Delhi: Winsome Books. (Third Reprint 2003) ISBN 81-88043-04-4
- Linrothe, Rob (1999) Ruthless Compassion: Wrathful Deities in Early Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist Art London: Serindia Publications. ISBN 0-906026-51-2
- De Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Rene. (1956) Oracles and Demons of Tibet. Oxford University Press. Reprint Delhi: Books Faith, 1996 - ISBN 81-7303-039-1. Reprint Delhi: Paljor Publications, 2002- - ISBN 81-86230-12-2
External links
[edit]- Buddhist Protectors - outline page at Himalayan Art Resources
- Buddhist Protectors: Worldly - images at Himalayan Art Resources
- Lokapalas and caturmaharajikas - Lokapalas and caturmaharajikas in rock carvings at Chilas and Thalpan on the Upper Indus (Pakistan)
Lokapala
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Etymology and Overview
Meaning and Terminology
The term Lokapāla derives from Sanskrit, where loka signifies "world," "realm," or "universe," and pāla denotes "protector," "guardian," or "one who supports."[4][5][6] Thus, Lokapāla collectively translates to "world-protector" or "guardian of the worlds," often emphasizing oversight of cosmic realms or directional spaces.[4][5] In Hindu terminology, a closely related variant is Dikpāla, combining diś or dik (meaning "direction" or "quarter") with pāla (guardian), rendering it as "direction-guardian" or "presiding deity of the directions."[7][8] This term underscores the role in safeguarding spatial orientations, sometimes used interchangeably with Lokapāla to refer to regents of cardinal and intermediate directions.[9] In Buddhist contexts, Lokapāla aligns with broader categories of Dharmapāla (protectors of the Dharma or cosmic law), particularly denoting the Four Heavenly Kings as directional guardians, while in Jainism, Lokapāla functions as a subtype of devas (divine beings) responsible for world protection.[10][7] The concept of Lokapālas first emerges in Vedic literature as directional deities associated with natural and cosmic forces, such as regents of quarters in early hymns and ritual contexts.[11] By the Puranic period, this evolves into a more structured system of guardians, with texts like the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa detailing their roles in maintaining universal order and temple architecture.[4][12]Historical Origins
The concept of Lokapalas, or guardians of the directions, emerged in the Vedic period through associations of cosmic directions with natural elements and major deities such as Indra, linked to the east and storms, and Varuna, associated with the west and waters. Early Vedic texts like the Rigveda present proto-forms of these guardians via cosmic classifications, where directions are tied to divine forces maintaining universal order, as seen in hymns invoking Aditi as a spatial overseer.[13] The Atharvaveda further develops this by referencing directional deities in rituals for protection and harmony, evolving theological interpretations that blend elemental forces with protective roles.[13] During the epic period, the Lokapala framework expanded significantly in the Mahabharata, where the guardians are depicted as eight regents overseeing cardinal and intermediate directions, integrated into narratives of spatial orientation and royal rituals to symbolize cosmic stability.[13] This evolution reflects broader cosmological models, portraying the guardians as upholders of dharma across the structured universe. By the Puranic era, texts like the Vishnu Purana formalized the system into eight or ten guardians, detailing their hierarchical roles in multi-layered cosmologies that encompass earthly and celestial realms, with explicit assignments such as Indra for the east and Yama for the south.[14][13] The Hindu Lokapala tradition provided a foundational framework that influenced adaptations in Buddhism and Jainism amid the sramana movements of the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE, when emerging heterodox traditions incorporated directional protectors to align with shared Indic cosmologies. In early Buddhist scriptures, this manifests as the Four Heavenly Kings, drawn from Vedic-inspired figures like Vaisravana (Kubera), who guard the cardinal directions and attend key events in the Buddha's life, marking an initial cross-traditional borrowing.[15] Jain texts similarly adopt deva-like guardians for worldly protection, adapting the eightfold structure to fit their multi-level universe while retaining elemental and directional motifs from the Vedic-Hindu core.[13]In Hinduism
