Hubbry Logo
MathnawiMathnawiMain
Open search
Mathnawi
Community hub
Mathnawi
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Mathnawi
Mathnawi
Mathnawi
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Mathnawi (/ˌmæθnəˈwiː/ MATH-nə-WEE),[a] also spelled masnavi,[b] mesnevi[c] or masnawi,[d] is a kind of poem written in rhyming couplets, or more specifically "a poem based on independent, internally rhyming lines". Most mathnawi poems follow a meter of eleven, or occasionally ten, syllables, but had no limit in their length.[1] Typical mathnawi poems consist of an indefinite number of couplets, with the rhyme scheme aa/bb/cc.

Mathnawi poems have been written in Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Kurdish and Urdu cultures. Certain Persian mathnawi poems, such as Rumi's Masnavi-e Ma’navi, have had a special religious significance in Sufism. Other influential writings include the poems of Ghazali[clarification needed] and ibn Arabi.[2] Mathnawis are closely tied to Islamic theology, philosophy, and legends, and cannot be understood properly without knowledge about it.[3]

Arabic mathnawi

[edit]

Arabic mathnawi poetry, also known as muzdawij (Arabic: مزدوج – lit. 'doubled', referring to the internal rhyme scheme of the lines), was popularized during the Abbasid era. Unlike the older poetic styles in Arabic, mathnawi verses are not monorhymes. Instead, they include an internal rhyme scheme within each verse (or بيت bayt) with an extensive use of alliteration and follow a specific meter. Arabic mathnawi poetry is similar to the Persian, Urdu and Turkish equivalents, though with one major difference: most muzdawij poems follow an aaa/bbb/ccc pattern, while the other mathnawi poems follow an aa/bb/cc pattern.[4]

Persian masnavi

[edit]

Persian masnavi poems strictly adhere to a meter of 11 syllables (occasionally ten). While the length of a masnavi is not prescribed and is therefore unlimited, most of the better known masnavi are within a range of 2,000–9,000 verses).[5] The first known masnavi poem was written during the Samanid period (4th–10th centuries). Despite certain dates indicating a possibility otherwise, modern scholars believe that it is a continuation of an Iranian verse form, not of its Arabic counterpart.[e][6]

Masnavi are usually associated with the didactic and romantic genres, but are not limited to them.[7] There is a great variety among Persian masnavi, but there are several conventions that can help a reader recognize a masnavi poem. Most masnavi have a distinction between the introductory and body paragraphs (although it is not always easy to determine where that is), praise of the one God and prayers, a eulogy of the Prophet, reflections on the value of poetry, and occasionally a description of an object as a significant symbol.[8]

Certain Persian masnavi have had a special religious significance in Sufism, such as Rumi's Masnavi-i Ma'nawi, which consists of 6 books/25,000 verses and which has been used in prayer among many Sufi's, such as the Whirling Dervishes.[9] While some Islamic legalists find the practice unconscionable, the Sufi scholar and jurist Abu Hamid al-Ghazali supported the use of poetry as worship.[10]

In the 21st century, Ahmad NikTalab has been one of the expert poets of Persian masnawi.[11]

Turkish mesnevi

[edit]

Turkish mesnevi developed during the 8th to 14th centuries. Persian masnavi influenced Turkish authors as many Turkish mesnevi were, at first, creative translations and adaptations of Persian masnavi. The oldest known Turkish mesnevi is a didactic poem called Kutadgu Bilig.[12]

Turkish mesnevi are strongly driven by their plot, and are usually categorized into three genres: mutakarib (heroic), ramal (religio-didactic), and hazaj (romantic). Some mesnevi were written with an understanding that the audience would appreciate the importance of the subject of the poem, but some were also written purely for entertainment purposes.[12]

Mesnevi remained prominent in Turkish literature until the end of the Ottoman Empire, when it began to transform into more conversational and rhetorical literature. Few Turkish mesnevi have been translated into another modern language.[13]

Urdu masnawi

[edit]

Urdu masnawi are usually divided into three categories: early, middle, and late.

