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Murder hole
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A murder hole or meurtrière is a hole in the ceiling of a gateway or passageway in a fortification through which the defenders could shoot, throw or pour harmful substances or objects such as rocks, arrows, scalding water, hot sand, quicklime, or boiling oil, down on attackers. Boiling oil was rarely used because of its cost.[1]
Murder holes and machicolations
[edit]Similar holes, called machicolations, were often located in the curtain walls of castles, fortified manor houses, and city walls. The parapet would project over corbels so that holes would be located over the exterior face of the wall, allowing the defenders to target attackers at the base of the wall. The primary difference between these two features is in their location. Murder holes were located on the interiors of castles and other fortified buildings at the entranceway. Their supposed intention was to discourage (or kill) invaders once they had breached the walls, though it has been suggested that they may have in some cases also facilitated more prosaic activities, such as communication between levels.[citation needed] For example, the murder hole at Audley's Castle in County Down, Northern Ireland is located not over the main threshold, but over the entry way to an interior room.[citation needed]
Location
[edit]In tower houses, often considered aetiologically to be small castles, the most common location for these features is located over the lobby, the effective equivalent of locating them over a gatehouse in a true castle. It bears note that most, if not all, murder holes have only a restricted view of the lobbies below, supporting the idea that other uses may have been common.[citation needed] However, murder holes have been described in a variety of areas within fortified buildings, and there is no completely reliable formula for their placement. The murder hole in Tully Castle, County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland is located in the central portion of the first floor of the house, west of a cross-wall and piercing the vault of the lower chamber.[2][3]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Atzbach, Rainer (2015). "Castles at War" (PDF). The Danish Castle Research Association: 120–130.
- ^ Waterman, D. M. (1959). "Tully Castle, Co., Fermanagh". Ulster Journal of Archaeology. 22: 123–126. JSTOR 20567540.
- ^ "The Murder Hole at Tully". TripAdvisor.
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Murder hole
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Definition and Terminology
Definition
A murder hole, also known as a meurtrière, is a deliberate opening in the ceiling of a fortified passageway, gateway, or chamber, designed to enable defenders to assault intruders from above by dropping projectiles, pouring liquids, or hurling other hazards.[4] These openings created a controlled vertical attack vector, allowing the safe deployment of items such as rocks, arrows, scalding water, hot sand, quicklime, or boiling oil onto enemies below.[4][5] The primary purpose of a murder hole was to establish a lethal kill zone within confined interior spaces, such as gatehouses, specifically targeting assailants who had penetrated outer defenses but remained trapped in the narrow approach.[5] This feature exploited the element of surprise and the attackers' vulnerability in bottlenecks, enhancing the overall defensive resilience of the structure without exposing the defenders.[3] In basic operation, murder holes were strategically positioned directly above entry points to optimize containment and effectiveness, often equipped with metal grilles or wooden shutters for closure during peacetime to prevent unauthorized access or environmental damage.[5] Typically small and round or rectangular in shape, they integrated seamlessly into vaulted ceilings, facilitating multi-directional targeting when needed.[3] For contrast, murder holes differ from machicolations, which serve a similar function but as external, protruding balcony-like structures along walls rather than internal ceiling features.[3]Etymology and Variations
The term "murder hole" in English refers to a defensive opening in the ceiling of a castle gateway or passageway, designed for dropping projectiles or substances on attackers below. It is a direct calque, or literal translation, of the Old French word meurtrière, which first appeared in architectural contexts around the 14th century and literally means "murderess" or "place of murder," derived from the Old French adjective meurtrier ("murderous"), from the noun meurtre ("murder"), ultimately from Proto-Germanic *murþrą ("murder, killing").[6][7] The term meurtrière in its architectural sense dates to the 15th century in French texts describing fortifications. This nomenclature reflects the lethal intent of the feature, emphasizing its role in ambushing intruders. The English adoption of "murder hole" likely emerged in the late medieval or early modern period as fortifications were described in vernacular texts, though precise first usage in English sources dates to at least the 19th century in historical accounts. Variations of the term exist across languages and regions, often highlighting the structure's function or form. In French, meurtrière remains the standard, sometimes extended to broader loopholes in walls, while piombatoio (from piombo, meaning "lead," referring to molten lead poured through) was used in Italian Renaissance fortifications like the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. Italian also employs caditoia for similar overhead openings in gatehouses. In Welsh and broader British contexts, "murder holes" is common, but they are occasionally conflated with machicolations—overhanging projections with floor openings—though the latter technically describes external battlement features rather than internal ceiling slits. Japanese equivalents include fukuro-zama or ashida-zama, terms for concealed arrow slits or drop holes in castle walls (sama generally meaning "gap" or "loophole"), reflecting parallel defensive innovations in East Asian fortifications. These linguistic differences underscore regional adaptations, but the core concept of an overhead killing aperture unites them.Historical Development
