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This article contains Persian text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (Persian: جلال‌الدین محمّد رومی), or simply Rumi (30 September 1207 – 17 December 1273), was a 13th-century Persian poet, Hanafi faqih (jurist), Maturidi theologian (mutakallim),[9] and Sufi mystic born during the Khwarazmian Empire.[10][11]

Rumi's works are written in his mother tongue, Persian. He occasionally used the Arabic language[12] and single Turkish[13] and Greek words[14][15][16] in his verse. His Masnavi (Mathnawi), composed in Konya, is considered one of the greatest poems of the Persian language.[17][18] Rumi's influence has transcended national borders and ethnic divisions: Iranians, Afghans, Tajiks, Turks, Kurds, Greeks, Central Asian Muslims, as well as Muslims of the Indian subcontinent have greatly appreciated his spiritual legacy for the past seven centuries.[19][20] His poetry influenced not only Persian literature, but also the literary traditions of the Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai, Pashto, Kurdish, Urdu, and Bengali languages.[19][21][22]

Rumi's works are widely read today in their original language across Greater Iran and the Persian-speaking world.[23][24] His poems have subsequently been translated into many of the world's languages and transposed into various formats. Rumi has been described as the "most popular poet",[25] is very popular in Turkey, Azerbaijan and South Asia,[26] and has become the "best selling poet" in the United States.[27][28]

Name

[edit]

He is most commonly called Rumi in English. His full name is given by his contemporary Faridun bin Ahmad Sipahsalar as Muhammad bin Muhammad bin al-Husayn al-Khatibi al-Balkhi al-Bakri (Arabic: محمد بن محمد بن الحسين الخطيبي البلخي البكري).[29] He is more commonly known as Molānā Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (مولانا جلال‌الدین محمد رومی). Jalal ad-Din is an Arabic name meaning "Glory of the Faith". Balkhī and Rūmī are his nisbas, meaning, respectively, "from Balkh" and "from Rûm", as he was from the Sultanate of Rûm in Anatolia.[30]

According to the authoritative Rumi biographer Franklin Lewis of the University of Chicago, "[t]he Anatolian peninsula which had belonged to the Byzantine, or eastern Roman empire, had only relatively recently been conquered by Muslims and even when it came to be controlled by Turkish Muslim rulers, it was still known to Arabs, Persians and Turks as the geographical area of Rum. As such, there are a number of historical personages born in or associated with Anatolia known as Rumi, a word borrowed from Persian literally meaning 'Roman,' in which context Roman refers to subjects of the Byzantine Empire or simply to people living in or things associated with Anatolia."[31] He was also known as "Mullah of Rum" (ملای روم mullā-yi Rūm or ملای رومی mullā-yi Rūmī).[32]

Rumi is widely known by the sobriquet Mawlānā/Molānā[1][33] (Persian: مولانا Persian pronunciation: [moulɒːnɒ]) in Iran and popularly known as Mevlânâ in Turkey. Mawlānā (مولانا) is a term of Arabic origin, meaning "our master". The term مولوی Mawlawī/Mowlavi (Persian) and Mevlevi (Turkish), also of Arabic origin, meaning "my master", is also frequently used for him.[34]

Life

[edit]
Jalal ad-Din Rumi gathers Sufi mystics

Overview

[edit]

Rumi was born to Persian parents,[35][13][12][36] in Balkh,[37] modern-day Afghanistan or Wakhsh,[4] a village on the East bank of the Wakhsh River known as Sangtuda in present-day Tajikistan.[4] The area, culturally adjacent to Balkh, is where Mawlânâ's father, Bahâ' uddîn Walad, was a preacher and jurist.[4] He lived and worked there until 1212, when Rumi was aged around five and the family moved to Samarkand.[4]

Greater Balkh was at that time a major centre of Persian culture[18][36][38] and Sufism had developed there for several centuries. The most important influences upon Rumi, besides his father, were the Persian poets Attar and Sanai.[39] Rumi expresses his appreciation: "Attar was the spirit, Sanai his eyes twain, And in time thereafter, Came we in their train"[40] and mentions in another poem: "Attar has traversed the seven cities of Love, We are still at the turn of one street".[41] His father was also connected to the spiritual lineage of Najm al-Din Kubra.[20]

Rumi lived most of his life under the Persianate[42][43][44] Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, where he produced his works[45] and died in 1273 AD. He was buried in Konya, and his shrine became a place of pilgrimage.[46] Upon his death, his followers and his son Sultan Walad founded the Mevlevi Order, also known as the Order of the Whirling Dervishes, famous for the Sufi dance known as the Sama ceremony. He was laid to rest beside his father, and over his remains a shrine was erected. A hagiographical account of him is described in Shams ud-Din Ahmad Aflāki's Manāqib ul-Ārifīn (written between 1318 and 1353). This biography needs to be treated with care as it contains both legends and facts about Rumi.[47] For example, Professor Franklin Lewis of the University of Chicago, author of the most complete biography on Rumi, has separate sections for the hagiographical biography of Rumi and the actual biography about him.[48]

Childhood and emigration

[edit]

Rumi's father was Bahā ud-Dīn Walad, a theologian, jurist and a mystic from Wakhsh,[4] who was also known by the followers of Rumi as Sultan al-Ulama or "Sultan of the Scholars". According to Sultan Walad's Ibadetname and Shamsuddin Aflaki (c.1286 to 1291), Rumi was a descendant of Abu Bakr.[49] Some modern scholars, however, reject this claim and state it does not hold on closer examination. The claim of maternal descent from the Khwarazmshah for Rumi or his father is also seen as a non-historical hagiographical tradition designed to connect the family with royalty, but this claim is rejected for chronological and historical reasons. The most complete genealogy offered for the family stretches back to six or seven generations to famous Hanafi jurists.[48][50][51]

We do not learn the name of Baha al-Din's mother in the sources, only that he referred to her as "Māmi" (colloquial Persian for Māma),[52] and that she was a simple woman who lived to the 1200s. The mother of Rumi was Mu'mina Khātūn. The profession of the family for several generations was that of Islamic preachers of the relatively liberal Hanafi Maturidi school, and this family tradition was continued by Rumi (see his Fihi Ma Fih and Seven Sermons) and Sultan Walad (see Ma'rif Waladi for examples of his everyday sermons and lectures).

When the Mongols invaded Central Asia sometime between 1215 and 1220, Baha ud-Din Walad, with his whole family and a group of disciples, set out westwards. According to hagiographical account which is not agreed upon by all Rumi scholars, Rumi encountered one of the most famous mystic Persian poets, Attar, in the Iranian city of Nishapur, located in the province of Khorāsān. Attar immediately recognized Rumi's spiritual eminence. He saw the father walking ahead of the son and said, "Here comes a sea followed by an ocean."[53][54] Attar gave the boy his Asrārnāma, a book about the entanglement of the soul in the material world. This meeting had a deep impact on the eighteen-year-old Rumi and later on became the inspiration for his works.

From Nishapur, Walad and his entourage set out for Baghdad, meeting many of the scholars and Sufis of the city.[55] From Baghdad they went to Hejaz and performed the pilgrimage at Mecca. The migrating caravan then passed through Damascus, Malatya, Erzincan, Sivas, Kayseri and Nigde. They finally settled in Karaman for seven years; Rumi's mother and brother both died there. In 1225, Rumi married Gowhar Khatun in Karaman. They had two sons: Sultan Walad and Ala-eddin Chalabi. When his wife died, Rumi married again and had a son, Amir Alim Chalabi, and a daughter, Malakeh Khatun.

On 1 May 1228, most likely as a result of the insistent invitation of 'Alā' ud-Dīn Key-Qobād, ruler of Anatolia, Baha' ud-Din came and finally settled in Konya in Anatolia within the westernmost territories of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm.

Education and encounters with Shams-e Tabrizi

[edit]
A page of a copy c. 1503 of the Diwan-e Shams-e Tabriz-i. See Rumi ghazal 163.

Baha' ud-Din became the head of a madrassa (religious school) and when he died, Rumi, aged twenty-five, inherited his position as the Islamic molvi. One of Baha' ud-Din's students, Sayyed Burhan ud-Din Muhaqqiq Termazi, continued to train Rumi in the Shariah as well as the Tariqa, especially that of Rumi's father. For nine years, Rumi practised Sufism as a disciple of Burhan ud-Din until the latter died in 1240 or 1241. Rumi's public life then began: he became an Islamic Jurist, issuing fatwas and giving sermons in the mosques of Konya. He also served as a Molvi (Islamic teacher) and taught his adherents in the madrassa.

