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Murexide test
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The murexide test is an analytical technique to identify the presence of caffeine and other purine derivatives in a sample. These compounds do not respond to the common alkaloid identification tests such as Dragendorff's test. In this test, crude drugs (to be identified) are mixed with a tiny amount of potassium chlorate and a drop of hydrochloric acid. The sample is then evaporated to dryness and the resulting residue is exposed to ammonia vapour. Purine alkaloids produce a pinkish-purple color in this test[1][2] due to formation of murexide (ammonium purpurate; appears purple in pure state), which the test is named after.[3]
In pure form, murexide appears purple, but when it is produced by reaction of acidified solutions of purines and ammonia, various shades of purple and pink are produced.
Uses
[edit]Murexide test is a color test for uric acid and some other purines. The (solid) sample is first treated with small volume of a concentrated acid such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, which is slowly evaporated away; subsequent addition of ammonia (NH3) gives a purple color if uric acid was present, due to formation of murexide, or a yellow color that turns to red on heating if xanthine or its derivatives are present.
References
[edit]- ^ Agarwal O.P. Advanced Practical Organic Chemistry (26th ed.). Meerut, India: GOEL Publishing House. p. 53.
- ^ Nayeem AA, Khatun A, Rahman MS, Rahman M (2011). "Evaluation of phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Mikania cordata (Asteraceae) leaves". Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 3 (8): 118–123.
- ^ Sharma DC; Sharma. Riyat. Practical Medical Biochemistry. BI Publications Pvt Ltd. p. 36.
Murexide test
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Overview and Chemistry
Definition and Principle
The Murexide test is a qualitative colorimetric analytical technique primarily employed for detecting uric acid and other purine derivatives in biological samples, such as urine.[2] Developed in the early 19th century, it serves as a historical method for qualitative identification in clinical and biochemical contexts, with extensions to compounds like caffeine and xanthine. The underlying principle relies on the oxidative degradation of purine bases, exemplified by uric acid (C₅H₄N₄O₃), using dilute nitric acid to generate intermediates such as alloxan (C₄H₂N₂O₄) through nitration, ring opening, and hydrolysis steps.[1] These intermediates, including uramil (5-aminobarbituric acid), then undergo condensation and ammonolysis upon addition of ammonia, forming ammonium purpurate, commonly known as murexide.[1] This reaction yields a distinctive purple-red coloration, which is stable and specific to the presence of purines.[2] A positive result is indicated by the transformation of the initial yellow or white residue—formed after evaporation of the nitric acid—to a vivid purple hue when exposed to ammonia vapor or dilute solution.[2] Murexide, the endpoint indicator with the molecular formula C₈H₈N₆O₆, is responsible for this color due to its conjugated structure.[1]Chemical Reaction and Murexide Formation
The murexide test relies on the oxidative degradation of purine derivatives, such as uric acid, to form murexide (ammonium purpurate, C₈H₈N₆O₆), a colored compound used for detection. In the case of uric acid (C₅H₄N₄O₃), the reaction begins with oxidation using dilute nitric acid, which breaks down the imidazole ring and yields alloxan (C₄H₂N₂O₄) as the primary intermediate, along with byproducts like carbon dioxide, ammonia, and urea.[1] This process involves acid-catalyzed hydration of the imidazole ring, followed by ring opening, nitramine formation, and hydrolysis, ultimately eliminating nitrous acid to produce alloxan.[3][1] Subsequently, alloxan condenses with uramil (an intermediate reduction product, C₄H₅N₃O₃) to form purpuric acid (C₈H₅N₅O₆), a dicarboxylic derivative. Upon addition of ammonia, purpuric acid undergoes ammonolysis to yield murexide, characterized by its purple coloration.[1] This two-step pathway—oxidation to alloxan and subsequent condensation—highlights the degradative nature of the reaction, where the purine structure is cleaved and reformed into a stable ammonium salt.[4] For other purines like caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, C₈H₁₀N₄O₂), the oxidation employs potassium chlorate in hydrochloric acid to generate chloric acid, which oxidizes the imidazole ring via hydration, ring opening, and deamination, producing 1,3-dimethylalloxan and related intermediates.[5] This leads to the formation of a purpuric acid analog, such as 1,3,1′,3′-tetramethylpurpuric acid, through condensation with a uramil-like species (e.g., 1,3-dimethyluramil). Treatment with ammonia then forms a murexide analog, a violet ammonium purpurate salt, enabling similar colorimetric detection.[5] The mechanism involves transamination steps, where methylamine is displaced by ammonia, adapting the classic uric acid pathway to methylated purines.[5] The development of the characteristic purple color requires specific conditions: the oxidation occurs under acidic conditions, but color formation intensifies at neutral to ammoniacal pH (pH ~7–9), where murexide's chromophore is deprotonated, shifting from yellow-red in acid to purple-blue in base.[1] Moderate heating (around 100°C during evaporation) facilitates the reaction without decomposing intermediates, though excessive temperature can degrade the product.[4] Spectroscopically, murexide exhibits an absorption maximum at approximately 520–525 nm in aqueous solution, corresponding to its purple hue due to π–π* transitions in the conjugated purpurate system; this halochromic behavior allows pH-sensitive color changes for qualitative analysis.[6]History
