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Merlon
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A merlon is the solid, upright section of a battlement (a crenellated parapet) in medieval architecture or fortifications.[1] Merlons are sometimes pierced by narrow, vertical embrasures, or tooth-like slits designed for observation and fire. The space between two merlons is called a crenel, and a succession of merlons and crenels is a crenellation.[2] Crenels designed in later eras for use by cannons were also called embrasures.[3]
Etymology
[edit]The term merlon comes from French [1704], adapted from the Italian merlone, possibly a shortened form of mergola, perhaps connected to Latin mergae ("two-pronged pitchfork"),[4] or from a diminutive moerulus, from murus or moerus (a wall). An alternative etymology suggests that the medieval Latin merulus (mentioned from the end of the 10th century) functioned as a diminutive of Latin merle, "blackbird", expressing an image of this bird sitting on a wall.
As part of battlements
[edit]
As an essential part of battlements, merlons were used in fortifications for millennia. The best-known examples appear on medieval buildings, where battlements, though defensive, could be attractively formed, thus having a secondary decorative purpose. Some (especially later) buildings have false "decorative battlements". The two most notable European variants in Middle Ages merlons shape were the Ghibelline and the Guelph merlon: the former ended in the upper part with a swallow-tailed form, while the latter term indicates the normal rectangular shape merlons (wimperg).
Other shapes include: three-pointed, quatrefoil, shielded, flower-like, rounded (typical of Islamic and African world), pyramidal, etc., depending either from the type of attacks expected or aesthetic considerations.
In Roman times, the merlons had a width sufficient to shelter a single man. As new weapons appeared in the Middle Ages (including crossbows and the first firearms), the merlons were enlarged and provided with loop-holes of various dimensions and shapes, varying from simply rounded to cruciform. From the 13th century, the merlons could also be used to pivot wooden shutters; these added further protection for the defenders when they were not firing, or were firing downwards near the base of the wall. The shutters, also known as mantlets, could be opened by hand, or by using a pulley.
-
Usage of merlons, from Eugène Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle -
Ghibelline merlons at Saint-Pierre Castle, Italy -
Guelphs merlons in the Castle of Montechino, Italy
Later use
[edit]After falling out of favour when the invention of the cannon, forced fortifications to take a much lower profile, merlons re-emerged as mostly decorative features in buildings constructed in the Gothic Revival style of the 19th century.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Friar, Stephen (2003). The Sutton Companion to Castles, Sutton Publishing, Stroud, 2003, p. 202. ISBN 978-0-7509-3994-2
- ^ J. E. Kaufmann; H. W. Kaufmann; Robert M. Jurga (2004). The medieval fortress: castles, forts and walled cities of the Middle Ages. Da Capo Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-306-81358-0.
- ^ Ward Bucher (1996). Dictionary of building preservation. Wiley-Interscience. pp. 43, 126, and 165. ISBN 978-0-471-14413-7.
- ^ Douglas Harper. "merlon". Etymonline. Retrieved 1 February 2025.
- Balestracci, Duccio (1989). "I materiali da costruzione nel castello medievale". Archeologia Medievale (XVI): 227–242. doi:10.1400/244020.
- Luisi, R. (1996). Scudi di pietra, I castelli e l'arte della guerra tra Medioevo e Rinascimento. Bari. ISBN 88-420-5083-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Merlon
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
A merlon is the solid, upright section of a crenellated parapet or battlement in medieval architecture and fortifications, alternating with indented openings known as crenels or embrasures to form a protective barrier atop walls and towers.[1] These raised portions provided cover for defenders, such as archers, who could fire projectiles through the adjacent gaps while remaining shielded from enemy view and attack.[2]
The term "merlon" entered English in 1704, derived from French merlon (17th century), which traces back to Italian merlone, an augmentative form of merlo meaning "battlement"—possibly a contraction of mergola, a diminutive of Latin mergae referring to a two-pronged pitchfork, evoking the shape of the projections.[3] Battlements featuring merlons originated in ancient civilizations, including Chaldea, Egypt, and Greece, but became a hallmark of medieval European military design from the 12th century onward, enhancing defensive capabilities in castles and city walls.[2] In practice, merlons were typically rectangular but could be pierced by narrow slits (loopholes) for better visibility and targeting, and their height often exceeded that of the crenels to maximize protection.[2][4]
Beyond their martial origins, merlons influenced later architectural styles, notably the Gothic Revival and Collegiate Gothic movements of the 19th and 20th centuries, where they served decorative rather than functional roles on buildings like university structures and public edifices to evoke a sense of historical grandeur.[5] Variations include the swallowtail or Ghibelline merlons—forked at the top—prevalent in northern Italian medieval fortifications and carrying political symbolism associated with imperial factions during the 12th to 14th centuries.[6] Today, merlons remain a key element in restoration projects and neo-medieval designs, symbolizing enduring architectural ingenuity in defensive engineering.