During this period, Rumi also travelled to Damascus and is said to have spent four years there.

It was his meeting with the dervish Shams-e Tabrizi on 15 November 1244 that completely changed his life. From an accomplished teacher and jurist, Rumi was transformed into an ascetic. Sufi mysticism places great emphasis on the master-disciple relationship, in which the younger disciple studies under an older master. It is essential to engage in discipleship to reach fana, the highest level of spiritual development in Sufism.[56]

Shams had travelled throughout the Middle East searching and praying for someone who could "endure my company". A voice said to him: "What will you give in return?" Shams replied, "My head!" The voice then said, "The one you seek is Jalal ud-Din of Konya."

On the night of 5 December 1248, as Rumi and Shams were talking, Shams was called to the back door. He went out, never to be seen again.[57][unreliable source?] There are many theories as to Shams's disappearance. The most popular are that Rumi's youngest son killed him, that he was killed for blasphemy, or that Shams, a known wanderer, simply chose to move on.[58]

For more than a month, Rumi refused to believe the rumors of Shams's death and waited for his return. After forty days, Rumi accepted that he was dead and began dressing in black to signal his mourning.[59] Rumi's love for, and his bereavement at the death of, Shams found their expression in an outpouring of lyric poems, Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi. He himself went out searching for Shams and journeyed again to Damascus. There, he realised:

Why should I seek? I am the same as
He. His essence speaks through me.
I have been looking for myself![60]

Later life and death

[edit]
Double-page illuminated frontispiece, 1st book (Persian: دفتر, "daftar") of the Collection of poems (Masnavi-i ma'navi), 1461 manuscript

Mewlana had been spontaneously composing ghazals (Persian poems), and these had been collected in the Divan-i Kabir or Diwan Shams Tabrizi. Rumi found another companion in Salaḥ ud-Din-e Zarkub, a goldsmith. After Salah ud-Din's death, Rumi's scribe and favourite student, Hussam-e Chalabi, assumed the role of Rumi's companion. One day, the two of them were wandering through the Meram vineyards outside Konya when Hussam described to Rumi an idea he had had: "If you were to write a book like the Ilāhīnāma of Sanai or the Mantiq ut-Tayr of 'Attar, it would become the companion of many troubadours. They would fill their hearts from your work and compose music to accompany it." Rumi smiled and took out a piece of paper on which were written the opening eighteen lines of his Masnavi, beginning with:

Listen to the reed and the tale it tells,
How it sings of separation...[61]

Hussam implored Rumi to write more. Rumi spent the next twelve years of his life in Anatolia dictating the six volumes of this masterwork, the Masnavi, to Hussam.

In December 1273, Rumi fell ill; he predicted his own death and composed the well-known ghazal, which begins with the verse:

How doest thou know what sort of king I have within me as companion?
Do not cast thy glance upon my golden face, for I have iron legs.[62]

Tomb shrine of Rumi, Konya

Rumi died on 17 December 1273 in Konya. His death was mourned by the diverse community of Konya, with local Christians and Jews joining the crowd that converged to bid farewell as his body was carried through the city.[63] Rumi's body was interred beside that of his father, and a splendid shrine, the "Green Tomb" (Turkish: Yeşil Türbe, Arabic: قبة الخضراء; today the Mevlâna Museum), was erected over his place of burial. His epitaph reads:

When we are dead, seek not our tomb in the earth, but find it in the hearts of men.[64]

Georgian princess and Seljuq queen Gurju Khatun was a close friend of Rumi. She was the one who sponsored the construction of his tomb in Konya.[65] The 13th-century Mevlâna Mausoleum, with its mosque, dance hall, schools and living quarters for dervishes, remains a destination of pilgrimage to this day, and is probably the most popular pilgrimage site to be regularly visited by adherents of every major religion.[63]

Teachings

[edit]
Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī, Mevlana Museum, Konya, Turkey

Like other mystic and Sufi poets of Persian literature, Rumi's poetry speaks of love which infuses the world.[citation needed] Rumi's teachings also express the tenets summarized in the Quranic verse which Shams-e Tabrizi cited as the essence of prophetic guidance: "Know that ‘There is no god but He,’ and ask forgiveness for your sin" (Q. 47:19).

In the interpretation attributed to Shams, the first part of the verse commands the humanity to seek knowledge of tawhid (oneness of God), while the second instructs them to negate their own existence. In Rumi's terms, tawhid is lived most fully through love, with the connection being made explicit in his verse that describes love as "that flame which, when it blazes up, burns away everything except the Everlasting Beloved."[66]

Rumi's longing and desire to attain this ideal is evident in the following poem from his book the Masnavi:[67]

از جمادی مُردم و نامی شدم
وز نما مُردم به حیوان برزدم
مُردم از حیوانی و آدم شدم
پس چه ترسم کی ز مردن کم شدم؟
حملهٔ دیگر بمیرم از بشر
تا برآرم از ملائک بال و پر
وز ملک هم بایدم جستن ز جو
کل شیء هالک الا وجهه
بار دیگر از ملک پران شوم
آنچ اندر وهم ناید آن شوم
پس عدم گردم عدم چون ارغنون
گویدم که انا الیه راجعون

Translation:

I died to the mineral state and became a plant,
I died to the vegetal state and reached animality,
I died to the animal state and became a man,
Then what should I fear? I have never become less from dying.
At the next charge (forward) I will die to human nature,
So that I may lift up (my) head and wings (and soar) among the angels,
And I must (also) jump from the river of (the state of) the angel,
Everything perishes except His Face,
Once again I will become sacrificed from (the state of) the angel,
I will become that which cannot come into the imagination,
Then I will become non-existent; non-existence says to me (in tones) like an organ,
Truly, to Him is our return.

The Masnavi weaves fables, scenes from everyday life, Qur'anic revelations and exegesis, and metaphysics into a vast and intricate tapestry.

Rumi believed passionately in the use of music, poetry and dance as a path for reaching God. For Rumi, music helped devotees to focus their whole being on the divine and to do this so intensely that the soul was both destroyed and resurrected. It was from these ideas that the practice of whirling Dervishes developed into a ritual form. His teachings became the base for the order of the Mevlevi, which his son Sultan Walad organised. Rumi encouraged Sama, listening to music and turning or doing the sacred dance. In the Mevlevi tradition, samāʿ represents a mystical journey of spiritual ascent through mind and love to the Perfect One. In this journey, the seeker symbolically turns towards the truth, grows through love, abandons the ego, finds the truth and arrives at the Perfect. The seeker then returns from this spiritual journey, with greater maturity, to love and to be of service to the whole of creation without discrimination with regard to beliefs, races, classes and nations.[citation needed]

In other verses in the Masnavi, Rumi describes in detail the universal message of love:

The lover's cause is separate from all other causes
Love is the astrolabe of God's mysteries.[68]

Rumi's favourite musical instrument was the ney (reed flute).[25]

Major works

[edit]
An Ottoman era manuscript depicting Rumi and Shams-e Tabrizi.

Rumi's poetry is often divided into various categories: the quatrains (rubayāt) and odes (ghazal) of the Divan, the six books of the Masnavi. The prose works are divided into The Discourses, The Letters, and the Seven Sermons.

Poetic works

[edit]
Bowl of Reflections with Rumi's poetry, early 13th century; Brooklyn Museum
  • Rumi's best-known work is the Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī (Spiritual Couplets; مثنوی معنوی). The six-volume poem holds a distinguished place within the rich tradition of Persian Sufi literature, and has been commonly called "the Quran in Persian".[69][70] Many commentators have regarded it as the greatest mystical poem in world literature.[71] It contains approximately 27,000 lines,[72] each consisting of a couplet with an internal rhyme.[63] While the mathnawi genre of poetry may use a variety of different metres, after Rumi composed his poem, the metre he used became the mathnawi metre par excellence. The first recorded use of this metre for a mathnawi poem took place at the Nizari Ismaili fortress of Girdkuh between 1131 and 1139. It likely set the stage for later poetry in this style by mystics such as Attar and Rumi.[73]
  • Rumi's other major work is the Dīwān-e Kabīr (Great Work) or Dīwān-e Shams-e Tabrīzī (The Works of Shams of Tabriz; دیوان شمس تبریزی), named in honour of Rumi's master Shams. Besides approximately 35000 Persian couplets and 2000 Persian quatrains,[74] the Divan contains 90 Ghazals and 19 quatrains in Arabic,[75] a couple of dozen or so couplets in Turkish (mainly macaronic poems of mixed Persian and Turkish)[76][77] and 14 couplets in Greek (all of them in three macaronic poems of Greek-Persian).[14][78][79]