Early Urdu masnawi began during the 11th to 17th centuries. In the beginning of this period, many masnawi were religious in nature, but then grew to include romantic, heroic, and even secular stories. Early Urdu masnawi were influenced by Dakkani literature, as well as Persian masnavi. Because of this influence, many early Urdu masnawi were translations of Persian masnavi, although there are some original early Urdu masnawis.[14]

Middle Urdu masnawi became prominent during the 12th to 18th centuries, when Urdu literature broke away from the Dakkani tradition. During the 12th to 18th centuries, romantic masnawi became very popular. Another new convention that appeared in middle Urdu masnawi was authors using their own personal experiences as a subject for their poem.[15]

Modern Urdu masnawi began during the 13th to 19th centuries, during a time of literary reform. Masnawi as a whole became much shorter, and the traditional meters stopped being observed. These masnawis deal more with everyday subjects, as well as providing a medium for children's poetry.[16] A well-known masnavi-writer in Urdu in recent times was Allama Dr. Syed Ali Imam Zaidi "Gauhar Lucknavi" (great-grandson of Mir Baber Ali Anees).

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Literature

[edit]
  • Bruijn, J.T.P. de; Flemming, B.; Rahman, Munibur (8 April 2010). "Mathnawī". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; Donzel, E. van; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Online.
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mathnawi

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Mathnawi (also spelled or Mathnavi) is a traditional poetic form originating from the , characterized by rhyming s in which each pair of lines shares an internal (aa bb cc), typically with lines of 10 or 11 syllables. It serves as a vehicle for extended narratives, often didactic, mystical, or romantic in nature, and has been employed in Persian, , Turkish, and traditions. The term derives from the mathnawī, meaning "doubling" or "couplet," reflecting its structure of paired verses. The form originated in around the 8th century and was adopted in by the 10th century, evolving into a favored medium for spiritual and ethical teachings by the medieval period. Early adaptations for mystical began with 12th-century poet of Ghazna, whose Hadiqat al-Haqiqa (The Garden of Truth, c. 1140) marked the first major didactic mathnawi, blending ethical guidance with Sufi insights through rhyming couplets. Subsequent poets like Farid al-Din Attar further refined it for allegorical and artistic expression, paving the way for its pinnacle in the work of Jalal al-Din (1207–1273). Rumi's Masnavi-ye Ma'navi (Spiritual Couplets), composed from 1258 to 1273 at the urging of his disciple Husam al-Din Chelebi, spans six books with 25,575 verses and stands as the genre's most influential exemplar. Written in the ramal meter—a syncopated of 11 syllables per line—the poem weaves fables, Qur'anic allusions, and discourses to elucidate Sufi principles of divine love, ego transcendence, and union with God. Rumi himself described the Masnavi as "the roots of the roots of the Religion" and "the explainer of the Qur'an," underscoring its role as a of Islamic . Structured as a series of interconnected stories and parables, it employs layered narratives to convey profound spiritual truths, influencing Sufi orders and for centuries. The work's enduring legacy includes its status as one of the most studied texts in Islamic spirituality, with early manuscripts dating to 1278 and the first complete English translation by appearing between 1925 and 1940. Beyond Rumi, mathnawi compositions continued to flourish, appearing in epic romances like Nizami Ganjavi's Khamsa (c. 1197) and later works, demonstrating the form's versatility across cultures and eras.

Overview

Definition

The mathnawi is a poetic in Islamic literary traditions characterized by its composition in independent rhyming couplets, following a scheme of aa, bb, cc, and continuing without a predetermined length. This form allows for expansive storytelling, typically employing a quantitative meter suited to flow, and is derived from the term mathnā, meaning "two by two," reflecting the rhyming of each pair of lines with each other. Unlike rigidly structured poems, the mathnawi's flexibility accommodates varying thematic depths, with consistent line lengths determined by the chosen meter, making it ideal for prolonged compositions. It distinguishes itself from other couplet-based forms in , such as the , which incorporates a recurring (radif) and is typically shorter and more lyrical, or the , which adheres to a single monorhyme throughout its entirety for or purposes. The mathnawi's independent couplets enable seamless transitions between episodes without the constraints of a unified or , prioritizing continuity in discourse over musical repetition. This structural autonomy sets it apart from earlier prototypes like the muzdawij, which were less prominent and more limited in scope. Commonly employed for didactic, mystical, or epic content, the mathnawi serves as a vehicle for moral instruction, spiritual , and heroic narratives in languages using , such as Persian, , and Turkish. Its adaptability supports diverse applications, from ethical teachings to factual expositions, often beginning with introductory sections like praises or dedications. The form emerged in medieval during the 10th century, evolving from pre-Islamic Iranian traditions adapted to Islamic prosody, and gained prominence for handling complex, extended themes that shorter forms could not sustain.