Definition and Etymology
Definition
A merlon is the solid upright section of a crenellated parapet or battlement, serving as the raised portion that alternates with openings to form a defensive structure.[1][7] In its basic form, a merlon is typically rectangular or square, functioning as the protective element between indented gaps known as crenels. In medieval European battlements, merlons were typically 4–5 feet (1.2–1.5 m) wide and 3–7 feet (0.9–2.1 m) high, while crenels were narrower, often one-third the width of the merlons and 2–3 feet (0.6–0.9 m) wide.[8] Merlons are distinguished from crenels in that they represent the solid, shielding components, whereas crenels are the intervening spaces that allow for defensive actions such as firing arrows.[9][7] Merlons are typically designed to provide cover for defenders down to the walkway level, permitting visibility and engagement through the gaps.[9] In some designs, merlons incorporate narrow vertical slits called embrasures, which enable observation or archery without fully exposing the defender.[10] Battlements, as the encompassing structure, integrate merlons and crenels to create an overall crenellated profile for fortification purposes.[1]Etymology
The term merlon entered the English language as a borrowing from French merlon, with its earliest recorded use dating to 1704 in descriptions of fortifications.[3][11] This French form, attested in the 17th century, derives directly from Italian merlone, an augmentative of merlo meaning "battlement" or "parapet projection," emphasizing the solid, elevated portion of a crenellated structure.[12][3] Etymologists propose two primary Latin roots for merlo. One theory traces it to a contraction of mergola, a diminutive form of mergae ("two-pronged pitchfork"), reflecting the forked or indented appearance of battlements in defensive architecture.[3] An alternative derivation links it to Late Latin merulus or merlus, ultimately from classical Latin merula ("blackbird"), based on the visual resemblance of merlons to birds perched along a wall.[12][13] This blackbird association appears in early French etymological discussions, where the term evokes protective elements akin to avian silhouettes.[14] Related terms appear in other Romance languages, often tied to early fortification terminology. In Old French, variants like merlet denoted similar battlement features as early as the medieval period, predating the standardized merlon.[14] Italian cognates include mergolo ("battlement" or "pinnacle"), while Portuguese merlão and Spanish merlón reflect parallel borrowings and augmentative forms used in descriptions of parapets and embrasures.[12] These linguistic connections underscore the term's evolution within European military and architectural lexicon, with initial attestations focused on the structural components of defensive walls.[3]Architectural Components
Relation to Battlements
Battlements consist of alternating solid projections known as merlons and open gaps called crenels, forming a protective parapet atop castle walls or towers that allowed defenders to fire arrows or other projectiles through the crenels while remaining shielded by the merlons.[15][16] This interdependent design enabled archers and soldiers to take cover behind the merlons during enemy assaults and expose themselves only briefly in the crenels to launch counterattacks, enhancing the defensive efficiency of fortified structures.[17] The merlon, as the solid upright component, thus integrates seamlessly with the crenels to create a rhythmic, tooth-like profile that not only served tactical purposes but also psychologically intimidated approaching forces.[15] The integration of merlons within battlements evolved from simpler forms in Roman architecture, where wooden pinnacles and basic alternations provided rudimentary protection, to more sophisticated medieval stone constructions.[17][15] In the medieval period, merlons were often widened to better accommodate crossbowmen and early firearm users, allowing for stable firing platforms and improved reloading under cover, which marked a shift toward adapting to advancing weaponry.[16] This evolution reflected broader changes in siege warfare, where the need for prolonged defense against prolonged assaults necessitated robust, integrated parapet systems.[15] From the 13th century, wooden shutters could be fitted to the merlons, providing additional protection when closed.[16][15] Such innovations underscored the merlon's role not as an isolated element but as a dynamic part of the battlement system, evolving to meet the demands of increasingly lethal medieval combat.[17]Design Variations