Prose works

[edit]
  • Fihi Ma Fihi (In It What's in It, Persian: فیه ما فیه) provides a record of seventy-one talks and lectures given by Rumi on various occasions to his disciples. It was compiled from the notes of his various disciples, so Rumi did not author the work directly.[80] An English translation from the Persian was first published by A.J. Arberry as Discourses of Rumi (New York: Samuel Weiser, 1972), and a translation of the second book by Wheeler Thackston, Sign of the Unseen (Putney, VT: Threshold Books, 1994). The style of the Fihi ma fihi is colloquial and meant for middle-class men and women, and lack the sophisticated wordplay.[81]
  • Majāles-e Sab'a (Seven Sessions, Persian: مجالس سبعه) contains seven Persian sermons (as the name implies) or lectures given in seven different assemblies. The sermons themselves give a commentary on the deeper meaning of Qur'an and Hadith. The sermons also include quotations from poems of Sana'i, 'Attar, and other poets, including Rumi himself. As Aflakī relates, after Shams-e Tabrīzī, Rumi gave sermons at the request of notables, especially Salāh al-Dīn Zarkūb. The style of Persian is rather simple, but quotation of Arabic and knowledge of history and the Hadith show Rumi's knowledge in the Islamic sciences. His style is typical of the genre of lectures given by Sufis and spiritual teachers.[82]
  • Makatib (The Letters, Persian: مکاتیب) or Maktubat (مکتوبات) is the collection of letters written in Persian by Rumi to his disciples, family members, and men of state and of influence. The letters testify that Rumi kept very busy helping family members and administering a community of disciples that had grown up around them. Unlike the Persian style of the previous two mentioned works (which are lectures and sermons), the letters are consciously sophisticated and epistolary in style, which is in conformity with the expectations of correspondence directed to nobles, statesmen and kings.[83]

Religious outlook

[edit]

Despite references to other religions, Rumi clearly holds the superiority of Islam. As Muslim, Rumi praises the Quran, not only as sacred book of Muslims, but also as tool to distinguish truth from falsehood. As such, the Quran features as guidebook for humanity and those who want to understand the reality of the world.[84]

The prophets of Islam, according to Rumi, constitute the highest point of spiritual development and are the closest to God. Throughout Rumi's writings, Muhammad is the most perfect example of all previous prophets.[85]

Despite Rumi's explicit adherence to Islam, there are traces of religious pluralism throughout his work. Although Rumi acknowledges religious discrepancies, the core of all religions is the same. The disagreement between religions does not lie in the core of these religions, but in doctrinal differences. Accordingly, Rumi criticizes Christianity for "overloading the image of God with superfluous structures and complications".[86] Yet, Rumi declares that "the lamps are different, but the Light is the same; it comes from beyond".[87] Shibli Nomani, in his work Sawanih Maulana Rum, argued that Rumi should not be seen solely as a mystical poet but also as a serious theologian.[88]

His depth of his spiritual vision extended beyond narrow sectarian concerns. One quatrain reads:

در راه طلب عاقل و دیوانه یکی است
در شیوه‌ی عشق خویش و بیگانه یکی است
آن را که شراب وصل جانان دادند
در مذهب او کعبه و بتخانه یکی است

—Quatrain 305
Translation:

On the seeker's path, the wise and crazed are one.
In the way of love, kin and strangers are one.
The one who they gave the wine of the beloved's union,
in his path, the Kaaba and house of idols are one.[89]

According to the Quran, Muhammad is a mercy sent by God.[90] In regards to this, Rumi states:

"The Light of Muhammad does not abandon a Zoroastrian or Jew in the world. May the shade of his good fortune shine upon everyone! He brings all of those who are led astray into the Way out of the desert."[91]

Rumi, however, asserts the supremacy of Islam by stating:

"The Light of Muhammad has become a thousand branches (of knowledge), a thousand, so that both this world and the next have been seized from end to end. If Muhammad rips the veil open from a single such branch, thousands of monks and priests will tear the string of false belief from around their waists."[92]

Many of Rumi's poems suggest the importance of outward religious observance and the primacy of the Qur'an.[93]

Flee to God's Qur'an, take refuge in it
there with the spirits of the prophets merge.
The Book conveys the prophets' circumstances
those fish of the pure sea of Majesty.[94]

Rumi states:

I am the servant of the Qur'an as long as I have life.
I am the dust on the path of Muhammad, the Chosen one.
If anyone quotes anything except this from my sayings,
I am quit of him and outraged by these words.[95]

Rumi also states:

I "sewed" my two eyes shut from [desires for] this world and the next – this I learned from Muhammad.[96]

On the first page of the Masnavi, Rumi states:

"Hadha kitâbu 'l- mathnawîy wa huwa uSûlu uSûli uSûli 'd-dîn wa kashshâfu 'l-qur'ân."
"This is the book of the Masnavi, and it is the roots of the roots of the roots of the (Islamic) Religion and it is the Explainer of the Qur'ân."[97]

Hadi Sabzavari, one of Iran's most important 19th-century philosophers, makes the following connection between the Masnavi and Islam, in the introduction to his philosophical commentary on the book:

It is a commentary on the versified exegesis [of the Qur’ān] and its occult mystery, since all of it [all of the Mathnawī] is, as you will see, an elucidation of the clear verses [of the Qur’ān], a clarification of prophetic utterances, a glimmer of the light of the luminous Qur’ān, and burning embers irradiating their rays from its shining lamp. As respects to hunting through the treasure-trove of the Qur’ān, one can find in it [the Mathnawī] all [the Qur’ān's] ancient philosophical wisdom; it [the Mathnawī] is all entirely eloquent philosophy. In truth, the pearly verse of the poem combines the Canon Law of Islam (sharīʿa) with the Sufi Path (ṭarīqa) and the Divine Reality (ḥaqīqa); the author's [Rūmī] achievement belongs to God in his bringing together of the Law (sharīʿa), the Path, and the Truth in a way that includes critical intellect, profound thought, a brilliant natural temperament, and integrity of character that is endowed with power, insight, inspiration, and illumination.[98]

Seyyed Hossein Nasr states:

One of the greatest living authorities on Rûmî in Persia today, Hâdî Hâ'irî, has shown in an unpublished work that some 6,000 verses of the Dîwân and the Mathnawî are practically direct translations of Qur'ânic verses into Persian poetry.[99]

Rumi states in his Dīwān:

The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr.[100]

Legacy

[edit]

Universality

[edit]

Rumi's work has been translated into many of the world's languages, including Russian, German, Urdu, Turkish, Arabic, Bengali, French, Italian, Spanish, Telugu and Kannada and is being presented in a growing number of formats, including concerts, workshops, readings, dance performances, and other artistic creations.[101] The English interpretations of Rumi's poetry by Coleman Barks have sold more than half a million copies worldwide,[102] and Rumi is one of the most widely read poets in the United States.[103] There is a famous landmark in Northern India, known as Rumi Gate, situated in Lucknow (the capital of Uttar Pradesh) named for Rumi. Indian filmmaker Muzaffar Ali who is from Lucknow made a documentary, titled Rumi in the Land of Khusrau (2001), which presents concerts based on the works of Rumi and Amir Khusrau and highlights parallels between the lives of the poets.[104]

Iranian world

[edit]

These cultural, historical and linguistic ties between Rumi and Iran have made Rumi an iconic Iranian poet, and some of the most important Rumi scholars including Foruzanfar, Naini, Sabzewari, etc., have come from modern Iran.[105] Rumi's poetry is displayed on the walls of many cities across Iran, sung in Persian music,[105] and read in school books.[106]

Rumi's poetry forms the basis of much classical Iranian and Afghan music.[107][108] Contemporary classical interpretations of his poetry are made by Muhammad Reza Shajarian, Shahram Nazeri, Davood Azad (the three from Iran) and Ustad Mohammad Hashem Cheshti (Afghanistan).

Mewlewī Sufi Order; Rumi and Turkey

[edit]
Main articles: Mevlevi Order and Sama (Sufism)

The Mewlewī Sufi order was founded in 1273 by Rumi's followers after his death.[109] His first successor could have been Salah-eddin Zarkoub who served Rumi for a decade and was respected by Rumi. Zarkoub was illiterate and uttered some words incorrectly, but Rumi used some of these incorrect words in his poems to express his support and humility towards Zarkoub. Rumi named him his successor, but Zarkoub died before him.[110] So Rumi's first successor in the rectorship of the order was Husam Chalabi and, after Chalabi's death in 1284, Rumi's younger and only surviving son, Sultan Walad (d. 1312), popularly known as author of the mystical Maṭnawī Rabābnāma, or the Book of the Rabab was installed as grand master of the order.[111] The leadership of the order has been kept within Rumi's family in Konya uninterruptedly since then.[112] The Mewlewī Sufis, also known as Whirling Dervishes, believe in performing their dhikr in the form of Sama. During the time of Rumi (as attested in the Manāqib ul-Ārefīn of Aflākī), his followers gathered for musical and "turning" practices.