Discovery
The murexide test originated in 1818 through the work of English chemist and physician William Prout, who was studying the pathological components of urine and urinary calculi. This built on Carl Wilhelm Scheele's isolation of uric acid from urinary calculi in 1776.[7] During experiments, Prout treated pure lithic (uric) acid—derived from human urine or kidney stones—with dilute nitric acid, resulting in oxidation and dissolution with effervescence. Upon neutralizing the excess acid with ammonia and evaporating the solution, he observed the formation of dark red to purple crystals, which he identified as an ammonium salt of a novel purple acid principle produced from uric acid oxidation. This reaction's distinctive purple coloration provided the basis for an early qualitative test to detect uric acid in biological samples.[8] Prout detailed his findings in a seminal paper published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, describing the preparation, properties, and analytical potential of the compound, which he termed purpuric acid due to its vivid hue. The procedure involved careful evaporation to deepen the purple color and isolation of the acid by removing ammonia with sulfuric or hydrochloric acid, highlighting its utility in identifying organic nitrogenous substances like uric acid. This work represented a key step in the development of specific chemical tests for biomolecules.[8] In the early 19th century, Prout's discovery emerged amid the rapid expansion of organic chemistry following the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815), a period that spurred intensified research in France, Britain, and Germany as scientists sought mechanistic explanations for natural substances previously shrouded in vitalism. The compound gained commercial significance in the 1830s when uric acid from Peruvian guano (bird excrement) became a scalable source for producing the purple dye, initially for textile applications. In 1838, German chemists Justus Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler renamed it murexide, drawing an analogy to the ancient Tyrian purple dye extracted from murex shellfish for its similar deep purple shade, as reported in their publication in Annalen der Chemie.[9][10] Over subsequent decades, the murexide reaction was extended to detect other purine derivatives beyond uric acid.[1]Applications in Early Analysis
Following Prout's discovery, the Murexide test gained prominence in the 1830s and 1840s for detecting uric acid in biological samples, particularly urine, to aid in diagnosing conditions such as gout and kidney disorders. Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler detailed the test's application in their 1838 study on the oxidation of uric acid with nitric acid, forming alloxan as an intermediate that produces the characteristic purple color upon ammoniation, enabling qualitative identification in clinical settings.[11] This method was adopted in medical chemistry for assessing elevated uric acid levels associated with metabolic imbalances, providing an accessible tool before spectroscopic techniques emerged.[12] In agricultural chemistry during the mid-19th century, the test was employed to evaluate guano fertilizers, which derive much of their nitrogen value from purine derivatives like uric acid in bird excrement. Analyses of South American guano samples in the 1840s confirmed uric acid contents up to 25% in some deposits, using nitric acid treatment to verify the compound's presence and estimate nitrogen availability for soil enhancement.[13] This application supported the guano trade boom, as accurate purine quantification helped assess fertilizer quality and economic viability for European agriculture. By the 1860s, the Murexide test had become a standard procedure in qualitative organic analysis, integrated into educational texts, which emphasized its reliability for identifying purines in complex mixtures. These works highlighted the test's evaporation of samples with nitric acid followed by ammonia addition to yield the distinctive purple murexide salt, facilitating classroom demonstrations and laboratory protocols. Early adopters noted limitations, including interference from other nitrogenous compounds like xanthine or ammonia salts, which could mimic the color reaction and lead to false positives. To address this, chemists introduced refinements such as sample dilution and preliminary extraction steps to enhance specificity, as documented in 19th-century analytical reports.[14]Procedures
Test for Uric Acid
The Murexide test for uric acid is a classic qualitative colorimetric assay primarily used to detect uric acid in biological fluids like urine through oxidation and subsequent color development. The underlying principle involves the nitric acid-mediated oxidation of uric acid to alloxan, followed by further reaction to form purpuric acid, which combines with ammonia to yield the purple ammonium purpurate (murexide).[4]Reagents
The test requires the following materials: concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃, approximately 70%), dilute ammonia solution (NH₄OH, 2-5%), and the sample (e.g., urine or other biological fluid). A porcelain evaporating dish and a water bath are also essential for controlled heating.[15][4]Procedure
