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Gluteus maximus
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| Gluteus maximus | |
|---|---|
 The location of the gluteus maximus | |
 The gluteus maximus and gluteus medius | |
| Details | |
| Origin | Gluteal surface of ilium, lumbar fascia, sacrum, sacrotuberous ligament |
| Insertion | Gluteal tuberosity of the femur and iliotibial tract |
| Artery | Superior and inferior gluteal arteries |
| Nerve | Inferior gluteal nerve (L5, S1 and S2 nerve roots) |
| Actions | External rotation and extension of the hip joint, supports the extended knee through the iliotibial tract, chief antigravity muscle in sitting and abduction of the hip |
| Antagonist | Iliacus, psoas major and psoas minor |
| Identifiers | |
| Latin | musculus glutaeus maximus |
| TA98 | A04.7.02.006 |
| TA2 | 2598 |
| FMA | 22314 |
| Anatomical terms of muscle | |
The gluteus maximus is the main extensor muscle of the hip in humans. It is the largest and outermost of the three gluteal muscles and makes up a large part of the shape and appearance of each side of the hips. It is the single largest muscle in the human body.[1] Its thick fleshy mass, in a quadrilateral shape, forms the prominence of the buttocks. The other gluteal muscles are the medius and minimus, and sometimes informally these are collectively referred to as the glutes.
Its large size is one of the most characteristic features of the muscular system in humans,[2] connected as it is with the power of maintaining the trunk in the erect posture. Other primates have much flatter hips and cannot sustain standing erectly.
The muscle is made up of muscle fascicles lying parallel with one another, and are collected together into larger bundles separated by fibrous septa.
Structure
[edit]The gluteus maximus (or buttock) is the outermost muscle of the buttocks. It arises from connections to nearby structures in this area. It arises from the posterior gluteal line of the outer upper ilium, a bone of the pelvis, as well as above it to the iliac crest and slightly below it; from the lower part of the sacrum and the side of the coccyx, the tailbone; from the aponeurosis of the erector spinae (lumbodorsal fascia), the sacrotuberous ligament, and the fascia covering the gluteus medius (gluteal aponeurosis).[3]
The fibers are directed obliquely inferiorly and laterally;
The gluteus maximus ends in two main areas:
- those forming the upper and larger portion of the muscle, together with the superficial fibers of the lower portion, end in a thick tendinous lamina, which passes across the greater trochanter, and inserts into the iliotibial band of the fascia lata;
- the deeper fibers of the lower portion are inserted into the gluteal tuberosity of the linea aspera, between the vastus lateralis and adductor magnus. If present, the third trochanter also serves as an attachment.
-
Gluteus maximus of right side: outline and attachment-areas. -
Image showing the outer surface of the ilium, showing the inferior gluteal line -
Origin and attachment areas at the proximal femur. Gluteus maximus is marked with number 12. -
Attachment zone at the femur -
Muscles of the gluteal and posterior femoral regions, showing origin and insertion of gluteus maximus muscle
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_-_Vol_1_-_Fig_339.png)
_-_Vol_1_-_Fig_176-177.png)
Bursae
[edit]Three bursae are usually found in relation with the deep surface of this muscle:
- One of these, of large size, separates it from the greater trochanter (Bursa trochanterica m. glutaei maximi),
- a second (often missing) is situated on the tuberosity of the ischium (Bursae glutaeofemorales),
- a third is found between the skin and the tendon of the muscle, which sometimes extends to the vastus lateralis (Bursa trochanterica subcutanea.[4]
Function
[edit]The gluteus maximus straightens the leg at the hip; when the leg is flexed at the hip, the gluteus maximus extends it to bring the leg into a straight line with the body.[3] The anus also aligns when the leg is flexed at the hip, making the muscle tighten and the pelvis tilt forward. Taking its fixed point from below, it acts upon the pelvis, supporting it and the trunk upon the head of the femur; this is particularly obvious in standing on one leg. Its most powerful action is to cause the body to regain the erect position after stooping, by drawing the pelvis backward, being assisted in this action by the biceps femoris (long head), semitendinosus, semimembranosus, and adductor magnus.
The lower part of the muscle also acts as an adductor and external rotator of the limb. The upper fibers act as abductors of the hip joints.