According to tradition, Rumi was himself a notable musician who played the robāb, although his favourite instrument was the ney or reed flute.[113] The music accompanying the samāʿ consists of settings of poems from the Maṭnawī and Dīwān-e Kabīr, or of Sultan Walad's poems.[113] The Mawlawīyah was a well-established Sufi order in the Ottoman Empire, and many of the members of the order served in various official positions of the Caliphate. The centre for the Mevlevi was in Konya. There is also a Mewlewī monastery (درگاه, dargāh) in Istanbul near the Galata Tower in which the samāʿ is performed and accessible to the public. The Mewlewī order issues an invitation to people of all backgrounds:

Come, come, whoever you are,
Wanderer, idolater, worshiper of fire,
Come even though you have broken your vows a thousand times,
Come, and come yet again.
Ours is not a caravan of despair.[114]

Rumi's tomb in Konya, Turkey

During Ottoman times, the Mevlevi produced a number of notable poets and musicians, including Sheikh Ghalib, Ismail Rusuhi Dede of Ankara, Esrar Dede, Halet Efendi, and Gavsi Dede, who are all buried at the Galata Mewlewī Khāna (Turkish: Mevlevi-Hane) in Istanbul.[115] Music, especially that of the ney, plays an important part in the Mevlevi.

With the foundation of the modern, secular Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk removed religion from the sphere of public policy and restricted it exclusively to that of personal morals, behaviour and faith. On 13 December 1925, a law was passed closing all the tekkes (dervish lodges) and zāwiyas (chief dervish lodges), and the centres of veneration to which visits (ziyārat) were made. Istanbul alone had more than 250 tekkes as well as small centres for gatherings of various fraternities; this law dissolved the Sufi Orders, prohibited the use of mystical names, titles and costumes pertaining to their titles, impounded the Orders' assets, and banned their ceremonies and meetings. The law also provided penalties for those who tried to re-establish the Orders. Two years later, in 1927, the Mausoleum of Mevlâna in Konya was allowed to reopen as a Museum.[116]

In the 1950s, the Turkish government began allowing the Whirling Dervishes to perform once a year in Konya. The Mewlānā festival is held over two weeks in December; its culmination is on 17 December, the Urs of Mewlānā (anniversary of Rumi's death), called Šab-e Arūs (Persian: شبِ عُرس) (Persian meaning "nuptial night"), the night of Rumi's union with God.[117] In 1974, the Whirling Dervishes were permitted to travel to the West for the first time. In 2005, UNESCO proclaimed "The Mevlevi Sama Ceremony" of Turkey as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[118]

Rumi and his mausoleum on the reverse of the 5000 Turkish lira banknotes of 1981–1994

Rumi and his mausoleum were depicted on the reverse of the 5000 Turkish lira banknotes of 1981–1994.[119]

Religious denomination

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As Edward G. Browne noted, the three most prominent mystical Persian poets, Rumi, Sanai and Attar, were all Sunni Muslims and their poetry abounds with praise for the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattāb.[120] According to Annemarie Schimmel, the tendency among Shia authors to anachronistically include leading mystical poets such as Rumi and Attar among their own ranks, became stronger after the introduction of Twelver Shia as the state religion in the Safavid Empire in 1501.[121]

Eight-hundredth anniversary celebrations

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Rumi on a 1968 Afghan stamp

In Afghanistan, Rumi is known as Mawlānā, in Turkey as Mevlâna, and in Iran as Molavī.

At the proposal of the Permanent Delegations of Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey, and as approved by its executive board and General Conference in conformity with its mission of "constructing in the minds of men the defences of peace", UNESCO was associated with the celebration, in 2007, of the eight hundredth anniversary of Rumi's birth.[122] The commemoration at UNESCO itself took place on 6 September 2007;[123] UNESCO issued a medal in Rumi's name in the hope that it would prove an encouragement to those who are engaged in research on and dissemination of Rumi's ideas and ideals, which would, in turn, enhance the diffusion of the ideals of UNESCO.[124]

On 30 September 2007, Iranian school bells were rung throughout the country in honour of Mewlana.[125] Also in that year, Iran held a Rumi Week from 26 October to 2 November. An international ceremony and conference were held in Tehran; the event was opened by the Iranian president and the chairman of the Iranian parliament. Scholars from twenty-nine countries attended the events, and 450 articles were presented at the conference.[126] Iranian musician Shahram Nazeri was awarded the Légion d'honneur and Iran's House of Music Award in 2007 for his renowned works on Rumi masterpieces.[127] 2007 was declared as the "International Rumi Year" by UNESCO.[128][129]

Also on 30 September 2007, Turkey celebrated Rumi's eight-hundredth birthday with a giant Whirling Dervish ritual performance of the samāʿ, which was televised using forty-eight cameras and broadcast live in eight countries. Ertugrul Gunay, of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, stated, "Three hundred dervishes are scheduled to take part in this ritual, making it the largest performance of sema in history."[130]

Mawlana Rumi Review

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The Mawlana Rumi Review[131] is published annually by The Centre for Persian and Iranian Studies at the University of Exeter in collaboration with The Rumi Institute in Nicosia, Cyprus, and Archetype Books[132] in Cambridge.[132] The first volume was published in 2010, and it has come out annually since then. According to the principal editor of the journal, Leonard Lewisohn: "Although a number of major Islamic poets easily rival the likes of Dante, Shakespeare and Milton in importance and output, they still enjoy only a marginal literary fame in the West because the works of Arabic and Persian thinkers, writers and poets are considered as negligible, frivolous, tawdry sideshows beside the grand narrative of the Western Canon. It is the aim of the Mawlana Rumi Review to redress this carelessly inattentive approach to world literature, which is something far more serious than a minor faux pas committed by the Western literary imagination."[133]

See also

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General

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Poems by Rumi

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Persian culture

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Rumi scholars and writers

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English translators of Rumi poetry

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Rumi

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Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi (1207–1273), also known as Mawlana or Mevlana, was a 13th-century Persian , , theologian, and Sufi mystic whose works emphasize divine , spiritual ecstasy, and the soul's journey toward union with God. Born on September 30, 1207, in (present-day ) during the height of the , he was the son of Baha al-Din Walad, a renowned Islamic scholar and Sufi teacher. Fleeing the Mongol invasions led by , Rumi's family migrated westward through cities like , , and , eventually settling in , (modern-day ) around 1228, where he spent the rest of his life. There, he succeeded his father as a religious instructor, married, and fathered children, establishing himself as a respected figure in the Seljuk court and madrasas. A pivotal transformation occurred in 1244 when Rumi met the wandering Shams of , whose intense spiritual companionship ignited Rumi's poetic genius and led to the development of the whirling dance as a form of mystical . Shams' mysterious disappearance in 1248 deepened Rumi's devotion, channeling his grief into prolific verse that blended Persian literary traditions with Sufi esotericism. Rumi's major works include the (or Masnavi-ye Ma'navi), a six-volume epic of over 25,000 rhyming couplets serving as a comprehensive guide to Sufi wisdom, often called the "Qur'an in Persian" for its interpretive depth on , , and cosmology. His (or Divan-e Kebir), comprising more than 40,000 lyrical ghazals and rubaiyat, celebrates ecstatic love for the divine, while collects his prose discourses on spiritual themes. Rumi's teachings, rooted in the idea of fana (ego annihilation) and baqa (subsistence in God), distinguish between worldly love ('ishq-i majazi) and true divine love ('ishq-i haqiqi), using parables, metaphors, and paradoxes to convey the ineffable. His teachings inspired the founding of the Mevlevi Sufi order by his followers, whose practitioners, known as whirling dervishes, perform ritual dances symbolizing the soul's rotation toward the divine center. Dying on December 17, 1273, in , Rumi's funeral drew mourners from , , and , reflecting his universal appeal. His remains a major site, and his —translated into numerous languages—continues to influence global , , and , making him one of the most widely read poets worldwide.