The Dikpalas
In Hindu cosmology, the Dikpalas serve as divine protectors of the cardinal and intermediate directions, safeguarding the cosmic order (loka) from chaos and disorder. These guardians embody the principle of spatial harmony, ensuring the stability of the universe by overseeing specific directional realms and maintaining equilibrium among natural forces. Their role extends to preventing the intrusion of malevolent influences, thereby upholding the structured integrity of creation as described in ancient theological frameworks.[13] Theologically, the Dikpalas function as subordinate entities to supreme deities such as Vishnu and Shiva, who represent the ultimate preservers and transformers of the cosmos. They are invoked in Hindu rituals, including yajnas and protective ceremonies, to secure blessings for harmony and defense against disruptions, as outlined in texts like the Matsyapurana. This invocation reinforces their intermediary position in the divine hierarchy, channeling higher cosmic energies for earthly protection. Furthermore, the Dikpalas are integral to Vastu Shastra, the traditional Hindu science of architecture, where they guide spatial orientations in temple and building designs to align human environments with universal order and promote well-being.[13] The number of Dikpalas varies across Hindu scriptures, reflecting evolving cosmological models. While a core set of four guardians corresponds to the primary cardinal directions, the standard Puranic tradition expands this to eight, incorporating the intermediate points for a more comprehensive protective scheme. In certain contexts, this extends to ten by including the zenith and nadir, encompassing the full vertical axis of the cosmos and emphasizing total directional coverage.[13]List of Guardians and Directions
In Hindu cosmology, the Lokapalas, also known as Dikpalas, are typically enumerated as eight principal guardians, each presiding over one of the cardinal and intermediate directions to maintain cosmic order. These deities are detailed in texts such as the Agni Purana and Matsya Purana, where they are assigned specific roles tied to natural elements and protective functions. The standard list includes Indra for the east, Agni for the southeast, Yama for the south, Nirriti for the southwest, Varuna for the west, Vayu for the northwest, Kubera for the north, and Ishana (an aspect of Shiva) for the northeast.[16] The following table summarizes the eight Dikpalas, their directions, associated weapons, mounts (vahanas), and elemental affinities, as described in Puranic sources like the Agni Purana (Chapter 51) and scholarly analyses of Hindu iconography:| Direction | Guardian | Weapon | Mount (Vahana) | Elemental Affinity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| East | Indra | Thunderbolt (Vajra) | Elephant (Airavata) | Thunder and Rain |
| Southeast | Agni | Spear or Flames | Ram or Goat | Fire |
| South | Yama | Noose or Staff (Danda) | Buffalo | Death and Justice |
| Southwest | Nirriti | Sword (Khadga) | Man or Lion | Dissolution |
| West | Varuna | Noose (Pasha) or Trident | Crocodile (Makara) | Water |
| Northwest | Vayu | Banner or Goad (Ankusa) | Antelope or Deer | Wind |
| North | Kubera | Club (Gada) | Horse or Man | Wealth and Earth |
| Northeast | Ishana | Trident (Trishula) | Bull (Nandi) | Ether and Knowledge |
In Buddhism
The Four Heavenly Kings