The gluteus maximus is a tensor of the fascia lata, and by its connection with the iliotibial band steadies the femur on the articular surfaces of the tibia during standing, when the extensor muscles are relaxed. Therefore, the muscle carries out an extension, a valgisation and an external rotation of the knee.[5]
Society and culture
[edit]Training
[edit]
The gluteus maximus is involved in several sports, from running to weight-lifting. A number of exercises focus on the gluteus maximus and other muscles of the upper leg:
- Hip thrusts
- Glute bridge
- Quadruped hip extensions
- Kettlebell swings
- Squats and variations like split squats, unilateral squats with the raised foot positioned either backwards or forwards (pistols), and wide-stance lunges
- Deadlift (and variations)
- Reverse hyperextension
- Four-way hip extensions
- Glute-ham raise
In art
[edit]In cultural terms, the glutes are often considered a symbol of health and strength, and aesthetically appealing. They frequently feature in artwork which seeks to emphasise and celebrate physicality, and the ability to move dynamically and powerfully. They are usually shown to be efficiently proportioned and prominent.
Evidence of such depictions of the gluteal muscles extends from at least Ancient Greece to the modern day.[7][8]
- The glutes in art
-
An Ancient Greek javelin thrower represented on a vase, c. 520 B.C. -
An Ancient Greek warrior in bronze. Riace Bronzes, c. 450 B.C.
Clinical significance
[edit]Functional assessment can be useful in assessing injuries to the gluteus maximus and surrounding muscles.
The 30-second chair-to-stand test measures a participant's ability to stand up from a seated position as many times as possible in a thirty-second period of time.[9] Testing the number of times a person can stand up in a thirty-second period helps assess strength, flexibility, pain, and endurance,[9] which can help determine how far along a person is in rehabilitation, or how much work is still to be done.
The piriformis test measures flexibility of the gluteus maximus. This requires a trained professional and is based on the angle of external and internal rotation in relation to normal range of motion without injury or impingement.[10]
Other animals
[edit]The gluteus maximus is larger in size and thicker in humans than in other primates.[3] Specifically, it is approximately 1.6 times larger relative to body mass compared to chimpanzees and comprises about 18.3% of total hip musculature mass versus 11.7% in chimpanzees.[11] Its large size is one of the most characteristic features of the muscular system in humans,[2] connected as it is with the power of maintaining the trunk in the erect posture. Other primates have much flatter hips and cannot sustain standing erectly.[12][13]
In other primates, the correlate to the human gluteus maximus consists of the ischiofemoralis, a small muscle that corresponds to the human gluteus maximus and originates from the ilium and the ligaments of the sacroiliac, and the gluteus maximus proprius, a large muscle that extends from the ischial tuberosity to a relatively more distant insertion on the femur. In adapting to bipedal gait, reorganization of the attachment of the muscle as well as the moment arm was required.[12]
Running
[edit]The human gluteus maximus plays multiple important functional roles, particularly in running rather than walking. During running, it helps control trunk flexion, aids in decelerating the swing leg, and contributes to hip extension. During level walking, the muscle shows minimal activity, suggesting its enlargement was not primarily adapted for walking.[14][11]
The muscle's size and position make it uniquely suited for controlling trunk position during rapid movements and stabilizing the trunk against flexion. While traditionally associated with maintaining erect posture, evidence suggests its enlargement was more likely selected for its role in running capability and trunk stabilization during various dynamic activities. These adaptations would have been particularly important for activities like running and climbing in early human evolution.[11]
Additional images
[edit]-
All gluteal muscles, maximus in yellow -
Gluteus maximus is the most superficial muscle of the hips, here visible at top centre with skin removed from the entire right leg. Note its rather thin fascia. -
The gluteus maximus, with surrounding fascia. Right buttock, viewed from behind, skin covering removed. -
Innervation and blood-supply of the gluteus maximus -
Gluteus maximus cut showing underlying structures -
Structures visible under the gluteus maximus -
Innervation as seen from under the gluteus maximus -
Structures surrounding right hip-joint (gluteus maximus visible at bottom) -
Surface anatomy of the upper leg, lateral view. x = Gluteus maximus, xx = Vastus lateralis, .. = Biceps femoris, . = Tendon of the biceps femoris / Capitulum fibulae. -
Superficial muscles of the body, lateral view
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 474 of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
- ^ "What is the strongest muscle in the human body?". Library of Congress. 19 November 2019. Retrieved 2023-05-28.