Biography

Name and Titles

Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Balkhī, commonly known as Rūmī, bore a name structured according to 13th-century Persianate Islamic conventions, where the ism (personal name) was Muhammad, the laqab (honorific) Jalāl al-Dīn signified "Glory of the Faith," and the nisba al-Balkhī indicated his origin from , a city in present-day . The epithet Rūmī, another nisba, derived from Rūm—the Arabic term for the Anatolian region under the Seljuk —reflecting his long residence in , where he spent the latter part of his life. An additional nisba, Konyavī, further tied him to as his adopted home. In Sufi and scholarly circles, Rūmī was revered with the title Mawlānā, an honorific meaning "Our Master," which denoted spiritual authority and was commonly bestowed upon esteemed religious figures in the Persianate world. This title appears in Persian as Mawlānā and in Turkish as Mevlana, underscoring his enduring influence across cultural boundaries in , , and beyond. Posthumously, he earned the laqab Sultan al-Ulama, or "Sultan of the Scholars," recognizing his profound contributions to Islamic , , and . These naming practices exemplified the layered of the medieval Islamic scholarly tradition, incorporating nasab ( lineage, here ibn Muḥammad) to trace ancestry, nisba for geographic or professional affiliation, and laqab for accolades of or erudition, all of which held deep cultural weight in Sufi orders by emphasizing , divine connection, and communal . In Rūmī's case, such titles not only marked his personal journey from to but also symbolized the universal appeal of Sufi ideals in the diverse Persianate societies of the era.

Early Life and Emigration

Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi was born on September 30, 1207, in , a city in the region of the Persian Empire (present-day northern ). His father, Baha al-Din Walad, was a renowned theologian, , and Sufi mystic known as the "Sultan of Scholars," who led a circle of disciples and emphasized spiritual teachings. Rumi's mother, Mumine , hailed from the royal family of , providing the family with connections to local nobility. He grew up in a household with his older brother Ala al-Din, immersed in the intellectual and religious environment fostered by his father's scholarly associates, who included prominent and mystics. From an early age, Rumi received his foundational education under his father's direct guidance, focusing on the , , Islamic , and mystical interpretations of . This tutelage instilled in him a deep reverence for Islamic scriptures and traditions, shaping his initial understanding of theology amid the cultural vibrancy of . By around age five, in 1212, the family had already begun to feel the pressures of regional instability, but it was in 1219, when Rumi was about twelve, that they were compelled to emigrate due to the encroaching Mongol invasions led by , which devastated and threatened Muslim scholarly centers. The family's arduous journey westward spanned several years, covering thousands of miles through key Islamic centers to evade the Mongol hordes. They passed through , where the young Rumi reportedly met the esteemed Sufi poet Farid al-Din Attar, who recognized his potential and gifted him a copy of his work Asrar-Nama. Continuing onward, the caravan traversed , performed the pilgrimage in and , and visited and , exposing Rumi to diverse scholars and Sufi traditions along the route. By 1225, they temporarily settled in Larende (modern ) in , where Rumi's mother and brother passed away, before relocating to , the capital of the Seljuk , in 1228 at the invitation of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I. Upon arriving in Konya, the family integrated into the multicultural Anatolian society under Seljuk rule, where Persian, Turkish, and Arab influences converged. Baha al-Din Walad was appointed as a religious and , establishing a that attracted students and facilitated their assimilation into the local intellectual community. This settlement marked the beginning of Rumi's enduring association with , a hub of Seljuk patronage for scholars fleeing eastern turmoil.

Education and Relationship with Shams Tabrizi

After settling in , Rumi pursued advanced formal education under the guidance of al-Din Muhaqqiq , a close associate of his late father, who instructed him in traditional including (fiqh), (kalam), and Quranic (tafsir), as well as introductory Sufi principles. al-Din, recognizing Rumi's potential, advised him to deepen his knowledge through further studies abroad, leading Rumi to travel to and then in the 1230s, where he spent several years—possibly up to four—engaging with prominent scholars and mystics. During these journeys, Rumi achieved mastery in fiqh, kalam, and tafsir, establishing himself as a respected and theologian, and was exposed to the ideas of the influential Sufi thinker , whose doctrine of unity of being (wahdat al-wujud) may have subtly influenced his later thought. These experiences solidified Rumi's scholarly reputation in upon his return around 1240, where he began teaching at the and leading a circle of students. In October 1244, Rumi's scholarly life underwent a profound transformation when he encountered , a wandering from known for his eccentric and intense spiritual demeanor, while Rumi was riding through with his students. Shams, perceiving Rumi's latent mystical potential beneath his orthodox exterior, challenged him directly about the relative spiritual stature of figures like over , sparking an immediate and all-consuming companionship that isolated Rumi from his teaching duties and family for months of seclusion and ecstatic dialogue. This relationship marked Rumi's decisive shift from rational scholarship to experiential mysticism, with Shams acting as a spiritual mirror who ignited Rumi's inner fire. The impact of Shams on Rumi was revolutionary, plunging him into states of spiritual ecstasy (wajd) that inspired the composition of his earliest ghazals—lyrical poems expressing divine love and longing—many dedicated to Shams and later compiled in the . However, tensions arose among Rumi's students and family due to his withdrawal, leading Shams to disappear suddenly in early 1246, possibly fleeing to amid rumors of jealousy or threat. In response to reports of Shams in , Rumi dispatched his son, Sultan Walad, to in 1247 to locate and persuade him to return, which briefly succeeded. Shams vanished again later that year, around late 1247, and was presumed murdered around 1248, though his fate remains uncertain. Devastated by the loss, Rumi entered a period of profound , wandering in search of Shams and channeling his sorrow into fervent that transformed personal into universal expressions of separation from the divine beloved. Following these events, Rumi formed subsequent spiritual bonds that echoed aspects of his connection with Shams, first with Salah al-Din Zarkub, a humble and who became his close companion and helped sustain the nascent mystical circle until his death in 1258. Later, Husam al-Din Chelebi, a devoted disciple and scribe, emerged as Rumi's primary spiritual successor, encouraging the dictation of the and serving as a conduit for divine inspiration in the manner of Shams.

Later Life, Family, and Death

Following the disappearance of Shams Tabrizi around 1248, Rumi's family life in Konya centered on his marriages and children, who formed the core of his household alongside his growing circle of disciples treated as extended kin. He had married Gowhar Khatun in Karaman around 1225, with whom he had two sons, Sultan Walad and Ala al-Din Chalabi, and possibly a daughter. After Gowhar's death, Rumi married Kira Khatun, a widow, who bore him a son, Amir Alim Chalabi (also known as Emir Muzaffereddin Alim Chelebi), and a daughter, Malakeh Khatun. His disciples, particularly Husam al-Din Chalabi, became like family; Husam served as Rumi's closest companion and scribe, eventually succeeding him as spiritual leader of the community, blending familial and communal bonds in Rumi's Sufi circle. In his scholarly roles, Rumi assumed leadership of the religious community in after his father's death in 1231, succeeding Baha al-Din Walad as teacher at the his father had established, where he delivered lectures and sermons on Hanafi and religious sciences at age 24. He emerged as a prominent , issuing fatwas and guiding the theological school, which became a hub for Sufi and orthodox Islamic learning under Seljuk patronage. Rumi interacted with Seljuk rulers, as his family's settlement in stemmed from an invitation by Sultan 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I (r. 1219–1237), who welcomed scholars to the capital; Rumi later maintained ties with the court, advising on spiritual matters amid the dynasty's cultural flourishing. Rumi's final years, from the 1260s until his death, saw an intensified focus on poetry and Sufi practices, including ecstatic sama' gatherings with music and whirling that drew large crowds and deepened communal devotion. At Husam al-Din's urging, Rumi dictated the Masnavi—his monumental spiritual epic—over about twelve years, completing six volumes by 1273 as a teaching tool for disciples, recited in sessions that blended verse with mystical insight. Though specific accounts of health decline are sparse, Rumi, aged 66 at his passing, continued these activities despite the physical demands of travel and public instruction. Rumi died on December 17, 1273, in , and his passing—known to Sufis as his "wedding night" with the divine—prompted widespread mourning across the city's diverse population, with , , and joining in processions to honor him as a universal sage. He was buried beside his father in a donated to the family, where a was swiftly established; this site evolved into the Green Mausoleum (Yeşil Türbe), now part of the Mevlana Museum, symbolizing his enduring spiritual legacy.