To perform the test, place 2-5 drops of the urine or fluid sample into a clean porcelain evaporating dish. Add 2-3 drops of concentrated nitric acid to the sample. Gently heat the mixture over a water bath to evaporate the contents to dryness, maintaining low heat to prevent charring or thermal decomposition of organic components. During evaporation, observe color changes from yellow to orange to scarlet, confirming purine oxidation. Once dry, allow the residue to cool to room temperature. Then, add 1 drop of dilute ammonia solution to the cooled residue and observe the color change.[15][4] A positive result is indicated by the immediate formation of a persistent purple-red color throughout the residue, confirming the presence of uric acid. The color develops due to the formation of murexide and remains stable upon gentle agitation.[15][4] This method can detect approximately 1 mg of uric acid or more, with sensitivity sufficient for typical biological samples.[15]Precautions
Evaporation must be conducted over a water bath rather than direct flame to avoid excessive temperatures that could decompose uric acid or produce interfering byproducts. All glassware and dishes should be scrupulously clean to prevent contamination, and the procedure should be carried out in a well-ventilated area due to the release of nitrogen oxides from nitric acid. Handle concentrated acids and ammonia with appropriate protective equipment to avoid skin contact or inhalation.[15][4]Variations
For solid samples suspected to contain uric acid, such as urinary calculi or precipitates, first dissolve a small portion (1-2 mg) in a minimal volume of water or dilute acid before adding the nitric acid and proceeding with the evaporation step. This ensures complete oxidation and uniform color development.[15]Test for Purines and Caffeine
The Murexide test for purines and caffeine is a qualitative analytical method specifically adapted for detecting purine alkaloids such as caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline in samples like plant extracts, distinguishing it through oxidative degradation followed by color development with ammonia. This variant relies on the general principle of murexide formation from purine oxidation products reacting with ammonia to yield a characteristic colored complex.[16] The required reagents are potassium chlorate (KClO₃) as the oxidizing agent, concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl), and ammonia vapor (NH₃) for color development.[17] For samples from sources like tea or coffee, initial preparation involves extracting the alkaloids to isolate purines: the plant material is boiled in water to obtain an aqueous extract, which is then partitioned with chloroform in a separating funnel to transfer caffeine into the organic layer; the chloroform extract is evaporated to dryness on a water bath, yielding a residue suitable for testing.[18] The procedure begins by placing a small amount of the prepared sample residue (or pure purine crystals) in a porcelain dish or watch glass, adding a few crystals of KClO₃ and 1-2 drops of concentrated HCl, and mixing thoroughly. The mixture is then evaporated to dryness on a steam bath or water bath, typically taking 5-10 minutes, to facilitate oxidation. The dry residue is exposed to ammonia vapor by holding it over concentrated ammonium hydroxide or adding a drop of the solution; no heating is required at this stage.[17][19] A positive result is indicated by the development of a pink to purple color in the residue, with shades varying by purine type—lighter pink for caffeine and deeper purple for xanthine derivatives like theobromine. The test allows qualitative detection of caffeine in alkaloid-rich extracts.[16][19] Unlike the uric acid variant, which employs nitric acid evaporation for direct oxidation of acidic purines in biological fluids, this method uses chlorate oxidation in HCl to handle less reactive, methylated purines like caffeine that resist nitric acid degradation.[20]Applications
Clinical and Biochemical Uses
The Murexide test serves as a qualitative screening method for detecting uric acid in urine, aiding in the identification of conditions associated with elevated purine metabolism, such as gout.[21][22] Biochemically, the test targets end-products of purine metabolism, such as uric acid derived from adenine and guanine breakdown, providing insight into metabolic pathways disrupted in hyperuricemic states.[23] The test primarily remains qualitative. Today, it finds niche application in educational laboratories for demonstrating purine detection and in resource-limited settings for initial qualitative confirmation of uric acid presence (as of 2025).[24] The reagent itself is non-toxic, but the procedure involves concentrated nitric acid, requiring careful handling to avoid burns or fumes; results should always be corroborated with modern enzymatic methods, such as those employing uricase for specific uric acid quantification.[21][25]Forensic and Industrial Applications