Etymology

The term mathnawi derives from the adjective mathnawī, formed as the nisba (relational adjective) from mathnā, meaning "doubled" or "two by two," a reference to the poem's structure of independent rhyming couplets where each pair of lines rhymes with each other. This etymology also connects to earlier Arabic concepts like mathnātun (a "two-verse" form), as noted in classical lexicons such as al-Djawharī's Ṣiḥāḥ and the Tāj al-ʿarūs. In Arabic literary theory, the rhyming couplet form—initially termed muzdawij (literally "doubled," alluding to the paired rhymes)—emerged as early as the 8th century, with examples in pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetry. The specific designation mathnawi gained prominence in the 9th–10th centuries through Persian adaptations, though its Arabic roots trace to linguistic patterns established in Abbasid scholarly circles around the same period. The term's evolution reflects the broader transmission of Arabic poetics via Islamic scholarship to Persian, Turkish, and literary traditions, where phonetic and orthographic variations arose: masnavi in Persian (softening the Arabic th to s), mesnevi in , and masnawi in . These adaptations preserved the core meaning of "doubled" while accommodating regional pronunciations in the Islamic world.

Poetic Structure

Rhyme Scheme and Meter

The mathnawi poetic form is characterized by a of independent couplets, in which each pair of lines rhymes internally (aa, bb, cc, and so on), distinguishing it from monorhyme structures like the and enabling greater flexibility in narrative development. This structure, defined in classical sources as "independent, internally rhyming lines," allows poets to shift topics or advance stories without adhering to a single end-rhyme throughout the poem. The meter of mathnawi poetry adheres to the Arabic system of prosody, known as ʿarūḍ, which organizes verse through quantitative patterns of long and short syllables. Typically, each hemistich (half-line) consists of 10 to 11 syllables, with common meters including the mutaqārib-i musaddas-i maḥdhūf (used in Ferdowsi's Shāhnāma), khafīf, and rāmal, adapted in Persian to ensure rhythmic flow suitable for extended composition. For instance, Rumi's Masnavī employs the rāmal meter in an apocopated form, following the − ∪ − − / − ∪ − − / − ∪ −, where long syllables (−) alternate with short ones (∪) to create a "running" rhythm that supports mystical and didactic themes. This metrical framework, rooted in ʿarūḍ's emphasis on , promotes consistency across while accommodating —where the sense flows continuously from one to the next—thus enhancing the form's suitability for and . Such adaptations allow the mathnawi to sustain long narratives without rhythmic disruption, as seen in works where syntactic units span multiple for dramatic effect.

Length and Composition

The mathnawi poetic form exhibits remarkable flexibility in length, accommodating works from concise didactic pieces consisting of just a few couplets to sprawling multi-volume epics that span thousands of couplets. This indefinite scale arises from the form's reliance on self-contained rhyming couplets, which impose no restrictions on overall expansion and suit extended explorations of or instructional themes. Short mathnavis, typically under 100 verses, often appear embedded in poets' divans as standalone anecdotes or praises, while longer compositions leverage the format's freedom to develop comprehensive topics without the rhythmic constraints of other Persian verse types. Composition of mathnawi poems frequently occurred through oral dictation or extemporaneous creation, with poets reciting verses that were then transcribed by scribes, facilitating the accumulation of extensive material over time. To manage this scale, longer works are systematically divided into or daftars, each potentially featuring introductory prefaces that provide thematic orientation and structural cohesion. This organizational approach not only aids in the drafting process but also supports the form's suitability for ongoing elaboration, often spanning years of production. Narratively, mathnawi integrates interwoven stories, parables, and digressions within its framework to build multifaceted discourses, allowing poets to layer ethical, mystical, or philosophical teachings through branching subplots and reflective asides. These techniques create a polyphonic texture, where primary tales serve as vehicles for moral exempla and interpretive expansions, enhancing the poem's instructional depth without disrupting the rhythmic flow. In manuscript traditions, mathnawi texts were meticulously copied and often embellished with illumination—intricate gold-leaf borders, floral motifs, and colored headings—to elevate their aesthetic and devotional appeal, reflecting their status as sacred or inspirational literature. Recitation practices further embedded the form in cultural life, particularly in Sufi contexts, where masnavi-khwan (reciters) performed selections in communal settings to foster spiritual reflection and memorization, perpetuating the poems' oral heritage alongside their written preservation.