Origins in Ancient and Early Medieval Fortifications
The concept of overhead defensive openings in fortifications has roots in early medieval adaptations of Byzantine and Islamic designs, particularly amid intensified siege warfare. In the early medieval era, these evolved in Carolingian and Byzantine fortifications amid Viking and Arab incursions. Byzantine adaptations were sophisticated; the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople (5th century CE, maintained into the 10th) featured elevated platforms in towers for deploying Greek fire—an incendiary liquid—directly onto attackers at gates or moats.[8][9] Influencing factors included the rise of organized siege warfare, where battering rams and mining demanded countermeasures exploiting height advantages; vertical openings allowed precise, gravity-assisted attacks on vulnerable points like gate passages.[10] The spread to broader European adoption occurred via the Crusades, as Frankish engineers encountered Byzantine and Islamic overhead defenses in the Levant and integrated them into Western gatehouse designs starting in the late 11th century.[11] Islamic fortifications, such as those in the Crusader states influenced by Fatimid and Seljuk designs, featured similar machicolation-like openings for dropping substances, which were adopted by European builders. This transition laid groundwork for the more refined murder holes of high medieval castles.Peak Usage in High Medieval Castles
The proliferation of murder holes, often integrated into machicolations, occurred primarily between the 12th and 15th centuries, aligning with the evolution of concentric castle designs that emphasized layered defenses. These features transitioned from temporary wooden hoardings to permanent stone structures by the late 13th century, particularly in England, where they enhanced vertical firing positions atop towers and gatehouses. This development coincided with the "golden age" of castle building during the 13th and 14th centuries, as seen in fortifications like those expanded under Edward I, which incorporated murder holes to protect vulnerable entry points.[12][13][14] Regionally, murder holes became dominant in England, France, and to a lesser extent the Holy Roman Empire, spreading through military innovations exchanged during the Crusades. In the Levant, military orders such as the Knights Hospitaller at Krak des Chevaliers employed slot machicolations and murder holes as early as the 12th century, influencing European designs upon the return of crusaders; for instance, Richard I adopted similar elements at Château Gaillard in France around 1196, while Edward I integrated six murder holes into Caernarvon Castle's King's Gate in the late 13th century.[15][16][14][17] These adaptations were exported back to Western Europe, enhancing defenses in concentric plans like those at Dover Castle in England. The adoption of murder holes was driven by escalating threats from advanced siege engines, such as counterweight trebuchets introduced to England in 1217, which necessitated countermeasures against bombardment, mining, and infantry assaults on gatehouses. This responded to the broader shift from vulnerable motte-and-bailey structures—initially wooden and prone to fire in the 11th century—to more resilient stone keeps by the 12th century, where murder holes provided plunging fire capabilities over passages and walls. Crusader experiences in the Middle East further accelerated this integration, as Eastern engineering techniques emphasized durable stone defenses against similar tactics.[18][12][14] By the late 15th century, murder holes waned in military significance due to the rise of gunpowder artillery, which rendered close-quarters defenses like gatehouse passages obsolete by enabling distant bombardment. Fortifications shifted toward artillery bastions, though vestigial uses persisted in Italian condottieri strongholds, such as the Rocca de Senigallia, where machicolations appeared into the 1500s before becoming largely decorative.[14]Architectural Design
Structural Components
Murder holes consisted of simple apertures cut into the ceilings of gateways, passageways, or vaulted chambers in medieval fortifications, typically measuring several tens of centimeters in width to allow passage of projectiles or liquids while maintaining structural integrity.[3] These openings were generally rectangular or circular in shape, adapted to the load-bearing requirements of the surrounding architecture without weakening the overall support.[5] In permanent stone castles, murder holes were constructed using local durable materials such as limestone or sandstone, which provided resistance to weathering and siege damage.[19] The apertures were often framed with additional stone or timber linings to reinforce the edges and distribute weight evenly across the ceiling.[5] For added security against upward attacks, some designs incorporated iron grates or wooden shutters over the openings.[20] Early temporary fortifications, such as motte-and-bailey castles, employed wooden ceilings for similar defensive apertures, though these were more vulnerable to fire and less common in later designs.[21] Engineering considerations included integration with broader wall or vault structures, ensuring the holes did not compromise the ceiling's stability; variations ranged from narrower slots suitable for arrow fire to wider gaps for dropping larger objects.[3]Placement and Integration