In Buddhist tradition, the Four Heavenly Kings, known as the Caturmahārāja or Cāturmahārājakāyika devas, are the primary lokapalas residing in the Cāturmahārājika heaven, the lowest realm of the kāmadhātu in Buddhist cosmology. They are depicted as vigilant warrior deities who guard the four cardinal directions of the world, ensuring cosmic order and protecting the Dharma from malevolent forces. Their origins are described in early Buddhist texts, particularly the Pali Canon, where they appear as the four great kings who visit the Buddha at Vulture Peak to offer a protective incantation, the Āṭānāṭiya Paritta, against evil spirits and to affirm their role in safeguarding practitioners.[17] In the Dīgha Nikāya's Āṭānāṭiya Sutta (DN 32), these kings—Dhaṭaraṭṭha, Virūḷha, Virūpakkha, and Vessavaṇa—arrive with their retinues late at night, bowing to the Buddha and reciting verses that invoke protection for the saṅgha, emphasizing their martial devotion to the teachings.[17] Each king is assigned to a specific direction, associated with distinct colors, symbols, and followers drawn from supernatural beings, reflecting their protective mandates. Dhṛtarāṣṭra, guardian of the east, is linked to music; he is portrayed as white in color, holding a lute (vīṇā) to symbolize harmony, and is guarded by gandharvas, celestial musicians, often depicted riding a horse as his vehicle to underscore his swift protective role. Virūḍhaka oversees the south, clad in blue, he wields a sword to represent martial authority, accompanied by kumbhāṇḍa followers who embody earthy, defensive spirits. Virūpākṣa, vigilant in the west, appears in red or green hues, bearing a stūpa or coiled snake as emblems of vigilance and subjugation of chaos, with nāga attendants serving him.[2] Finally, Vaiśravaṇa commands the north, embodying wealth and prosperity; he is yellow, holding an umbrella for royal authority or a mongoose that spits jewels, leading yakṣas as his devoted followers and reinforcing his status as the wealthiest among devas. These kings' iconography, including their attributes and directional associations, evolved from early textual descriptions in the Pali Canon to standardized forms in later Mahāyāna art, where they emphasize not only physical guardianship but also the moral order upheld by the Buddha's teachings. Their visit to the Buddha in the sūtras highlights their subordination to the Dharma, transforming potential adversaries into allies who patrol the world's quarters with unyielding discipline.[17][2]Roles in Buddhist Cosmology
In Buddhist cosmology, the Lokapalas, or Four Heavenly Kings, occupy the Cāturmahārājika heaven, the lowest of the six deva realms within the desire world (kāmaloka), positioned on the lower slopes of Mount Meru. From this vantage, they oversee the human realm of Jambudvīpa, monitoring the activities of sentient beings and ensuring the preservation of cosmic harmony.[18] As subordinate devas, they report directly to Sakra (Indra), the ruler of the Trayastriṃśa heaven immediately above, forming part of the hierarchical structure that links divine oversight to earthly affairs.[15] Their primary duties revolve around protection, including safeguarding the Dharma—the Buddha's teachings—and all sentient beings from disruptive forces such as Māra, the demon of temptation and death, while upholding moral order across the world.[2] Vaiśravaṇa, as the acknowledged leader of the group, coordinates these efforts, emphasizing vigilance against threats to ethical conduct and spiritual progress. Following the Buddha's enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, the Four Kings approached him to offer alms bowls and formally pledged their allegiance, vowing to defend the newly arisen Dharma, the Buddhist community (saṅgha), and practitioners who uphold the teachings.[19] This commitment, detailed in texts like the Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtra (Sutra of Golden Light), underscores their role as vigilant guardians who intervene to avert calamities and promote conditions favorable to enlightenment.[20] In Vajrayana traditions, particularly those of Tibetan Buddhism, the scope of lokapalas broadens to encompass a wider array of worldly protectors, incorporating indigenous spirits and deities subjugated through tantric practices. Figures like Padmasambhava, the 8th-century tantric master who helped establish Buddhism in Tibet, ritually bound local mountain gods, nāgas, and other potent entities, compelling them to take oaths as dharmapālas—fierce defenders of the faith.[21] This integration blends pre-Buddhist local cosmologies with doctrinal orthodoxy, transforming potentially adversarial spirits into allies that protect sacred sites, rituals, and the transmission of esoteric teachings, thereby reinforcing the Dharma's adaptability across cultural landscapes.[22]In Jainism