Teachings

Core Sufi Principles

In Rumi's understanding, represents the esoteric dimension of , centered on the path of inner purification known as tazkiyah al-nafs, which involves cleansing the soul from egoistic attachments and worldly desires to achieve spiritual clarity. This purification is inextricably linked to , or divine love, which serves as the driving force propelling the seeker toward union with the Divine, transcending mere intellectual knowledge to embody a passionate, transformative devotion. Central to Rumi's Sufi principles are the concepts of fana (annihilation of the self) and baqa (subsistence in God), which describe the seeker's progressive dissolution of the ego to realize eternal existence within the Divine essence. These stages culminate in tawhid, the unity of being, where the illusion of separation between the self and God is eradicated, affirming the oneness of all creation as manifestations of the Divine. The shaykh-disciple relationship plays a pivotal role in this process, with the spiritual guide facilitating the seeker's annihilation through guidance and example, as exemplified in Rumi's own transformative encounter with Shams of Tabriz. Rumi's principles were profoundly shaped by earlier Sufi masters such as Farid al-Din Attar and Hakim Sanai, whose poetic explorations of mystical love and divine vision provided foundational insights that informed his own teachings on self-annihilation and unity. Key practices in Rumi's Sufism include dhikr, the rhythmic remembrance of through invocation, which fosters constant awareness and aids in ego dissolution. Sama', or spiritual listening, involves ecstatic engagement with and poetry to induce states of divine intoxication and insight. While Rumi embraced whirling as a form of ecstatic movement during sama' to symbolize the soul's revolution toward , this practice was later formalized into the ritual of the by his descendants.

Themes of Love and Unity

Rumi's conception of divine love, known as ishq-e haqiqi, portrays it as the primordial force that bridges the human soul and the Divine Beloved, driving the seeker toward ultimate union. This love is not mere sentiment but a transformative power that dissolves the ego and reveals the soul's inherent connection to God, often depicted through vivid metaphors that evoke longing and ecstasy. Central to this theme is the image of the reed flute (ney), which Rumi employs to symbolize the soul's separation from its divine origin, much like a reed cut from its bed, lamenting its exile through its haunting melody. The flute's wail represents the pain of disconnection and the yearning for reunion, underscoring how divine love ignites the heart to transcend worldly veils and return to the source. Human , in Rumi's poetry, serves as a mirror and catalyst for divine , manifesting in both romantic and platonic bonds that propel the individual beyond the material toward spiritual transcendence. These earthly affections are seen as reflections of the eternal , where interpersonal connections awaken the soul to its deeper divine longing. Rumi's profound relationship with his spiritual mentor Shams of exemplifies this, as their bond—intense and transformative—ignited Rumi's poetic outpouring and illustrated how human can embody and lead to the divine, fostering a path of self-annihilation in the Beloved. Such stories highlight 's role in breaking dualistic barriers, allowing the lover to glimpse unity through the beloved as a divine manifestation. At the heart of Rumi's teachings lies the principle of unity, or wahdat al-wujud (unity of being), which posits that all existence is a singular manifestation of the , rejecting the of duality (dualviyat). This asserts that the apparent multiplicity of the world is merely the unfolding of God's essence, where every entity subsists through and in the Divine, eliminating separation between creator and creation. Rumi articulates this through poetic that conveys the non-dual of , emphasizing that true arises from realizing this oneness, beyond rational distinctions. He illustrates transcendence beyond good and bad, writing: "Our death is our wedding with eternity. What is the secret? 'God is One.' The sunlight splits when entering the windows of the house. This multiplicity exists in the cluster of grapes; It is not in the juice made from the grapes. For he who is living in the Light of God, The death of the carnal soul is a blessing. Regarding him, say neither bad nor good, For he is gone beyond the good and the bad. Fix your eyes on God and do not talk about what is invisible, So that he may place another look in your eyes." The awakened soul thus sees past labels of fair and unfair, resting in divine unity. Rumi and the Sufi poet Fakhruddin Iraqi express these ideas of fana (self-annihilation in the divine beloved) and wahdat al-wujud through the theme of love. In a ghazal from the Divan-i Shams, Rumi writes: عشق آمد و شد چو خونم اندر رگ و پوست
تا کرد مرا تهی و پر کرد ز دوست
اجزای وجودم همه دوست گرفت
نام مرا چه بود، یادم نیست که کی بود An English translation reads: Love came and became like blood in my veins and skin
It emptied me of myself and filled me with the Friend.
All parts of my being took on the Friend.
What was my name? I don't know, I forgot who I was. This verse illustrates fana, the dissolution of the individual self and its replacement by the divine presence, culminating in the realization of unity. Similarly, Fakhruddin Iraqi expresses a related sentiment: هر که را عشق تو در دل جا گرفت
از دو عالم بی‌نیاز شد Translation: Whoever has your love take root in their heart
Becomes independent of both worlds. This highlights how divine love liberates one from duality, leading to a state of unity and freedom from worldly distinctions. Influenced by earlier mystics yet uniquely expressed in his verses, Rumi's wahdat al-wujud frames as the experiential key to this metaphysical truth, where the seeker's journey culminates in absorption into the Divine Whole. Rumi extends this unity to the interconnectedness of humans, nature, and the cosmos, envisioning them as a harmonious woven from divine , where each element reflects and sustains the others in a dynamic whole. In his , the universe is alive with spiritual energy, linking the human to phenomena and celestial order as interdependent expressions of God's unity. This perspective portrays creation as a continuous journey toward the Divine, with humans, animals, plants, and stars participating in a shared of longing and return, fostering a sense of cosmic that transcends isolation.

Ethical and Spiritual Guidance

Rumi's ethical and spiritual guidance emphasizes the cultivation of inner virtues to achieve harmony with the divine and society, drawing from Sufi principles of self-purification and moral discipline. He taught that true arise from aligning the with God's will, promoting virtues such as , which he exemplified through the idea of recognizing one's nothingness before the divine, as in his rubais where he repeatedly affirms, "I am nothing! I am nothing! I am nothing!" is portrayed as an act of sharing one's inner light with the needy, fostering communal bonds without expectation of return. Tolerance, meanwhile, encourages mingling with diverse groups and bowing to all in , rejecting and that divide humanity. Rumi emphasized mercy and compassion as essential virtues, teaching, "Be like the sun in mercy and compassion, like the night in covering others' faults," and advising to "Listen with ears of tolerance, see with eyes of mercy, speak with tongue of love." He warned against the ego, or , as a deceptive force that inflates self-importance, urging followers to "deliver his capital I into small ‘i’" to transcend it. Greed is depicted as a spiritual disease, akin to excess water overflowing a , leading to ruin unless countered by detachment. In spiritual practices, Rumi advocated daily contemplation to observe creation and recognize divine power, purifying the heart through reflection and renunciation. He taught that the path to God proceeds through mercy extended to fellow humans, with worship centered on the transformation of the heart rather than mere ritual observance. Service to others, or khidmat, serves as a core discipline, where acts of love and obedience (ita’at) cleanse the soul and build tazkia-e-nafs, or self-purification, aligning with Sharia and the Sufi path (Tariqah). Overcoming vices involves ascetic practices like zuhd (detachment) and riyaz (abstinence) to combat base desires such as lust and anger, often illustrated through parables of dying to animal instincts to achieve rebirth in divine unity, as he states, "I died as animal and I was a man… all except God doth perish." These methods, including dhikr (remembrance of God) and sema (whirling), restore inner purity and foster fana’, or annihilation in God. Rumi's social guidance stresses in through mutual support and unity across differences, viewing tolerance as essential for collective spiritual growth. He regarded as a profound , refining the like resistance aids a bird's flight, turning challenges into opportunities for and resilience. The pursuit of , or 'ilm, is framed as an ethical duty, prioritizing practical experience and intuitive Marifah () over to deepen divine connection. Central to this guidance is the balance between worldly engagement () and spiritual detachment, where one participates in daily life without attachment to its illusions, as Rumi advises, "Breaking does not require … but detachment from worldly desires." acts as the primary ethical motivator, curing vices and propelling the toward unity, as he declares, " has the cure for all the diseases." This integrated approach ensures ethical living supports spiritual ascent, fostering an anthropocosmic vision of the in with creation.