- ^ a b Norman Eizenberg et al., General Anatomy: Principles and Applications (2008), p. 17.
- ^ a b c Standring, Susan, ed. (2016). "Pelvic girdle, gluteal region and thigh: Gluteus maximus". Gray's anatomy: The anatomical basis of clinical practice (41st ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Limited. pp. 1357–1358. ISBN 9780702052309. OCLC 920806541.
- ^ Hermann Braus, Curt Elze: Anatomie des Menschen. Ein Lehrbuch für Studierende und Ärzte. Erster Band. Bewegungsapparat. 3. Auflage. Julius Springer, Berlin 1954. Digitalisat der Universität Heidelberg. S. 463 – 466.
- ^ Hahn von Dorsche, Herwig; Dittel, Reinhard (2006). Anatomie des Bewegungssystems (in German) (2nd ed.). Bad Hersfeld: Neuromedizin Verlag. pp. 269, 274–277. ISBN 978-3-930926-18-3.
- ^ Contreras B, Cordoza G (2019). The Glute Lab. Victory Belt Publishing. p. 426. ISBN 978-1628603-46-0.
- ^ Bret Contreras, Glen Cordoza (2019). The Glute Lab. Victory Belt Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 9781628603460.
- ^ Metraux, Guy P. R. (1995). Sculptures and Physicians in Fifth-Century Greece. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 0773512314.
- ^ a b Dobson, F.; Bennell, K.; Hinman, R.; Abbott, H.; Roos, E. (2013). "OARSI recommended performance-based tests to assess physical function in people diagnosed with hip or knee osteoarthritis" (PDF). Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. 21 (8): 1042–52. doi:10.1016/j.joca.2013.05.002. PMID 23680877.
- ^ "Passive Piriformis ROM". Exrx.net. Retrieved February 19, 2015.
- ^ a b c Lieberman, Daniel E.; Raichlen, David A.; Pontzer, Herman; Bramble, Dennis M.; Cutright-Smith, Elizabeth (2006). "The human gluteus maximus and its role in running". Journal of Experimental Biology. 209 (11): 2143–2155. doi:10.1242/jeb.02255. ISSN 1477-9145.
- ^ a b Hogervorst, T.; Vereecke, E. E. (January 2015). "Evolution of the human hip. Part 2: muscling the double extension". Journal of Hip Preservation Surgery. 2 (1): 3–14. doi:10.1093/jhps/hnu014. PMC 4718477. PMID 27011809.
- ^ Stern, Jack T.; Susman, Randall L. (June 1981). "Electromyography of the gluteal muscles in Hylobates, Pongo, and Pan: Implications for the evolution of hominid bipedality". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 55 (2): 153–166. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330550203.
- ^ Niinimäki, Sirpa; Härkönen, Laura; Nikander, Riku; Abe, Shinya; Knüsel, Christopher; Sievänen, Harri (2016). "The cross-sectional area of the gluteus maximus muscle varies according to habitual exercise loading: Implications for activity-related and evolutionary studies". Homo. 67 (2): 125–137. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2015.06.005.
External links
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gluteus maximus muscles and Human dissection.