Historical Development

Origins in Arabic

The mathnawi poetic form, known in Arabic as muzdawij (from mathnā, meaning "two by two"), emerged during the Abbasid era in the 8th century, building on pre-Islamic Arabic traditions of rhymed couplets that emphasized rhythmic pairing for oral delivery. These early couplets, often used in tribal narratives and laments, provided a foundation for the structured hemistich rhymes characteristic of muzdawij, allowing for extended expression within the constraints of classical Arabic prosody. The form's development coincided with the intellectual flourishing of Baghdad, where poets adapted it to suit diverse themes, from secular to didactic content, reflecting the era's cosmopolitan influences. Earliest examples of muzdawij appear in the works of Abbasid poets such as Abū Nuwās (d. 814 CE), who employed rhyming couplets in his khamriyyāt (wine poetry) to evoke sensory imagery and moral introspection, marking a shift toward more narrative-driven compositions. In Sufi contexts, the form gained traction for moral tales and ethical teachings, as seen in early mystical texts that used couplets to convey allegorical stories of spiritual ascent, predating its fuller elaboration in Persian adaptations. These applications highlighted muzdawij's versatility beyond the monorhyme of traditional qasidas, enabling layered storytelling suitable for both courtly and devotional audiences. Theoretical discussions of muzdawij as a variant of musammat (multi-rhymed ) appear in Abbasid poetics, with critics like al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 869 CE) analyzing its rhythmic structure and classification within broader verse systems, emphasizing its departure from pre-Islamic stichic forms toward paired innovation. Later scholars built on this, viewing it as a bridge between classical and emerging styles. By the , the form's utility in long-form works facilitated its spread through trade routes and scholarly exchanges to Persianate regions around the early , where it evolved into the prominent genre.

Spread to Persian Literature

The mathnawi form entered in the early through poets like Abū al-Majd Majdūd Sanāʾī (d. ca. 1141), who shifted its focus toward mystical and philosophical themes, transforming it from a primarily structure into a vehicle for Sufi teachings and ethical reflection. Sanāʾī's Ḥadiqat al-ḥaqiqa wa šariʿat al-ṭariqa (The Garden of Truth and the Law of the Path), completed around 1130–31 under the patronage of Bahrāmšāh of the Ghaznavid dynasty, exemplifies this adaptation as the earliest major Persian mathnawi, comprising over 10,000 distichs that blend , moral instruction, and spiritual guidance. This work marked a pivotal innovation, establishing mathnawi as a preferred medium for didactic in . The genre reached its zenith during the Seljuk (1037–1194) and subsequent Mongol (1256–1335) periods, thriving in royal courts, scholarly circles, and Sufi orders across , where it served as a conduit for diverse themes including romance, history, and cosmology. Patronage from Seljuk sultans and Mongol rulers, alongside the growth of Sufi brotherhoods, fostered prolific output; mathnawi compositions proliferated in urban centers like , , and , often recited in madrasas and khanqahs to disseminate and esoteric knowledge. This era's cultural efflorescence, amid political turmoil from Mongol invasions, elevated mathnawi to a cornerstone of classical Persian poetic expression, with its flexibility allowing integration of , Qur'anic exegesis, and philosophical discourse. Persian mathnawi prosody drew directly from the Arabic ʿarūḍ system of quantitative meters, which 10th-century poets adapted to suit the phonetic patterns of , enabling fluid rhyme schemes suited to long-form narratives. Sanāʾī's Ḥadiqat al-ḥaqiqa, for instance, employs the ramal meter (fāʿilātun fāʿilun), a common Arabic-derived pattern that became standard for Persian mathnawis, facilitating rhythmic recitation and mnemonic retention in oral traditions. This Persian mathnawi tradition extended beyond through cultural exchanges, transmitting the form to the via Sufi networks and courtly diplomacy, where it evolved into Turkish mesnevi under poets influenced by Persian models. Similarly, in the , Persianate elites adopted mathnawi for Indo-Persian compositions, laying groundwork for variants that blended local idioms with mystical narratives.