Lokapalas as Devas
In Jain cosmology, the Lokapalas are one of the ten grades of celestial beings (devas), serving as world custodians or border-guards safeguarding the boundaries of the upper world (Urdhva Loka) in the three-tiered universe structure that encompasses the upper celestial realms, the middle human and animal world (Madhya Loka), and the lower infernal regions (Adho Loka). According to the Tattvartha Sutra, they represent the lowest grade (lokapalas or custodians) in the tenfold hierarchy of devas across applicable classes.[4] The role of the Lokapalas in Jain theology centers on their guardianship of cosmic realms, where they operate as subordinate entities to the Indras—directional kings such as Saudharma Indra—ensuring the maintenance of universal order while adhering strictly to the principle of non-interference in the karmic evolution of individual souls. Jains invoke these devas for blessings of non-violent protection, emphasizing their supportive function in preserving harmony across the realms without influencing the ethical or spiritual progress bound by karma. This protective mandate underscores the Jain view of devas as transient aides in the eternal cosmic framework, distinct from omnipotent creators.[4][23] Key textual foundations for the Lokapalas appear in foundational Jain scriptures, including the Tattvartha Sutra, which classifies them among the hierarchical grades of celestial beings responsible for world custodianship, and the Adi Purana, which narrates their attainment through meritorious actions and integration into the divine order. These texts highlight the impermanence of Lokapalas in contrast to the eternal, liberated souls (siddhas), portraying them as karmically bound entities whose existence spans immense but finite durations, ultimately subject to the cycles of birth and rebirth.[23][24]Specific Guardians
In Jainism, the Lokapalas, also known as Dikpalas or guardians of the directions, are celestial deities adapted from broader Indian traditions but aligned with principles of ahimsa, emphasizing protection and cosmic harmony over martial conquest. These beings primarily consist of eight core figures, similar to their Hindu counterparts but with reduced emphasis on weaponry, serving as protectors of the universe's spatial quarters and the teachings of the Tirthankaras.[25] Indra, revered as Śakra, guards the east and is often depicted with an elephant mount named Airāvata and a vajra symbol, representing authority tempered by devotion; he frequently intervenes in the biographies of Jinas, such as overseeing key events in Mahāvīra's life. Agni oversees the southeast, associated with a ram and flames symbolizing purification; Yama protects the south, mounted on a buffalo with a staff denoting justice without vengeance; and Varuṇa safeguards the west, linked to a dolphin or fish and a noose for binding chaos.[25] The remaining guardians include Nairṛta for the southwest, portrayed with a club or sword but in forms that highlight guardianship rather than destruction, sometimes as a goblin in Śvetāmbara texts or a bear in Digambara; Vāyu for the northwest, with a deer mount and banner evoking the winds of change; Kubera for the north, a figure of wealth holding gems or a club, occasionally shown in a chariot; and Iśāna for the northeast, associated with a bull and trident adapted to symbolize stability. These eight form the foundational Lokapalas, residing in the lower heavens of the Jain universe and acting as intermediaries who ensure the safety of devotees and the propagation of dharma. Unique attributes include symbols like lotuses for figures such as Nāga, denoting purity and enlightenment, and their collective role in shielding Tirthankaras during pivotal moments, as referenced in ritual texts.[25] Śvetāmbara tradition expands the pantheon to ten Lokapalas by including Brahmā for the upper direction (zenith), with a swan mount and lotus or book symbolizing knowledge, and Nāga for the lower direction (nadir), holding a lotus and snake to represent earthly guardianship. In contrast, Digambara sources adhere strictly to the eight, excluding these additions to maintain a more ascetic focus. Additions like Bhavanavāsi devas, celestial beings of the lower realms who dwell in mansion-like abodes, supplement the primary Lokapalas by guarding transitional spaces, aligning with the ten directional Dikku devas in some classifications. Collectively, these guardians oversee the 16 heavenly realms (Vaimānika heavens), preventing disruptions and facilitating worship, as described in texts like the Kalpasūtra illustrations where their abodes are implied around sacred events.[25]| Direction | Guardian | Key Attributes/Symbols (Jain Adaptation) |