- Cross section image: pelvis/pelvis-female-17—Plastination Laboratory at the Medical University of Vienna
- Cross section image: pelvis/pelvis-e12-15—Plastination Laboratory at the Medical University of Vienna
- Cross section image: pembody/body18b—Plastination Laboratory at the Medical University of Vienna
Gluteus maximus
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
The gluteus maximus is the largest and most superficial muscle in the gluteal region, forming the prominent contour of the buttocks and serving as the body's strongest hip extensor.[1] This thick, quadrangular muscle originates from the gluteal surface of the ilium (posterior to the posterior gluteal line), the dorsal surface of the sacrum and coccyx, and the sacrotuberous ligament.[2] Its fibers insert primarily into the iliotibial tract and the gluteal tuberosity of the femur, with some blending into the tensor fasciae latae.[2] Innervated by the inferior gluteal nerve (L5-S2), it receives its blood supply from the superior and inferior gluteal arteries, branches of the internal iliac artery.[2]
Functionally, the gluteus maximus acts as the primary extensor of the hip joint, enabling powerful movements such as rising from a seated position, climbing stairs, running, and jumping by extending the thigh at the hip.[1] Its upper and middle fibers also contribute to abduction and external rotation of the thigh, while the lower fibers assist in adduction, helping to stabilize the pelvis during gait and maintain upright posture when sitting or standing.[2] In humans, the gluteus maximus is notably larger and more developed compared to other primates, reflecting its specialized role in bipedal locomotion and endurance running.[3] Weakness or atrophy of the muscle, often due to prolonged sitting or inactivity, can lead to impaired mobility or lower back pain.[1]
Anatomy
Origin and Insertion
The gluteus maximus originates from the posterior part of the ilium behind the posterior gluteal line, the dorsal surface of the sacrum and coccyx, the sacrotuberous ligament, and the lumbar fascia.[4] These attachments provide a broad base on the posterior pelvis, allowing the muscle to span the gluteal region. The origin sites are reinforced by fascial connections, contributing to the muscle's stability during movement. The muscle inserts primarily into two structures: the upper fibers converge into a thick gluteal aponeurosis that attaches to the iliotibial band, while the lower fibers insert directly onto the gluteal tuberosity of the proximal femur.[4] This dual insertion pattern divides the muscle into superficial and deep portions, with the aponeurotic component facilitating lateral stability. The fibers exhibit a fan-like orientation, with superficial coarse fascicles arranged in a pennate structure that enhances force production across the hip.[5] As the largest skeletal muscle in the human body, the gluteus maximus accounts for approximately 16% of the total cross-sectional area of the hip musculature and represents a substantial portion of lower limb muscle mass.[6] Anatomical variations have been reported, including accessory slips that extend to additional sites on the sacrum or coccyx, as well as inconsistent fusion of the lower fibers with the iliotibial tract, which can alter the distribution of tension.[7]Innervation and Vascular Supply
The gluteus maximus muscle receives its primary motor innervation from the inferior gluteal nerve, which originates from the ventral rami of the L5, S1, and S2 spinal roots within the sacral plexus. This nerve emerges from the pelvis via the greater sciatic foramen inferior to the piriformis muscle, traveling along the posterior surface before dividing into multiple branches that penetrate the deep surface of the gluteus maximus to supply its entire extent. In rare anatomical variations observed in some individuals, the superior portion of the muscle may receive minor secondary innervation from branches of the superior gluteal nerve (L4, L5, S1), resulting in dual innervation patterns. The blood supply to the gluteus maximus is robust, ensuring adequate perfusion for its large mass and high functional demands during locomotion. The primary arteries are the superior gluteal artery, which arises from the posterior division of the internal iliac artery and enters the gluteal region superior to the piriformis muscle, providing superficial and deep branches to the upper and lateral aspects of the muscle; and the inferior gluteal artery, a terminal branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery, which exits inferior to the piriformis and supplies the lower and medial portions via its muscular branches. Additional vascular contributions include branches from the lateral sacral arteries (arising from the internal iliac) that anastomose with the main pedicles along the sacral border, and the medial circumflex femoral artery (a branch of the profunda femoris), which provides perforating twigs to the inferior margins through anastomotic networks. Lymphatic drainage from the gluteus maximus follows the vascular pathways of the gluteal region, with vessels converging toward the internal iliac and sacral lymph nodes before ascending to the common iliac and lumbar nodes. To evaluate the integrity of the inferior gluteal nerve and gluteus maximus function, clinicians often perform a prone hip extension strength assessment, typically with the knee flexed to 90 degrees to reduce hamstring dominance and isolate the target muscle's contribution to hip extension.Relations and Associated Bursae