Regional Variations

Persian Masnavi

In Persian literary tradition, the mathnawi emerged as a versatile form particularly suited to exploring profound spiritual and moral dimensions, with predominant themes revolving around Sufi mysticism, ethical guidance, and romantic narratives often presented as allegorical love stories symbolizing the soul's quest for divine union. These works frequently depict the human journey toward enlightenment through tales of longing, self-discovery, and moral dilemmas, emphasizing virtues such as , , and detachment from worldly attachments. For instance, mystical themes highlight the transformative power of divine love, while ethical elements underscore practical lessons in and , all interwoven to foster spiritual growth. Stylistically, Persian mathnawi is distinguished by its elaborate imagery drawn from nature, everyday life, and symbolic motifs—like the reed flute representing separation from the divine source—which vividly convey abstract concepts and evoke emotional depth unique to the Persian poetic idiom. The form is replete with Quranic allusions, integrating verses and interpretations to infuse narratives with scriptural authority and esoteric meaning, often through Sufi exegesis that layers surface stories with deeper metaphysical insights. Philosophical digressions are a hallmark, where anecdotal tales branch into reflective explorations of existence, free will, and the nature of reality, creating a polyphonic discourse that mirrors the complexity of human experience in Persian cultural expression. The classical period of Persian mathnawi, spanning the 11th to 15th centuries, coincided with the flourishing of under Seljuk patronage, where courtly support from rulers and viziers enabled poets to compose extensive works blending with artistry, often recited in royal assemblies to edify elites and commoners alike. This era saw the form's maturation as a vehicle for mystical and ethical discourse, supported by institutional backing that preserved and disseminated manuscripts across Persianate regions. Later revivals occurred during the Safavid era (16th–18th centuries), when renewed interest in Shi'i mysticism and religious learning prompted adaptations of mathnawi for theological and devotional purposes, extending its role beyond classical romance to include homiletic and interpretive texts amid a broader cultural . The mathnawi has profoundly shaped Persian by embedding Sufi principles into the collective , serving as a of literary heritage that reinforces themes of spiritual and ethical living central to Iranian . In , it has been employed as a pedagogical tool in madrasas and Sufi lodges to impart moral lessons and philosophical reasoning, influencing curricula that blend with religious instruction. For spiritual guidance, these works function as meditative guides, recited in communal settings to inspire personal transformation and communal , thereby sustaining their relevance in Persian spiritual practices across centuries.

Turkish Mesnevi

The Turkish mesnevi, an adaptation of the Persian mathnawi poetic form, emerged in Ottoman literature during the 13th and 14th centuries in , primarily through Persian influences transmitted via the Seljuq dynasty and the Mevlevi Sufi order. This rhymed-couplet structure allowed for extended narratives and quickly became a vehicle for expressing complex ideas in the burgeoning Ottoman literary tradition. In Ottoman Turkish usage, the mesnevi often explored themes of historical chronicles, biographies of prophets, and courtly narratives, particularly flourishing during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century. Examples include Ahmed-i Da'i's Jenk-Name, a historical epic, and Suleyman Chelebi's Mevlid-i Nebi, a revered biography of the Prophet Muhammad that remains influential in religious recitation. Courtly works like Sheykhi's Khusrev u Shirin, drawing on Persian romances, depicted royal love stories and moral dilemmas, adapting classical motifs to Ottoman contexts. Stylistically, the form underwent shifts by integrating Turkish vocabulary and folk elements into its Persianate framework, blending high literary Arabic-Persian influences with expressions to appeal to diverse audiences. This evolution is evident in early works like Âşık Paşa's Garibname, which incorporated Anatolian oral traditions while maintaining the couplet (aa, bb). Such adaptations enriched the mesnevi, making it a bridge between elite and . The mesnevi held substantial cultural impact in the Ottoman world, serving as a cornerstone of divan literature at the imperial court and a key text in madrasa education for teaching , , and . Poets from the 'ulema class, including Fuzuli, utilized it to convey mystical and romantic themes; his Leyla ile Mecnun, composed around 1535, exemplifies this with its 3,600 couplets exploring divine love through the legendary lovers' tale. This integration into educational and courtly spheres underscored the mesnevi's role in shaping Ottoman intellectual and artistic identity.