In forensic science, the Murexide test is utilized for the presumptive detection of caffeine as an adulterant in illicit substances, such as heroin samples confiscated during drug enforcement operations. The procedure involves treating a sample aliquot with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate, evaporating it to dryness, and exposing the residue to ammonia vapor, which yields a characteristic purple color confirming caffeine presence. This application aids in rapid screening of drug residues and adulterated beverages suspected of containing undeclared purines. Additionally, in 20th-century toxicology, the test supported investigations of purine-based poisonings, including caffeine intoxication cases, where a purple coloration upon testing biological samples indicated the alkaloid's involvement.[26][27] The test has found utility in industrial quality control for caffeine quantification in coffee and tea processing, particularly to verify alkaloid levels in commercial products and during decaffeination verification. For example, in analyses of various tea samples, a positive Murexide reaction—producing a purple or violet hue after acid treatment and ammoniation—confirms the presence of purine alkaloids like caffeine, ensuring compliance with labeling standards.[28] In pharmaceutical testing, the Murexide test detects purine contaminants, such as caffeine and theobromine, in drug formulations and raw materials like tea extracts, providing a straightforward identification step prior to advanced quantification. Today, while complemented by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for precise measurements, the Murexide test retains value for its low cost and speed in field-based presumptive screening across these domains (as of 2025).Limitations and Considerations
Interferences and Sensitivity
The murexide test, while useful for qualitative detection of uric acid and certain purines, is prone to interferences from other nitrogen-containing compounds. For instance, xanthine, a related purine, can produce a brownish coloration rather than the characteristic purplish-red upon ammonia exposure, leading to potential misidentification or false positives.[30] Similarly, in cases of adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) deficiency, 2,8-dihydroxyadenine stones may yield false positives with the murexide reaction, as this compound mimics uric acid's response in spot tests.[31] However, common urine constituents such as urea and creatinine do not interfere, as they fail to produce any color change under the test conditions.[32] The test's sensitivity is limited to qualitative assessment, typically requiring only a few milligrams of sample for visible color development, but it lacks the precision of modern quantitative methods. It is less sensitive than techniques like UV spectroscopy.[33] Factors such as sample matrix complexity can further reduce accuracy; in complex biological fluids like urine, high levels of proteins or other interferents may mask the color or lead to inconsistent results. Overheating during evaporation can also degrade intermediates, potentially yielding allantoin instead of the expected purpurate complex, though specific error rates vary. Qualitative spot tests like murexide show overall accuracy below 50% in renal stone analysis without prior purification.[31] To mitigate these issues, sample dilution and the use of blank controls are recommended to minimize matrix effects, while pH adjustment to the alkaline range (around 8-9) optimizes ammonia-induced color formation. Purification steps, such as extraction or filtration, help reduce false negatives in complex matrices. These strategies enhance reliability but underscore the test's outdated status compared to enzymatic or chromatographic alternatives.[30]Modern Alternatives
Contemporary methods have largely replaced the Murexide test due to advancements in specificity, automation, and quantitative accuracy for detecting uric acid and related purines.[34] Enzymatic assays, particularly the uricase-peroxidase method, offer high specificity for uric acid determination by oxidizing uric acid to allantoin and hydrogen peroxide, which is then quantified colorimetrically via peroxidase coupling.[35] This approach, automated in clinical laboratories since the 1970s, enables rapid processing of serum and urine samples with minimal interferences from other compounds.[34] Chromatographic techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) provide quantitative analysis of purines and caffeine with detection limits around 0.1 mg/L, far surpassing the qualitative nature of the Murexide test.[36] These methods separate and identify analytes based on retention times and mass spectra, making them essential in forensic investigations for trace caffeine detection and pharmaceutical quality control for purine derivatives.[37] For instance, HPLC with UV detection achieves linearity from 0.1 µg/mL for caffeine and its metabolites, ensuring precise quantification in complex matrices.[36] Spectroscopic methods further enhance structural and quantitative insights. UV-Vis spectroscopy measures uric acid absorbance at 290 nm under neutral pH conditions, providing a direct, non-destructive assay with low interference in biological samples.[38] For structural confirmation of purines, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy elucidates molecular configurations through chemical shift analysis, particularly useful in identifying tautomers and conformers in research settings. These alternatives excel in precision and reduced interferences compared to the Murexide test, as exemplified by the Folin-Wu colorimetric method introduced in 1912, which improved quantitative uric acid measurement in urine via phosphotungstate reduction, avoiding the subjective color interpretation of murexide.[39] Despite these advancements, the Murexide test persists in low-resource environments and educational laboratories for its simplicity and minimal equipment needs, serving as an accessible qualitative tool.[24]References
- https://www.[researchgate](/page/ResearchGate).net/publication/359537449_Gravimetric_Estimation_of_Caffeine_in_Different_Commercial_Kinds_of_Tea_Found_in_the_Iraqi_Market