|---|---|---|
| East | Śakra (Indra) | Elephant (Airāvata), vajra; protective authority |
| Southeast | Agni | Ram, flames/spear; purification |
| South | Yama | Buffalo, staff; just guardianship |
| Southwest | Nairṛta | Goblin/bear, club; boundary protection |
| West | Varuṇa | Dolphin/fish, noose; order maintenance |
| Northwest | Vāyu | Deer, banner/thunderbolt; dynamic balance |
| North | Kubera | Man-like, gems/club, chariot; prosperity |
| Northeast | Iśāna | Bull, trident/bow; stability |
| Zenith (Śvetāmbara only) | Brahmā | Swan, lotus/book; elevated wisdom |
| Nadir (Śvetāmbara only) | Nāga | Snake, lotus; foundational purity |
Iconography and Depictions
Attributes and Symbols
The Lokapālas are depicted with distinct attributes, symbols, weapons, vehicles (vahanas), and colors that reflect their directional roles and divine functions across Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. These elements vary by tradition but emphasize protection, elemental forces, and cosmic order.In Hinduism
The Aṣṭa-Dikpālas (eight guardians) and additional zenith/nadir protectors have standardized iconography in texts like the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. They are often shown as armored warriors with two to four arms, standing or mounted on vahanas.| Direction | Deity | Color | Vahana | Weapons/Symbols | Arms | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| East | Indra | White | Elephant (Airavata) | Vajra (thunderbolt), conch, bow, arrows, hook, net | 4 | King of gods, crowned. |
| Southeast | Agni | Red | Ram | Flames, fire pot | 2 | Pot-bellied, sometimes three-faced. |
| South | Yama | Black | Buffalo | Danda (staff), noose | 2 | Judge of the dead. |
| Southwest | Nirṛti | Dark | Swordfish or ghost | Sword, shield | 2 | Surrounded by demons. |
| West | Varuṇa | White | Crocodile | Noose (pāśa) | 4 | Water deity. |
| Northwest | Vāyu | White | Antelope | Banner, flag | 2-4 | Youthful wind god. |
| North | Kubera | Yellow | Horse or elephant | Gada (mace, purse of jewels | 4 | Wealth god, big-bellied. |
| Northeast | Īśāna | - | Bull | Trident (as Śiva form) | - | Form of Śiva. |
| Zenith | Brahmā | - | Goose or chariot | No specific; rosary, water pot | 4 | Creator god. |
| Nadir | Viṣṇu | - | Serpent (Ananta) | Sudarśana chakra, conch | 4 | Preserver. |
In Buddhism
The Four Heavenly Kings (Catuṛmahārājas) guard the cardinal directions at Mount Meru's base. Their attributes evolved from Indian prototypes, standardizing in East Asian art with musical, martial, and protective symbols. They are depicted as armored warriors, often trampling demons, with specific colors and items.| Direction | Deity | Color | Vahana/Attribute | Weapons/Symbols | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| East | Dhṛtarāṣṭra | White/Blue | White elephant | Pipa (lute) or sword | Guardian of growth, associated with music. |
| South | Virūḍhaka | Blue/Green | - | Sword | Subdues nagas (serpents). |
| West | Virūpākṣa | Red | - | Snake or jewel-spitting mongoose | Protects against deceit. |
| North | Vaiśravaṇa | Yellow/Green | Black dragon or horse | Parasol, stupa, mongoose | Wealth deity, scatters jewels. |
In Jainism
Jain Lokapālas parallel Hindu Dikpālas but emphasize ethical virtues. They are less rigidly directional, often as devas or yakṣas attending Tīrthaṅkaras, with attributes like nooses and flags symbolizing protection of the loka (universe). Specific details include:- Saudharma (East): Associated with non-violence, holds a goad or banner.
- Īśāna (Northeast): Transformation guardian, with trident or lotus.
- Yakṣas/Yakṣiṇīs (attendants): Urn, axe, cobra noose, threefold thread; positioned beside Tīrthaṅkaras for cosmic balance.[26][3]