Urdu Masnavi

The Urdu masnavi, a poetic form adapted from Persian traditions, emerged prominently during the 16th to 18th centuries under Mughal rule, as Persian literary influences blended with emerging Hindustani linguistic elements to create a hybrid vernacular expression in northern and Deccani regions of India. This development occurred amid the cultural synthesis fostered by Mughal patronage, where the form—often spelled "masnawi" in Urdu script—served as a vehicle for narrative poetry that incorporated local dialects and idioms, distinguishing it from its more classical Persian counterparts. By the 18th century, this adaptation had solidified Urdu as a literary medium, with masnavis reflecting the socio-cultural milieu of courtly and popular audiences. In , the form typically explored themes of romantic epics, Sufi allegories of divine , and , particularly in the Deccani Urdu variant that flourished in southern . Romantic narratives often drew on tales of heroic and adventure, while Sufi masnavis used symbolic earthly romances to convey spiritual quests and lessons, blending mystical with accessible . appeared in works addressing ethical dilemmas and societal norms, especially in Deccani contexts where the form critiqued local customs and promoted cultural harmony. Prominent examples include Mir Hasan's Sihr al-Bayan (1781–1783), a celebrated romantic epic, and Nusrati's Gulshan-i (17th century), which exemplifies Deccani Sufi allegories. Stylistically, Urdu masnavis underwent adaptations such as the use of simpler to facilitate oral and in diverse settings, from courts to public gatherings. These , often derived from folk traditions, emphasized rhythmic flow over complex prosody, making the suitable for musical accompaniment and widespread dissemination. Additionally, the integration of Hindi-Urdu vocabulary enriched the lexicon, allowing for a more inclusive expression that resonated with non-elite speakers and reduced reliance on purely Persian terms.

Notable Works

Rumi's Masnavi

Jalaluddin Rumi's Masnavi-ye Ma'navi, also known as Mathnawî-yé Ma`nawî or "Rhyming Couplets of Deep Spiritual Meaning," is his magnum opus, composed between 1258 and 1273 in , , during the final years of his life. This extensive work spans six books, or daftars, comprising approximately 25,575 verses in the earliest surviving manuscript from 1278, making it one of the longest poems in . Rumi dictated the verses to his disciple Husam al-Din Chalabi, who served as , with the composition beginning after the of Rumi's spiritual mentor Shams al-Din Tabrizi and continuing until Rumi's own passing, leaving the sixth book unfinished. The structure of the Masnavi follows the traditional Persian masnavi form of rhyming couplets, employing interconnected parables, anecdotes, and allegories drawn from the , , daily life, and to elucidate Sufi principles. Each daftar builds upon mystical teachings, using narrative digressions to guide the reader toward spiritual , as himself described it in the preface to the first book as "the roots of the roots of the (Islamic) Religion... and the explainer of the Qur'an." A prominent example is the parable of the " in the Dark" from Book III, where blind men in a dark room touch different parts of an elephant—trunk, ear, leg—and quarrel over their partial perceptions, symbolizing humanity's fragmented understanding of divine truth. Central themes in the Masnavi revolve around divine love as the path to union with , the dissolution of the ego to achieve , and ethical guidance for daily life. portrays love as an all-encompassing force that bridges the soul to the divine, urging the annihilation of the self (fanā) through verses like "Die before you die," which emphasizes transcending egoistic barriers for oneness with the beloved. Ethical teachings manifest in parables promoting , , and , illustrating how moral conduct fosters inner purification and harmony with the universe's unity. For instance, Rumi expounds on justice and injustice with the metaphor: "What is justice? Giving water to trees. What is injustice? To give water to thorns. Justice consists in bestowing bounty in its proper place, not on every root that will absorb water. What is injustice? To bestow it in an improper place that can only be a source of calamity." He views true justice as cosmic harmony, with God's wisdom determining where mercy or trial belongs. The Masnavi's legacy endures as a cornerstone of , often hailed by the 15th-century poet as the "Quran in Persian" for its profound interpretation of Islamic . It has been widely translated, with the first complete English version by published between 1925 and 1940, followed by modern renditions that have popularized its wisdom globally. The work's emphasis on divine love and ego transcendence continues to influence contemporary spirituality, inspiring , practices, and movements by framing love as a transformative bridge to interconnectedness and .