Murder holes were primarily located in the ceilings of gatehouses, barbicans, and inner passageways within medieval fortifications, allowing defenders positioned above to target intruders below.[22][4] In gatehouses and barbicans, these openings were often strategically aligned directly above portcullises, creating enclosed "death trap" zones where attackers could be trapped between the lowered grille and the outer door.[23] Within keeps and tower houses, murder holes were positioned over ground-floor rooms or entrance lobbies to provide internal security against intruders who had breached the outer defenses.[24][22] These features were integrated into multi-layered defensive systems, particularly in gatehouses where they complemented drawbridges and multiple portcullises to funnel attackers into vulnerable positions.[23][22] In complex entry sequences, murder holes formed part of a sequential trap, with drawbridges raising to isolate invaders in the passage below, while upper-level defenders exploited the confined space.[23] For internal areas like keeps, they enhanced overall fortification by linking upper floors to lower ones, enabling rapid response without exposing guards to direct assault.[24] Spatially, murder holes were designed to cover defined kill zones within passages, typically positioned to ensure attackers remained exposed during transit through narrow gateways or barbicans.[23] Multiple openings were often employed along passageways to provide overlapping fields of coverage, minimizing blind spots and maximizing defensive reach.[23] In barbicans, their placement in ceilings worked in tandem with side arrow slits, creating comprehensive enfilade fire that swept the entire approach area.[22] Murder holes contributed to defensive synergy by combining with surrounding walls to form impenetrable chokepoints, where high masonry barriers prevented bypassing or evasion, forcing all entrants into the line of fire from above.[22] This integration turned entryways into self-contained kill zones, leveraging the structural solidity of stone vaults—which supported the weight of defenders and projectiles—to sustain prolonged engagements without structural compromise.[23][24]Defensive Functions
Offensive Tactics Employed
Defenders utilized murder holes to drop projectiles such as stones, gravel, or wooden stakes directly onto attackers attempting to breach gateways, exploiting the confined space to inflict blunt trauma and disrupt formations.[3] These materials were abundant and effective for causing injury without requiring specialized preparation, as evidenced by architectural features in 14th-century gatehouses like those at Kidwelly Castle.[25] Liquids and irritants poured through murder holes included hot sand or lime to blind, burn, and penetrate armor gaps, as well as boiling water to scald assailants; these were preferred over boiling oil, which was rare due to its high cost, flammability, and limited availability, with historical accounts from the Hundred Years' War favoring cheaper alternatives like sand for its prolonged agony inside armor.[26] Evidence from sieges such as Orléans (1428–1429) confirms occasional oil use, but it was exceptional rather than standard.[26] Ranged attacks involved firing arrows or crossbow bolts downward through the openings for precise targeting at close range; additionally, defenders thrust poles or spears through the holes to stab exposed enemies below.[3] Such tactics were supported by the vertical alignment of murder holes, allowing safe engagement from above.[25] Tactical coordination often synchronized murder hole assaults with gate mechanisms, such as partially raising a portcullis to funnel attackers into the kill zone beneath before dropping materials or firing, amplifying the defensive bottleneck effect in structures like those described in medieval siege accounts.[25] This unseen overhead threat also induced psychological terror, demoralizing invaders by creating an aura of inevitable peril from above.[26]Strategic Advantages and Drawbacks
Murder holes provided significant strategic advantages in medieval siege warfare by enabling defenders to inflict heavy casualties on attackers attempting to breach bottlenecks such as gatehouses. These openings allowed a small number of guards to target clustered enemies below with projectiles, boiling substances, or other hazards, serving as a force multiplier that permitted few defenders to repel larger assault forces effectively.[27][2] This integration into broader "defense in depth" systems, alongside features like portcullises and arrow slits, amplified their impact by creating layered obstacles that trapped and demoralized invaders, boosting defender morale through visible psychological terror.[3][28] Compared to extensive wall reinforcements, murder holes offered a relatively low-resource enhancement to fortifications, particularly in their earlier wooden forms, which could be constructed with minimal additional materials while strengthening vulnerable entry points. Their high lethality in confined spaces made them a cost-effective deterrent, often discouraging direct assaults and preserving castle resources during prolonged sieges.