The gluteus maximus is the most superficial muscle in the gluteal region, covered by the skin, subcutaneous fat, and superficial fascia, while contributing to the formation of the inferior gluteal fold.[8] Deep to the gluteus maximus lie several structures, including the gluteus medius muscle, piriformis, superior and inferior gemelli, obturator internus, quadratus femoris, and the sciatic nerve.[9] Medially, the gluteus maximus is adjacent to the sacrotuberous ligament, which provides partial support and attachment proximity.[4] Laterally, its superficial fibers connect to the iliotibial tract, linking it to the tensor fasciae latae muscle.[10] The gluteus maximus is associated with several bursae that facilitate smooth movement by reducing friction between the muscle and adjacent bony or soft tissue structures. The trochanteric bursa, located between the deep surface of the gluteus maximus and the greater trochanter of the femur, cushions the muscle during hip abduction and rotation to prevent irritation.[11] The gluteofemoral bursa lies between the gluteus maximus and the vastus lateralis muscle of the quadriceps, minimizing friction during thigh extension.[4] Additionally, the ischiofemoral (or sciatic) bursa, situated near the ischial tuberosity beneath the gluteus maximus, protects the muscle as it slides over the bone during sitting or hip flexion.[12] These bursae collectively reduce impingement and facilitate efficient hip motion, particularly in locomotion.[9]Function
Primary Movements
The gluteus maximus serves as the primary extensor of the hip joint, facilitating posterior tilt of the pelvis relative to the femur through its powerful contraction. This action is most effective in the terminal phase of hip extension, particularly between 0 and 20 degrees from full extension, where the muscle's biomechanical leverage is optimized due to a favorable line of pull.[13] The moment arm for hip extension peaks at approximately 7.9 cm when the hip is fully extended (0 degrees flexion), decreasing progressively with hip flexion and underscoring the muscle's specialized role in forceful terminal movements.[14] In addition to extension, the gluteus maximus contributes secondary actions influenced by its fiber orientation. The posterior fibers primarily drive external rotation of the thigh, maintaining a consistent external rotation moment arm across a wide range of hip positions, from 0 to 90 degrees of flexion. Conversely, the anterior fibers support hip abduction, particularly when the hip is in a flexed position, allowing the muscle to assist in lateral stabilization of the lower limb.[13] The muscle also provides essential stabilization at the hip and pelvis. By countering anterior pelvic tilt through its posterior pull on the ilium, the gluteus maximus helps maintain neutral pelvic alignment and upright trunk posture during standing, preventing excessive lumbar lordosis.[15] Electromyographic (EMG) studies reveal high activation levels of the gluteus maximus during functional activities requiring hip extension, such as squatting (often exceeding 60% of maximum voluntary isometric contraction in single-limb variations) and stair climbing (with peak activity during ascending phases to propel the body upward).[16][17]Role in Locomotion and Running
The gluteus maximus plays a critical role in the gait cycle by providing eccentric control during the swing phase to decelerate the forward motion of the leg, preventing excessive hip flexion and ensuring smooth progression.[18] This action stabilizes the pelvis and controls the momentum of the swinging limb, particularly as the leg approaches heel strike. In the early stance phase, the muscle undergoes a concentric contraction burst at heel strike to facilitate hip extension and propulsion, contributing to forward momentum and efficient weight transfer.[19] These coordinated actions integrate with other hip extensors to maintain upright posture and balance external forces during ambulation.[6] During running, the gluteus maximus exhibits heightened activity to control trunk flexion on the stance side and decelerate the swing leg, enhancing stability at higher speeds.[18] Electromyographic (EMG) studies show peak activations reaching 200-300% of maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) during acceleration phases, far exceeding levels in walking and underscoring its demand in dynamic locomotion.[6] This intense recruitment supports powerful hip extension, which is essential for generating stride power while mitigating forward lean of the torso.[18] The enlarged size of the human gluteus maximus represents an evolutionary adaptation for bipedalism, particularly enhancing upright running efficiency by enabling sustained hip extension and pelvic stability over long distances.[20] Unlike in quadrupedal ancestors where the muscle was smaller and less active, its development in Homo facilitated endurance running, a key factor in human evolutionary success by improving energy economy during prolonged activity.