Other Prominent Examples

One of the earliest prominent mathnawi works in Persian literature is Hakim Sanai's Hadikat al-Haqiqa (The Garden of Truth), composed around 1131 CE. This mystical poem, structured in rhyming couplets typical of the mathnawi form, interweaves religious edification with courtly influences to explore themes of truth, ethics, and the soul's path to divine knowledge. Sanai's innovative use of narrative poetry for Sufi teachings marked a foundational shift, blending philosophical depth with aesthetic appeal and influencing subsequent Persian mystical literature. Farid ud-Din Attar's Mantiq al-Tayr (), written in the early 13th century, exemplifies the allegorical potential of the mathnawi genre. Composed in over 4,500 rhyming couplets, it depicts birds—symbolizing human souls—undertaking a perilous journey through (Search, Love, Insight, Detachment, Unity, Bewilderment, and Annihilation) to find the , their divine king. The narrative culminates in the revelation that the surviving thirty birds are the Simurgh itself, illustrating Sufi concepts of ego annihilation (fana) and unity with the divine (wahdat al-wujud). Attar's work, rich with sub-stories of repentance and transformative love, has profoundly shaped mystical poetry across Islamic traditions. Nizami Ganjavi's Khamsa (Quintet), completed around 1197, is a renowned collection of five epic mathnawis in Persian that demonstrate the form's versatility for romantic and moral narratives. Works such as Layla and Majnun and Khosrow and Shirin blend love stories with ethical and philosophical insights, influencing later Persian and Islamic literature through their narrative depth and poetic elegance. In Turkish literature, Fuzûlî's Leylâ ve Mecnûn (16th century) stands as a seminal mesnevi adaptation of the classic lovers' tale, transforming it into a vehicle for Sufi mysticism. Written in rhyming couplets, the poem portrays Mecnun's (Majnun's) descent into the desert as a metaphor for the soul's quest for divine love, with Leyla embodying God's beauty and truth. Fuzûlî employs allegory to depict spiritual maturation, overcoming worldly barriers like family and reason, and has exerted lasting influence on Ottoman and modern Turkish poetic discourse through its philosophical depth and emotional intensity. Shifting to Urdu traditions, Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib's Chiragh-e-Dair (The Lamp of the Temple, mid-19th century) represents a shorter, introspective that critiques faith and existence. Penned in Persian as one of his masnavis, it meditates on sensuous , , and the contradictions of life and death, drawing from Indian cultural motifs like the to question religious . Ghalib's realistic tone and emotional profundity elevated the form for philosophical in colonial-era . Muhammad Iqbal's masnavis, such as Rumuz-e-Bekhudi (Secrets of the Selflessness, 1918), exemplify 20th-century revivals in postcolonial contexts, using the form to advocate social and philosophical reform. Written primarily in Persian but resonant in literary circles, these works critique as antithetical to Islamic unity and promote individual selfhood () for communal renewal, urging Muslims to transcend colonial fragmentation through dynamic reinterpretation of faith. Iqbal's integration of Western and Islamic thought for ethical transformation influenced postcolonial discourse on identity and revival across .