Major Works

Poetic Collections

Rumi's most prominent poetic collection is the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi (also known as Divan-i Kebir), a vast anthology comprising over 40,000 verses primarily in the form of ghazals and rubaiyat (quatrains). This work was composed in Persian during a period of intense spiritual ecstasy following the disappearance of in 1248, spanning roughly from 1248 to 1273, with Rumi channeling his longing and mystical union through the verses. The ghazals, numbering around 3,229 in the standard edition by Badi' al-Zaman Furuzanfar, often employ Shams's name as a for the divine beloved, exploring themes of separation, ecstatic love, and annihilation in the spiritual master. Quatrains within the Divan, totaling nearly 2,000, offer concise aphorisms on unity and divine truth, sometimes improvised during Sufi gatherings. However, the authenticity of many rubaiyat attributed to Rumi is debated among scholars, with only a portion considered genuine. Another seminal collection is the Masnavi-ye Ma'nawi (Spiritual Couplets), a didactic epic consisting of six books with approximately 25,600 verses in rhyming couplets. Rumi dictated this work orally to his disciple Husam al-Din Chelebi between 1262 and 1273, beginning around age 54 in , with the composition continuing until his death. Written in the form—a long narrative poem with internal rhymes—this collection integrates fables, anecdotes, and Qur'anic allusions to convey Sufi teachings on ethics, divine love, and spiritual ascent, earning it the epithet "the Persian Quran" among later scholars. Each book includes a preface by Rumi, and the verses follow a specific rhythmic meter (fa'ilun mafailun fa'ilun) to facilitate memorization and recitation. Rumi's lesser-known poetic outputs include additional odes, quatrains, and elements embedded in prose works like Fihi Ma Fihi (It Is What It Is), a compilation of discourses from 1248–1273 that incorporates spontaneous rubaiyat and lyrical passages. These quatrains, often four-line meditations on love and existence, were collected posthumously and reflect Rumi's improvisational style during lectures or sama' (spiritual listening) sessions. Minor odes and standalone rubaiyat, totaling over 1,900 in some attributions, emphasize brevity and paradox, serving as extensions of the Divan's themes. Rumi's poetic style is rooted in classical Persian traditions, employing various quantitative meters derived from the Arabic 'aruz system, adapted to Persian phonetics for rhythmic flow and musicality. His verses were often composed orally—dictated or chanted during whirling dervish rituals—and later transcribed by disciples, preserving an improvisational quality that blends formal structure with ecstatic spontaneity. Symbolism abounds, with motifs like wine representing spiritual intoxication, the moth drawn to the flame symbolizing selfless devotion to the divine, and the reed flute evoking longing for unity, all drawn from Sufi imagery to transcend literal meaning. This layered approach, using Persian as the primary language with occasional Arabic terms, underscores Rumi's fusion of lyrical beauty and mystical depth.

Prose and Didactic Texts

Rumi's prose writings, composed in Persian during the 13th century, serve as didactic vehicles for his Sufi teachings, focusing on spiritual instruction through lectures, discourses, and correspondence rather than verse. These works were primarily recorded by his disciples, capturing his oral expositions in , and emphasize practical guidance on , , and communal life. Unlike his poetic collections, they adopt a straightforward form to explicate Sufi concepts via stories, analogies, and direct counsel. Majales-e Sab'a (Seven Sessions) comprises transcripts of seven sermons Rumi delivered in , addressing foundational Sufi topics including the unity of existence (wahdat al-wujud), divine love, and the path of human spiritual development. Drawing on Quranic verses, prophetic traditions (hadiths), and metaphorical examples, the lectures integrate logical reasoning with mystical insights to suit heterogeneous audiences, such as scholars and laypeople, in the multicultural setting of 13th-century . This work illustrates Rumi's rhetorical approach, where claims about spiritual realities are grounded in scriptural and experiential evidence, fostering a flexible understanding of doctrine. Fihi Ma Fihi (It Is What It Is) is a compilation of 71 discourses, along with letters and anecdotes, documented by Rumi's followers during informal gatherings that typically followed musical performances, dance, and recitations of sacred texts in . The content delves into spirituality through parables—such as the tales of Majnun and or the trials of Abraham—to explore themes like the soul's absorption in , the interplay of and ecstasy, humility before the divine, and the transcendence of dualities like . As a core Sufi instructional text, it prioritizes inner over , offering timeless advice on , , and self-transformation; it was first fully translated into English by A.J. Arberry in 1961. Maktubat (Letters) collects around 150 pieces of Rumi's correspondence, directed to disciples, family, and rulers in , providing personalized spiritual counsel and intercession on matters of , , and daily conduct within the Sufi . These prose epistles reveal Rumi's engagement as a leader, advising on personal dilemmas, communal harmony, and relations with political authorities, while underscoring themes of divine proximity and . The letters, based on a 1352 from , highlight his influence in 13th-century society and were critically edited in a modern Persian edition by Tawfiq Subhani in 1992–93.

Religious and Philosophical Outlook

Sufism and Islamic Mysticism

Rumi's spiritual framework was firmly rooted in , aligning with its orthodox practices and regarding Prophet Muhammad as the ultimate exemplar of human conduct and divine proximity. He viewed not as a departure from orthodox but as its esoteric dimension (batin), serving as a profound complement to the exoteric practices (zahir) outlined in the and , thereby enabling believers to access deeper spiritual realities while remaining anchored in Islamic tradition. In his teachings, Rumi employed ta'wil, or allegorical interpretation, to uncover the inner meanings of the and , transforming literal texts into vehicles for mystical insight; for instance, he interpreted the declaration "La ilaha illallah" as symbolizing the soul's exclusive devotion to divine love rather than mere monotheistic affirmation. This approach drew heavily from earlier Sufi masters such as and , as well as shared hermeneutic methods with , emphasizing that true understanding arises from the heart's purification rather than superficial adherence. Rumi's practices laid the groundwork for the , founded by his disciples after his death, which formalized rituals such as the sema (whirling dance) as expressions of cosmic unity while insisting on disciplined spiritual discipline. Central to his Sufi path was the principle of (sahw) amid ecstasy (sukr), where ecstatic union with the divine—evoked through poetry, music, and —must culminate in sober self-control and ethical conduct to avoid excess, ensuring that mystical experiences reinforce rather than undermine Islamic piety. Facing criticisms from some orthodox scholars who accused Sufis of for allegedly prioritizing over , Rumi and his followers mounted defenses by underscoring Sufism's unwavering commitment to and the Prophet's example as safeguards against spiritual deviation. In works like the , he illustrated that genuine demands rigorous adherence to norms, portraying ecstatic states as temporary elevations that return the seeker to sober observance, thereby refuting claims of lawlessness and affirming Sufism's harmony with Sunni tradition.

Interfaith and Universal Elements

Rumi's poetry frequently draws on figures from Abrahamic traditions beyond , incorporating stories of , , and to illustrate deeper philosophical and mystical insights, thereby fostering a sense of shared spiritual heritage across faiths. In the , names such as , , Abraham, and appear among the most recurrent prophetic references, underscoring Rumi's view of these lives as exemplars of divine connection accessible to all humanity. Zoroastrian motifs also emerge in his metaphors, such as depictions of the (saqi) as symbolizing the distribution of divine wisdom, reflecting Persian cultural influences in the multicultural milieu of 13th-century with its Muslim, Christian, and other communities. Rumi's emphasis on tolerance manifests in his poetic calls for unity that transcend religious boundaries, inviting seekers from any background to pursue divine without precondition. His inclusive approach is evident in the diverse composition of his followers, including , , , and Zoroastrians, and in his multilingual teachings that promoted dialogue across divides. This non-exclusivist stance aligns with Sufi principles but extends them universally, portraying as a unifying force that dissolves sectarian barriers and encourages toward all people regardless of creed. Philosophically, Rumi's work echoes Neoplatonic ideas of emanation and unity, mediated through the influence of thinkers like , whose school later shaped interpretations of Rumi's . His elevates love as a transcendent power that surpasses dogmatic constraints, bridging the human, natural, and divine realms in a way that prioritizes inner transformation over ritual adherence. This perspective portrays spiritual fulfillment as achievable through universal affection, independent of specific religious doctrines. Rumi's non-sectarian appeal lies in his avoidance of explicit proselytizing, focusing instead on experiential that resonates with readers across cultures and eras without demanding conversion. By centering themes of and self-annihilation in the divine, his invites broad interpretation, contributing to its enduring draw for diverse audiences seeking spiritual depth.