[18] In locomotion, the gluteus maximus aids energy absorption by tensing the iliotibial tract to dissipate ground reaction forces, which can reach up to 8 times body weight during running impacts.[21] This mechanism reduces shock transmission to the hip and knee joints, promoting smoother force attenuation through eccentric loading.[18] Gender differences influence gluteus maximus activation, with females showing slightly greater EMG activity during running, attributed to wider pelvic morphology that demands additional stabilization to counter increased lateral sway.[22] This heightened recruitment helps maintain pelvic alignment but may contribute to earlier fatigue in prolonged efforts.[23]Clinical Significance
Injuries and Pathologies
The gluteus maximus is susceptible to strains and tears, which can occur acutely from direct trauma, such as in road traffic collisions or falls, or chronically due to overuse in athletes engaging in explosive activities.[24][25] These injuries often manifest as sharp pain in the buttock, exacerbated by hip extension or weight-bearing, and may lead to sciatica-like symptoms if the tear irritates nearby nerves.[26] Avulsions can occur at both the insertion sites along the iliotibial tract or gluteal tuberosity of the femur, and at the proximal origin from the iliac crest, typically resulting from sudden, forceful contractions against resistance.[4][27] Avulsions at the proximal origin are more frequent in younger individuals during high-impact sports, leading to localized swelling, bruising, and impaired gait.[28] Tendinopathy of the gluteus maximus, though less common than that affecting the gluteus medius and minimus, can involve degenerative changes at its femoral insertion (gluteal tuberosity) or along the iliotibial tract, causing insidious posterior buttock or hip pain that worsens with prolonged standing or hip extension activities.[29] While gluteus medius and minimus tendinopathy is the primary contributor to greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS), gluteus maximus dysfunction can exacerbate pelvic instability and related hip irritation.[30] Atrophy of the gluteus maximus can arise from disuse in sedentary individuals or nerve injury, such as damage to the inferior gluteal nerve, resulting in muscle wasting, a characteristic "lurch" gait, and reduced hip extension power.[31][32] Poor stabilization by the gluteus maximus due to weakness or injury is associated with low back pain, as compensatory overuse of lumbar extensors leads to spinal overload and chronic discomfort.[33] In piriformis syndrome, compression of the sciatic nerve by the piriformis muscle indirectly impairs gluteus maximus function through altered gait mechanics and pain inhibition, further compounding buttock and posterior thigh symptoms.[34] Risk factors for these injuries and pathologies include a sedentary lifestyle, which promotes gluteal weakness and inhibition, increasing vulnerability to strains during sudden activity, and repetitive hip extension in sports like sprinting, which predisposes athletes to overuse tears.[35] Gluteus maximus tendinopathy is rarer than medius/minimus forms, with the latter showing a prevalence of up to 23.5% among middle-aged women and approximately one in four cases of lateral hip pain involving gluteal tendon pathology (primarily medius/minimus).[36][37] Specific forms of maximus tendinopathy, such as calcific tendinitis, have been reported in case studies but lack broad prevalence data.[38]Diagnosis and Management
Diagnosis of gluteus maximus injuries, such as strains or tendon tears, primarily relies on clinical evaluation supplemented by imaging when necessary. Physical examination includes palpation for tenderness over the muscle belly or insertion site at the iliotibial tract and greater trochanter, along with functional tests like the resisted hip extension test, which reproduces pain or demonstrates weakness in affected individuals. The Trendelenburg test assesses for gait instability and compensatory pelvic drop, highlighting gluteal weakness that may involve the maximus in severe cases.[6] Advanced diagnostics often involve magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is highly sensitive for detecting tears and associated edema; acute strains appear as high signal intensity on T2-weighted sequences indicating muscle or tendon inflammation. Ultrasound provides a dynamic, cost-effective alternative for evaluating tendon integrity and bursae, particularly useful in outpatient settings to differentiate tears from bursitis. Electromyography (EMG) is indicated if inferior gluteal nerve involvement is suspected, confirming denervation patterns in chronic or traumatic cases.[39][40][41] Management of gluteus maximus injuries emphasizes conservative approaches for most strains and partial tears. Initial treatment incorporates rest, ice application, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for pain and swelling reduction, and activity modification to avoid aggravating hip extension. Physical therapy forms the cornerstone, featuring progressive eccentric strengthening exercises—such as single-leg bridges and Romanian deadlifts—to restore muscle function and prevent re-injury, typically over 6-12 weeks.