References

  1. https://www.writersdigest.com/write-better-poetry/masnavi-or-mathnawi-poetic-forms
  2. https://www.poetrymagnumopus.com/topic/3372-the-masnavi-or-mathnawi-or-muzdawwidj/
  3. https://besharamagazine.org/arts-literature/rumi-masnavi-divine-love-alan-williams/
  4. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hadiqat-al-haqiqa-wa-sari-at-al-tariqa
  5. https://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/about_masnavi.html
  6. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EIEO/COM-0709.xml
  7. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/3377411
  8. https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/0p096c29w
  9. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EIEO/COM-0709.xml?language=en
  10. https://www.academia.edu/43445811/The_Rhythmic_Structure_of_Persian_Poetic_Meters
  11. https://academic.oup.com/book/12688/chapter/162703248
  12. https://www.languageart.ir/index.php/LA/article/view/272
  13. https://read.dukeupress.edu/comparative-literature/article/75/3/373/381966/Translating-Line-Breaks-A-View-from-Persian
  14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375091001_Short_Masnavi_in_Persian_Literature_until_the_Eighth_Century
  15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26810259
  16. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/370696
  17. https://www.britannica.com/art/masnavi
  18. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hadiqat-al-haqiqa-wasariat-al-tariqa/
  19. https://www.iranchamber.com/literature/articles/history_literature.php
  20. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45236373
  21. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2828982
  22. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.4159/harvard.9780674736122.c10/html
  23. https://www.spdjournal.ir/article_210255_en.html
  24. https://www.academia.edu/144402439/A_Persian_Qur_an_The_Masnavi_e_Ma_navi_as_Scripture
  25. https://lire.modares.ac.ir/article-41-80868-en.pdf
  26. https://www.academia.edu/35910415/Rumi_on_Education_Spirituality_and_Renewal
  27. https://creativematter.skidmore.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=relig_stu_stu_schol
  28. https://archive.org/download/historyofottoman01gibbuoft/historyofottoman01gibbuoft.pdf
  29. https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/windowsintoturkishculture/chapter/chapter-7-turkish-literature-through-the-ottoman-empire/
  30. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-ottoman-history/literary-and-biographical-sources/65D7CB9C7CD66A33DDC1D975DD313A04
  31. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/3169918
  32. https://www.journal18.org/issue11/verbal-reconstructions-reading-architecture-in-the-urdu-masnavi/
  33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24372944
  34. https://cards.algoreducation.com/en/content/q6_IrW4B/mughal-literature-cultural-legacy
  35. https://asiasociety.org/urdu-poetry-and-masnavi-tradition
  36. https://www.wisdomlib.org/history/journal/acta-orientalia/d/doc1427845.html
  37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392315911_The_Evolution_of_Urdu_Literature_in_Medieval_Delhi_A_Confluence_of_Persian_Arabic_and_Indian_Traditions
  38. https://www.rekhta.org/masnavii
  39. https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft9v19p2qq&chunk.id=d0e7487&toc.depth=100&toc.id=d0e6397&brand=ucpress
  40. https://www.quora.com/What-kinds-of-meters-were-are-used-in-Hindi-Urdu-poetry
  41. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/D491D1B0969B0092BF04880597215E60/S0026749X22000166a.pdf/crafting_literary_urdu_mirza_hatims_engagement_with_vali_dakhani.pdf
  42. https://www.persianbell.com/rumis-masnavi/
  43. http://www.mythfolklore.net/3043mythfolklore/reading/rumi/pages/01.htm
  44. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/jan/04/rumi-masnavi-unity-being
  45. http://www.masnavi.net/3/25/eng/5/1086/
  46. https://www.semazen.net/rereading-jalal-al-din-al-rumis-wisdom-approach-to-justice-and-injustice/
  47. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392230837_RUMI%27S_INFLUENCE_ON_CONTEMPORARY_SPIRITUALITY
  48. https://www.academia.edu/113099852/Of_Piety_and_Poetry_The_Interaction_of_Religion_and_Literature_in_the_Life_and_Works_of_%E1%B8%A4ak%C4%ABm_San%C4%81%CA%BE%C4%AB_of_Ghazna
  49. https://sufipathoflove.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/the-conference-of-the-birds.pdf
  50. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/136926
  51. https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/masnavi-charagh-e-der-mirza-ghalib-ebooks
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.