Merlons in medieval European architecture primarily featured rectangular shapes in the Guelph style, characterized by square or flat tops that provided structural stability against overturning forces, particularly in seismic-prone regions.[18] In contrast, the Ghibelline style employed swallow-tailed merlons with forked or V-shaped tops, a design associated with the pro-imperial Ghibelline faction in medieval Italy, symbolizing allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor during political conflicts with the papal-supporting Guelphs.[19] These variations served as both functional elements in fortifications and markers of political identity, with the forked form appearing on structures like Fénis Castle in Italy's Valle d'Aosta region.[17] Beyond these prominent styles, merlons exhibited diverse forms adapted for aesthetics or utility, including rounded or stepped profiles in non-European traditions, though European examples occasionally incorporated curved elements for visual harmony in later designs.[18] Decorative iterations featured three-pointed or triangular tops, as well as more ornate shapes like quatrefoils for piercing, allowing light and air while maintaining a crenellated appearance on non-defensive buildings.[18] Embrasured merlons, pierced with narrow slits or loopholes, enhanced tactical visibility and enabled archers to fire while shielded, a common adaptation paired with arrow slits in battlement systems.[17] Merlons were typically constructed from stone or clay brick masonry, materials chosen for durability in fortified walls and towers.[18] Many included sloped coping on their tops to facilitate water shedding and prevent erosion, ensuring longevity in exposed positions.[20] Dimensions varied by era and weaponry needs, with early medieval merlons often tall and narrow to suit arrow-based defense, evolving to broader and shorter forms in later periods to accommodate gunpowder weapons and resist artillery impacts.[18]Historical Development
Ancient and Medieval Origins
The earliest precursors to merlons emerged in ancient fortifications as the solid upright sections of parapets, providing cover for defenders while allowing firing through potential gaps in later designs. In ancient Egypt, during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1710 BCE), massive frontier fortresses in Nubia, such as Buhen, incorporated mudbrick and stone walls up to 10 meters high, featuring double walls that enhanced defensive capabilities against incursions and influenced subsequent crenellated battlements.[21] These structures, built to secure trade routes and borders, served as early models for protective barriers. Similarly, in Mesopotamia, Assyrian and Babylonian architecture from the 9th–6th centuries BCE employed crenellated battlements on city walls, composed of merlons often two or three high, as seen in the fortifications of Nineveh and Babylon, where they topped limestone-faced ramparts for protection during sieges.[22] Roman engineering adapted these concepts, incorporating crenellated parapets on frontier defenses like Hadrian's Wall (built AD 122), where the broad stone wall's front face included a crenulated top behind which soldiers patrolled a walkway, offering partial cover amid the empire's expansive border conflicts. In prehistoric and early Greek contexts, while full battlements were less common, solid projections in Mycenaean citadel walls (c. 1600–1100 BCE) provided defensive cover that prefigured later developments, with more standardized crenellations appearing in classical Greek city walls by the 5th century BCE.[23] During the medieval period in Europe, merlons saw significant refinement and widespread adoption from the 11th to 12th centuries, driven by the feudal system's emphasis on localized warfare and the Norman Conquest's proliferation of stone castles. Early forms featured narrow crenels optimized for longbow archers, enabling precise arrow fire while merlons shielded reloaders; this design responded to the tactical needs of skirmishes in fragmented polities. By the late 13th century, as crossbows gained prominence for their penetrating power, merlons and crenels expanded in scale to better support the weapon's bulkier mechanism and aiming requirements. A prime example of this early medieval integration is found in Norman castles, such as the Tower of London (initiated 1078 CE), where battlements with merlons crowned the White Tower and curtain walls, facilitating the erection of wooden hoardings—temporary overhanging platforms that extended defensive reach by allowing defenders to drop projectiles or boiling substances directly onto attackers below the walls. These hoardings, secured to merlon tops, underscored the structure's role in overhead assault prevention during prolonged sieges.Evolution in Europe
During the 14th and 15th centuries, merlons underwent significant adaptations in response to the introduction of gunpowder weapons, which necessitated thicker and lower profiles to withstand artillery fire. In Italian city-states, such as Prato's Castello dell’Imperatore, merlons were reinforced as part of broader fortifications featuring dovetail shapes associated with Ghibelline affiliations, while overall wall thicknesses increased to absorb cannon impacts.[24] Similarly, in French châteaus like Falaise, merlons were integrated into embrasures and bulwarks designed for early firearms, lowering the parapet height to reduce vulnerability.[24] The transitional Fort Salses (1497–1504) exemplifies this shift, with walls thickened to 10–14 meters to support merlon-topped defenses against bombards.[24] Merlons also took on symbolic roles in Italy, particularly during the Guelph-Ghibelline conflicts, where shape denoted political allegiance. Ghibelline merlons featured swallow-tailed or dovetail tops, symbolizing imperial support and seen in structures like Prato's castle, contrasting with the rectangular forms favored by Guelphs for papal loyalty.