[42][6] Surgical intervention is reserved for complete tears, refractory tendinopathy, or cases with significant functional impairment, involving tendon repair via suture anchors or debridement, and occasionally bursectomy for associated inflammation. Postoperative rehabilitation follows a phased protocol: early isometric holds and protected weight-bearing for 4-6 weeks, advancing to concentric/eccentric loading and plyometrics by weeks 8-12 to achieve full return to activity.[43][40] Prevention strategies target at-risk populations like runners and athletes through targeted strengthening programs emphasizing core stability, hip abductor/adductor balance, and gluteus maximus activation via exercises such as clamshells and hip thrusts, reducing injury incidence by improving biomechanical resilience.[6]Evolutionary and Comparative Anatomy
Development and Evolution in Humans
The gluteus maximus originates embryologically from the myotomes of somites, which are paired blocks of paraxial mesoderm that form along the neural tube during early development. Myoblasts from these somites migrate into the lower limb buds around the fifth week of gestation, contributing to the formation of the gluteal musculature. By the eighth week of gestation, the gluteus maximus anlage is already segregated into superior and inferior parts, positioned in the gluteal region with initial insertions into the developing femur, marking the completion of its basic migration and differentiation.[4][44][45] Postnatally, the gluteus maximus undergoes rapid growth during infancy to support emerging postural control and bipedal activities, such as kicking and rolling, which activate the muscle through heel push-offs. This early phase aligns with general skeletal muscle hypertrophy, where fiber size increases steeply to accommodate weight-bearing demands. Growth peaks during adolescence, coinciding with the pubertal growth spurt and intensified bipedal locomotion, enhancing the muscle's capacity for hip extension and stability as body mass and activity levels rise.[46][47][48] In human evolution, the gluteus maximus enlarged significantly within the genus Homo compared to earlier hominins like australopithecines, where it was smaller and more ape-like in origin extent, providing enhanced bipedal stability and support for endurance running. This expansion, estimated at approximately 1.6 times larger relative to body mass than in other primates, reflects adaptations for upright posture and prolonged locomotion on savannas. Selective pressures from hunting and scavenging around 2 million years ago likely drove this change, favoring individuals with greater hip extensor power for persistence pursuits. The muscle's adaptive traits include increased pennation angles and longer fiber lengths—averaging 99 mm in the superior portion and 142 mm in the inferior—enabling higher force output and velocity for power generation during running.[18][20][49][50] Genetic regulation of gluteus maximus development involves HOX genes, which pattern the body axis and influence limb muscle specification, alongside myogenic regulatory factors like MYF5 that drive myoblast commitment and differentiation in skeletal muscles. These factors, expressed in somites and limb buds, contribute to variations in muscle size and fiber architecture across individuals, underscoring their role in both ontogeny and evolutionary divergence.[51][52][53]Variations in Other Animals
In primates, the gluteus maximus is generally smaller than in humans, reflecting adaptations to quadrupedal or arboreal locomotion rather than habitual bipedalism. For instance, in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), the muscle is approximately 62% the relative size of the human gluteus maximus when normalized to body mass, with a primary role in climbing and thigh abduction rather than powerful hip extension.[18] In contrast, baboons (Papio spp.), which favor terrestrial quadrupedalism, exhibit a larger and more laterally positioned gluteus maximus compared to arboreal apes, aiding in propulsion during ground-based movement and showing convergent similarities with semi-terrestrial New World monkeys like the bearded capuchin (Sapajus libidinosus).[54] Among quadrupeds, the gluteus maximus is often reduced or fused with other gluteal muscles, with the middle gluteal taking a dominant role in hip extension. In domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), the gluteus maximus (termed gluteus superficialis) is a thin, superficial sheet primarily responsible for thigh extension and lateral rotation, but it is overshadowed by the larger middle gluteal for overall locomotor power.[55] Similarly, in cats (Felis catus), the muscle is diminutive and integrated into the gluteal group, contributing minimally to propulsion compared to the biceps femoris and semitendinosus. In horses (Equus caballus), however, the gluteus maximus works in tandem with the superficial and middle gluteals to generate propulsive force during galloping, facilitating hindlimb thrust and pelvic stabilization at high speeds.