Legacy and Influence

In Persian and Iranian Culture

Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī holds a preeminent place in the Persian literary canon as one of the foremost poets, alongside figures like Ferdowsi and Ḥāfeẓ, whose works have shaped the depth and diversity of classical Persian poetry. His Masnavī-ye Maʿnavī and Dīvān-e Šams exemplify the fusion of mystical insight and lyrical beauty, influencing subsequent generations of poets by establishing themes of divine love and spiritual ecstasy as central motifs in Persian verse. This enduring impact extends to modern Persian poetry, where Rūmī's emphasis on inner transformation and unity inspires contemporary writers to explore personal and cosmic interconnectedness through similar symbolic and rhythmic structures. In Iranian heritage, Rūmī is revered as a , embodying the spiritual and cultural essence of Persia, with his birthplace in (modern-day ) and lifelong composition in Persian affirming his ties to Iranian identity. UNESCO's declaration of as the International Year of Rūmī, marking the 800th anniversary of his birth, underscored this status, with co-organizing events including Sufi performances and exhibitions to highlight his universal message of tolerance and . His works are integrated into the national education system, featured in school curricula to teach , ethics, and mysticism, while verses adorn the walls of schools and mosques across the country. Annual festivals, such as Rūmī Day on the 8th of Mehr in the Iranian , feature recitations, conferences at universities, and cultural programs that celebrate his legacy as a bridge between , poetry, and spirituality. Rūmī's presence permeates Iranian cultural symbols, manifesting in traditional and where his inspires , miniature paintings, and melodic compositions rooted in Persian classical traditions. Exhibitions like the 2025 display of 40 calligraphic and gilded works based on his verses at exemplify how his words are visually interpreted to promote Iranian-Islamic aesthetics, often accompanied by recitations set to traditional . In national discourse on , Rūmī's teachings serve as a humanistic , quoted in diplomatic contexts and interfaith dialogues to emphasize themes of and unity that resonate with Iran's broader civilizational narrative. Following the 1979 Islamic , Rūmī's oeuvre experienced a revival within the Islamic Republic's cultural framework, aligning his Sufi with state-sponsored narratives of Islamic and ethical guidance. This resurgence positioned his poetry as a tool for fostering national cohesion and moral education, with increased publications, performances, and scholarly attention reinforcing his role in post-revolutionary Iranian identity.

Mevlevi Order and Turkish Traditions

The , a Sufi rooted in the teachings of Jalaluddin Rumi, was formally established after his death in 1273 by his son, Bahāʾ al-Dīn Walad (known as Sultan Veled), along with key disciples such as Husam al-Din Chalabi. Sultan Veled organized the nascent group into a structured order, emphasizing Rumi's principles of spiritual discipline, love, and devotion through communal practices. By the , the order had solidified its identity as the Mevlevi, named after Rumi's honorific title Mevlana (Turkish for "our master"), and became centered in , where Rumi had settled and where his mausoleum remains a focal point. Central to the Mevlevi's practices is the sema ceremony, a of whirling symbolizing the soul's journey toward divine unity, accompanied by flute , rhythmic drumming, and recitations of Rumi's . This whirling, performed by dervishes in white skirts and tall sikke hats, represents the planets' orbit and the ego's dissolution, conducted in a disciplined sequence that includes bowing, turning, and silent contemplation. During the , the Mevlevi held significant influence in the imperial court, where sultans patronized their tekkes (lodges) and integrated their artistic expressions—particularly and —into state ceremonies, elevating the order's role in cultural and spiritual life. In , Rumi's legacy intertwined deeply with national identity through the adoption of the title Mevlana and the designation of as the order's spiritual heart, fostering a distinctly Turkish interpretation of his universal mysticism. However, the Mevlevi faced severe suppression in 1925 when the new Turkish Republic, under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, enacted secular reforms that outlawed all Sufi orders, closing tekkes and prohibiting rituals as part of broader efforts to modernize and laicize society. The order persisted underground, with some leaders fleeing abroad, until the mid-1950s when the government permitted public performances of sema, marking the beginning of its revival. Today, the thrives in as a cultural institution, with the sema ceremony recognized by in 2005 as a of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, later inscribed on the Representative in 2008. This designation has boosted its role in tourism, drawing millions to for annual commemorations like Şeb-i Arus, while the Turkish state leverages it for to promote and national heritage on the global stage.

Global Universality and Modern Adaptations

Rumi's introduction to Western audiences began in the through translations by German orientalists, particularly (1788–1866), who rendered selections from the into German, presenting Rumi's mysticism as a form of pantheistic philosophy that influenced intellectuals like Hegel. Rückert's adaptations, published in the 1820s and 1830s, emphasized poetic and philosophical elements, marking an early bridge between Persian Sufism and European Romanticism. In the early 20th century, British scholar Reynold A. Nicholson (1868–1945) solidified Rumi's scholarly presence in the English-speaking world with his 1898 edition of Selected Poems from the Dîvâni Shamsi Tabríz and the comprehensive eight-volume critical edition and translation of the Mathnawi, published between 1925 and 1940. Nicholson's work provided the first full English rendering of the Mathnawi, combining textual analysis with literal translations that prioritized fidelity to the original Persian. Rumi's global popularity surged in the late through accessible adaptations by American , whose The Essential Rumi (1995) became a perennial , contributing to Rumi being named America's best-selling by 2014. Barks' versions, based on Nicholson's translations but reimagined in , have sold millions of copies worldwide, appealing to a broad readership through their emphasis on emotional and spiritual resonance rather than scholarly precision. These adaptations have integrated Rumi into spirituality, where his poetry supports practices of personal enlightenment and holistic well-being. In , Rumi's teachings align with mindfulness-based therapies, as his metaphors for inner observation and acceptance parallel modern therapeutic techniques for emotional regulation. Similarly, in , Rumi's vision of divine transcending religious divides fosters unity among diverse spiritual communities. Rumi's poetry has inspired contemporary adaptations across artistic media, extending his reach into . In music, singer recited the poem "Bittersweet" on the 1998 album A Gift of Love: Music Inspired by the Love Poems of Rumi, produced by , blending with ambient compositions to evoke themes of longing and transcendence. Modern dance interpretations, such as choreographer Banafsheh's In the Fire of Grace (2016), use fluid, ecstatic movements to embody Rumi's metaphors of spiritual union, performed in non-traditional settings to convey his message of soulful awakening. In film, Rumi's life and verses feature in documentaries like the PBS episode Global Spirit: Rumi and the Sufi Path of Love (2017), which explores his teachings through visual storytelling and expert commentary to highlight paths to . His aphorisms are widely quoted in self-help literature, where lines like "The wound is the place where the Light enters you" promote resilience and in contexts of and . The enduring universality of Rumi's work lies in its timeless themes of as a unifying force and peace through , which resonate with secular audiences detached from doctrinal constraints. These elements allow his to function as a secular ethic of and inner , appealing globally amid searches for meaning beyond .

Recent Scholarship and Celebrations

In recent years, several new translations of Rumi's works have emerged, enhancing accessibility and scholarly depth. Alan Williams published a new English verse translation of The Masnavi of Rumi, Book One in 2020, accompanied by explanatory notes and the original Persian text, establishing it as a key resource for understanding Rumi's mystical masterpiece. This was followed by Book Two in the same year, rendered in readable to appeal to global readers while preserving the poem's spiritual essence. In 2025, Haleh Liza Gafori released , a collection of 54 newly translated poems from the Persian, focusing on Rumi's themes of ecstasy and longing. Digital initiatives, such as the Rumi Network's online archives, have expanded access by hosting over 250 quotes and introducing Rumi's works to non-English audiences, including in and Spanish-speaking countries. Scholarship on Rumi since 2021 has increasingly explored dynamics in his , ecological themes amid global concerns, and efforts to decolonize interpretations from Western misappropriations. Behnam M. Fomeshi's 2021 analysis explores feminine in Persian , drawing parallels between Rumi and modern poets like Parvin I'tisami to challenge traditional roles within . Ecological readings have gained traction, with a 2024 study examining eco-spiritual dimensions in Rumi's works alongside Khalil Gibran, emphasizing harmony with nature as a path to divine love. Another 2024 paper reflects on Mathnawi's ecological spirituality through an African lens, uncovering environmental wisdom in Rumi's verses for contemporary discourses. On decolonization, a 2025 exploration critiques the of Rumi in Western contexts, advocating for reclaiming his Muslim identity against Orientalist secularizations via postcolonial . Commemorations have extended beyond the 2007 UNESCO recognition of Rumi's 800th birth anniversary, fostering international dialogue through conferences and digital exhibits. The 9th International Conference on Shams and Rumi, held at the University of Tehran in September 2023, gathered scholars to discuss his philosophical legacy. In 2025, Konya's Mevlana Festival celebrated Rumi's union with the divine, featuring whirling dervish performances and cultural events. Virtual initiatives include a 2022 interactive VR experience at the Gallery QI, immersing users in Rumi's poetry through musical journeys of spiritual evolution. AI-assisted analyses advanced in 2024 with a study using algorithms to visually represent themes from Mevlana's works, bridging technology and mysticism. A 2024 cultural event in Vienna united Afghanistan, Iran, and Tajikistan to celebrate shared Persian heritage, including Rumi's literary legacy.

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