[24][17] These variations persisted into the 15th century amid factional strife. Additionally, merlons were increasingly integrated with machicolations—stone overhangs for dropping projectiles—enhancing vertical defense, as at Montreuil-Bellay's towers and the Dijon Citadel (1512), where corner merlons flanked machicolated walkways.[24] This combination allowed defenders to rain stones or hot substances on attackers below without exposing themselves.[24] By the 16th century, the military primacy of traditional merlons waned with the rise of bastion forts, which prioritized angled earthworks over high crenellated parapets to deflect artillery. Italian engineers led this transition, as in Florence's 1532 bastion system, where low, thick ramparts replaced merlon-dominated walls.[24] Structures like Falaise were dismantled, and Château-Gaillard demolished, signaling the shift to passive, gunpowder-resistant designs that minimized the need for upright merlons.[24]Later and Decorative Uses
Post-Medieval Applications
During the Renaissance period, merlons and crenellations were retained in Italian palazzos and villas as symbols of tradition and privilege, often simplified to adapt to evolving defensive needs against artillery while maintaining low walls for resistance. Early Renaissance villas, such as the Villa Medici at Cafaggiolo, incorporated medieval features including battlements and crenellations to evoke feudal authority.[25] Similarly, designs like Villa Madama featured crenellated walls and circular towers, blending defensive elements with residential aesthetics.[25] In France, châteaux of the Renaissance era preserved battlements as markers of rank and ancestry, though integrated with Italianate ornamentation rather than full defensive crenellation.[26] In the 18th-19th centuries, their use became largely obsolete due to the prevalence of smoothbore cannons, which rendered traditional high battlements ineffective against artillery fire. By this time, fortifications shifted toward low, sloped parapets in bastion designs to deflect projectiles, minimizing the need for protruding merlons. This obsolescence stemmed from the evolution of gunpowder weaponry, which prioritized angled defenses over medieval crenellations. An early decorative shift emerged in the Baroque period, where merlons appeared in gateways and estate walls primarily for grandeur, omitting functional crenels. For instance, at Castle Howard in England, the Carrmire Gate features crenellated walls as a purely ornamental element within a Baroque composition, enhancing visual drama without defensive intent.[27] Such applications symbolized prestige in non-military contexts, transitioning merlons from tactical features to aesthetic motifs in landscape architecture.Modern Revival
The Gothic Revival movement of the 19th century marked a significant resurgence of merlons as decorative elements in architecture, driven by a romantic fascination with medieval aesthetics and a desire to evoke historical continuity. Architects employed crenellated parapets featuring merlons to create fortress-like silhouettes on public buildings, symbolizing national heritage and moral virtue in an industrial age. In the United Kingdom, the Palace of Westminster exemplifies this trend, with its skyline incorporating battlements and pinnacles that contribute to the overall Gothic Revival profile designed by Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin between 1837 and 1870.[28] Similarly, in the United States, the Old Louisiana State Capitol in Baton Rouge, constructed from 1847 to 1852 under architects James H. Dakin and William A. Freret, features a crenellated roofline with merlons that enhance its castle-like appearance, blending Gothic Revival with regional influences.[29] In the 20th century and into the present, merlons continued to appear in non-military contexts, particularly in entertainment, postmodern design, and preservation efforts. Theme parks adopted them for immersive, fairy-tale environments; for instance, Disneyland's Sleeping Beauty Castle, opened in 1955 and inspired by European medieval structures like Germany's Neuschwanstein Castle, incorporates crenellated parapets with merlons to achieve a romanticized medieval silhouette.[30] Film sets and postmodern architecture occasionally revived merlons for stylistic quotation or irony, including in heritage restorations of medieval sites where original crenellations are replicated to maintain authenticity. Globally, merlons found echoes in neo-colonial and revivalist structures outside Europe, often blending European Gothic forms with local traditions. In Asia, the Indo-Saracenic style—prevalent in British colonial India during the late 19th and early 20th centuries—integrated crenellated parapets inspired by European battlements with Mughal motifs, as evident in public buildings like the Madras High Court in Chennai (completed 1892), where merlons adorn tower tops alongside Indian arches and domes. These applications highlight merlons' role in cultural synthesis during eras of colonial influence and post-independence revival.References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/merlon
- https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/merlon