[56] In aquatic mammals like whales (Cetacea), the gluteus maximus is absent or vestigial, consistent with the evolutionary loss of functional hindlimbs for tail-driven swimming. Rudimentary pelvic remnants exist, but associated musculature has atrophied, with no gluteal contributions to locomotion; instead, axial muscles power undulatory movement.[57] Functional variations appear in specialized hoppers like kangaroos (Macropus spp.), where the gluteus maximus supports hopping through hip extension and external rotation, propelling the body forward while coordinating with the tail for balance and power.[58] Evolutionary trends show that gluteus maximus enlargement correlates with the shift to bipedalism in hominids, enhancing hip extension for upright posture, while arboreal species maintain smaller muscles for climbing efficiency and terrestrial non-primates emphasize abduction over extension.[59] Homologically, the gluteus maximus derives from the reptilian caudofemoralis muscle, which in early tetrapods supported limb retraction and stabilization during weight-bearing transitions from aquatic to terrestrial environments.[60]Society and Culture
Training and Exercise
The gluteus maximus can be effectively targeted through compound exercises that emphasize hip extension, such as squats, deadlifts, and lunges, which engage the muscle alongside other lower body groups for functional strength development. As of 2025, the best exercises for achieving peachier, rounder glutes remain focused on compound hip extension movements and targeted isolation work. Top recommendations include barbell hip thrusts (often ranked #1 for glute activation and growth, particularly effective for the rounded "peach" shape due to high gluteus maximus activation), Romanian deadlifts, Bulgarian split squats, glute bridges/frog pumps, and cable kickbacks or banded abductions (for side glute development to enhance roundness). Progressive overload, proper form, and consistency are key. For more isolated activation, hip thrusts and glute bridges are particularly effective, as they position the muscle in optimal length-tension relationships during peak contraction. Bodyweight variations of these exercises, such as the floor version of the hip thrust and glute bridge (including single-leg, marching, and squeezing at the top variations), provide accessible options for gluteus maximus targeting without equipment.[61][62] Other bodyweight exercises that specifically target the gluteus maximus include: donkey kicks (performed on all fours with the knee bent at 90 degrees); fire hydrants (performed on all fours, lifting the leg out to the side); clamshells (lying on the side with knees bent, lifting the top knee while keeping feet together, primarily engaging the gluteus medius but with some maximus involvement; a variation using a mini loop resistance band placed above the knees, with feet together, involves lifting the top knee upward like opening a clamshell while keeping feet touching, then slowly returning to start, targeting the gluteus medius for hip stability); squat pulses (small upward movements in a squat position to increase time under tension); curtsy lunge or squat (with side emphasis, crossing one leg behind the other); side lunges (stepping to the side and bending one knee); leg kickbacks (extending one leg back from all fours); and plié squats (wide stance with toes pointed out, squatting down and squeezing the glutes). These exercises are supported by fitness research for their ability to activate the gluteus maximus through hip extension and abduction movements.[63][64][65] Training principles for gluteus maximus development center on progressive overload, where resistance is gradually increased to stimulate adaptation, typically using 8-15 repetitions per set for hypertrophy in novice to intermediate trainees.[66] An emphasis on eccentric phases—controlled lowering movements—helps build tendon resilience and may prevent tendinopathy by enhancing collagen remodeling under load.[67] Electromyography (EMG) studies demonstrate the efficacy of these exercises; for example, barbell hip thrusts elicit mean activation levels of approximately 70-87% of maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) in the gluteus maximus (upper and lower portions), surpassing back squats at 29-45% MVIC, indicating superior recruitment for targeted growth.[61] An effective glute hypertrophy training program emphasizes progressive overload—increasing weight, reps, sets, or intensity over time—to drive muscle growth. Train glutes 2-4 times per week (typically 3 days for most people) with 10-20 weekly sets. Focus on compound hip extension movements and isolation exercises in the 8-15 rep range for hypertrophy.[68][69] A sample 3-day program (repeat or alternate variations weekly):- Day 1 (Heavy): Barbell Hip Thrusts (3-4 sets of 8-12 reps), Romanian Deadlifts (3-4 sets of 8-12 reps), Bulgarian Split Squats (3 sets of 10-12 reps/leg).
- Day 2 (Volume): Glute Bridges or Hip Thrusts (4 sets of 10-15 reps), Walking Lunges (3 sets of 12-15 reps/leg), Cable Kickbacks (3-4 sets of 15-20 reps/leg).
- Day 3 (Isolation/Endurance): Banded Abductions or Side-Lying Clams (3-4 sets of 15-20 reps), Step-Ups (3 sets of 10-12 reps/leg), Reverse Hyperextensions (3 sets of 12-15 reps).