[2][3] However, murder holes had notable drawbacks that limited their overall effectiveness. They were vulnerable to countermeasures such as fires lit by attackers beneath, which could produce smoke impairing defenders' visibility or ignite wooden elements, and were largely ineffective against artillery like trebuchets that bypassed gates to target walls from afar.[28][2] Structural maintenance posed challenges, especially in wet climates where corbelled designs risked weakening or collapse over time, exposing defenders to return fire through the openings.[27] These limitations pushed attackers toward alternative tactics like mining or ladder assaults, influencing later castle redesigns toward taller, rounder towers that reduced undermining risks and improved overall defensibility.[28][27]Examples and Legacy
Prominent Historical Sites
Bodiam Castle in East Sussex, England, constructed in 1385 by Sir Edward Dalyngrigge, features well-preserved murder holes in the vaulted ceiling of its gatehouse passage, allowing defenders to drop projectiles or hot substances on attackers below.[29] These openings remain intact and visible to visitors, exemplifying late medieval English fortification design integrated with a surrounding moat for added defense. The castle's gatehouse murder holes were part of a multi-layered entry system including a portcullis, highlighting their role in close-quarters defense.[30] Krak des Chevaliers, a 12th-century Crusader fortress in Syria, incorporates murder holes in its bent entrance corridor, specifically preceding a double-leaf door and portcullis in the inner gatehouse, enabling overhead attacks on intruders navigating the 137-meter passage.[31] Built by the Knights Hospitaller around 1142 and expanded in the 13th century, the site demonstrates Crusader adaptations of murder holes for prolonged sieges, with the features still evident in the preserved outer ward.[32] As a UNESCO World Heritage site, Krak des Chevaliers underwent restoration efforts in the 20th century to maintain its structural integrity, including these defensive elements. Caerphilly Castle in Wales, erected in 1268 by Gilbert de Clare, includes murder holes—known as meurtrières—in the ceilings of its gatehouse towers, positioned above the portcullis and entry passage to target assailants attempting breach. Archaeological surveys have confirmed the presence of these features in the castle's inner ward gatehouse, underscoring their use in one of Europe's largest concentric castles. The site was extensively restored in the 19th and 20th centuries by the Marquess of Bute, preserving the murder holes as part of tourism-focused conservation. In non-European contexts, Himeji Castle in Japan, originally fortified in the late 16th century and expanded in the early 17th, employs similar overhead defensive openings called stone-dropping holes (ishi-otoshi) and murder holes in its gate structures, such as the Hishi Gate, for dropping stones or boiling substances on attackers.[33] These culturally distinct variants reflect parallel defensive innovations in Japanese fortifications, with the features integrated into the castle's multi-layered bailey system. Himeji underwent major restorations in the 1950s and 2010s, ensuring the visibility of these elements as a UNESCO World Heritage site.[34]Influence on Later Fortifications
The concept of murder holes, originally a medieval defensive feature, persisted and evolved in post-medieval military architecture, particularly in structures designed to counter close-quarters assaults. In Renaissance Italy, these openings were incorporated into fortified palaces and early bastion designs, such as the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, where large high-placed meurtrières allowed defenders to rain projectiles on intruders below the main entrance.[35] This adaptation reflected a transition toward low-profile walls in trace italienne fortifications, where covered passages and overhead firing points provided similar enfilading fire without the high towers vulnerable to artillery.[36] By the 17th century, French engineer Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban integrated murder holes—termed loopholes or meurtrières in his designs—into star forts as general openings for defensive fire, often within casemates and bastion flanks to protect against infantry advances in ditches or gateways.[37] These elements evolved from medieval precedents by emphasizing angled bastions and covered galleries, enabling overhead and flanking shots while accommodating gunpowder weapons, as seen in Vauban's "pré carré" border defenses.[38] In colonial America, the principle reappeared in 19th-century coastal forts influenced by European models, notably Fort Warren in Boston Harbor, where granite-carved murder holes in tunnel walls connected directly to officers' quarters for dropping objects or firing on trapped assailants.[39] Explicitly inspired by medieval castle designs, these features underscored the enduring tactical value of vertical defenses against breaches, even as artillery dominated open fields.[39] The architectural legacy extended to civilian applications, including 19th-century prison designs that echoed murder holes for control and feeding, such as the hatch above the entrance in Lincoln Castle's Georgian-era prison block, allowing wardens to monitor and provision inmates securely from above.[40] With the rise of gunpowder and rifled weapons, direct use declined by the late 19th century, but the "death trap" archetype influenced cultural depictions in historical novels and modern media, perpetuating the image of inescapable overhead peril in fortified spaces.[28]Related Features
Machicolations
Machicolations are projecting parapets with floor openings built on the walls or towers of castles to enable defenders to drop missiles, hot liquids, or other projectiles onto attackers at the base of the structure.[27] These features consist of corbelled stone or wooden platforms that overhang the wall, creating gaps through which attacks could be launched vertically while providing cover for the defenders.[27] Unlike murder holes, which are internal ceiling openings primarily located in gateways for close-quarters defense indoors, machicolations are external structures integrated into the battlements, offering a more versatile defensive option along the exterior walls.[41] Early forms were often constructed from wood as temporary hoardings, but by the later medieval period, permanent stone corbelled versions became standard, typically spaced at regular intervals along the parapets to ensure comprehensive coverage.[27] Machicolations emerged in the 12th century in Spain and France, influenced by Islamic architectural traditions, before spreading to England and other regions of Europe.[27] They played a key role in Edwardian castles, such as Caernarfon Castle built in 1283, where extensive stone machicolations enhanced protection against assaults on the perimeter walls.[27] Compared to murder holes, machicolations provided broader coverage for defending against wall-scaling or battering assaults, allowing strikes over extended sections of the fortifications.[41] However, their protruding design made them more exposed to enemy counterfire, such as arrows or early artillery aimed upward from below.[3]Complementary Defensive Elements
Arrow loops, also known as arrow slits, were narrow vertical openings in the walls and towers of medieval castles, designed to allow archers or crossbowmen to fire projectiles horizontally at approaching enemies while minimizing exposure to return fire. These slits typically featured a wider internal embrasure to expand the archer's field of view and range, often forming a cross-shaped or fishtail pattern at the base for better aiming. Contrasting with the vertical drop capabilities of murder holes, arrow loops provided lateral defense, enabling sustained archery volleys from protected positions within gatehouses and curtain walls. By the 15th century, these openings evolved into broader gun ports to accommodate early firearms, adapting to changes in weaponry.[21] Portcullises and drawbridges formed critical entry controls that directed attackers into vulnerable positions beneath murder holes. A portcullis consisted of a heavy, latticed iron or wooden grille suspended above the gateway, which could be rapidly lowered through grooves in the walls to seal the entrance and trap assailants in the gatehouse passage. Often reinforced with iron spikes at the bottom, it served as a secondary barrier behind the main wooden doors, allowing defenders to assault trapped foes from above via murder holes. Complementing this, the drawbridge was a pivoting or counterweighted wooden bridge spanning the moat or ditch, raised by chains and pulleys to deny access and force attackers to congregate in exposed areas below overhanging defenses. Together, these mechanisms funneled enemies into kill zones, where murder holes could deliver devastating overhead attacks, as seen in late medieval gatehouses like those at Raglan Castle.[42][43][21] Barbicans and associated killing grounds extended the defensive perimeter by creating layered traps that exposed attackers to combined horizontal and vertical threats. A barbican was an fortified outpost or enclosed courtyard projecting outward from the main gatehouse, often featuring its own walls, arrow slits, and additional portcullises to create a narrow, winding approach riddled with obstacles. This structure forced besiegers into a confined "killing ground"—an open or semi-enclosed area cleared of cover, such as the space before the moat or within the barbican itself—where they faced enfilading fire from arrow loops and direct assaults from murder holes overhead. Historical examples include the elaborate barbican at Beaumaris Castle, which incorporated up to 15 defensive features to maximize exposure, turning the approach into a gauntlet of peril. These elements amplified the effectiveness of murder holes by prolonging enemy exposure without allowing easy retreat or reinforcement.[42][43][21] Hoardings provided temporary overhead platforms that enhanced vertical defenses during sieges, distinct from permanent stone machicolations. These were lightweight wooden galleries erected along the upper battlements, projecting outward over the walls to offer defenders a broader downward firing angle and space for dropping missiles, hot liquids, or stones onto attackers at the base. Covered with wet hides or slates for fire resistance, hoardings could be quickly assembled or dismantled, allowing archers to operate from elevated positions while integrating drop points similar in function to murder holes but adaptable for broader wall coverage. In early stone castles from the 11th to 13th centuries, hoardings bridged the gap between basic battlements and more advanced permanent features, contributing to a cohesive defensive network.[21]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/meurtri%C3%A8re