Hubbry Logo
Polar circlePolar circleMain
Open search
Polar circle
Community hub
Polar circle
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Polar circle
Polar circle
Polar circle
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
The north polar circle on a polar projection.
The polar circle as lines on a modified cylindrical projection.
The Arctic Circle in Finland, 1975.
The Arctic Circle in Norway at Saltfjellet mountain plateau in July 2003.

A polar circle is a geographic term for a conditional circular line (arc) referring either to the Arctic Circle or the Antarctic Circle. These are two of the keynote circles of latitude (parallels). On Earth, the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 14.5 m per year and is now at a mean latitude (i.e. without taking into account the astronomical nutation) of 66°33′50.8″ N; the Antarctic Circle is currently drifting southwards at a speed of about 14.5 m per year and is now at a mean latitude of 66°33′50.8″ S.[1] Polar circles are often equated with polar regions of Earth. Due to their inherent climate environment, the bulk of the Arctic Circle, much of which is sea, is sparsely settled whereas this applies to all of Antarctica which is mainly land and sheltered ice shelves.

If Earth had no atmosphere, then both polar circles (arcs) would see at least a day a year when the center of the Sun is continuously above the horizon and at least a day a year when it is always below the horizon – a polar day and a polar night as is the case for longer, within the circles. Up to and including the associated poles (North and South), known geographically as the frigid zones, such duration extends up to half of the year, namely, close to the poles. Instead, atmospheric refraction and the Sun's light reaching the planet as an extended object rather than a point source means that just within each circle the Earth's surface does not experience any proper polar night, 24 hours where the sun does not rise. By these same two factors, just outward of each circle still experiences a polar day (a day in which the sun does not fully set).

The latitude of the polar circles is + or −90 degrees (which refers to the North and South Pole, respectively) minus the axial tilt (that is, of the Earth's axis of daily rotation relative to the ecliptic, the plane of the Earth's orbit). This predominant, average tilt of the Earth varies slightly, a phenomenon described as nutation. Therefore, the latitudes noted above are calculated by averaging values of tilt observed over many years. The axial tilt also exhibits long-term variations as described in the reference article (a difference of 1 second of arc (″) in the tilt is equivalent to a change of about 31 metres north or south in the positions of the polar circles on the Earth's surface).

Correspondence to polar night and day

[edit]
Relationship between Earth's axial tilt (ε) to the tropical and polar circles

The polar circles would almost precisely match the boundaries for the zones where the polar night and the polar day would occur throughout the winter solstice and summer solstice day respectively. They do so loosely due to two effects. The first one is atmospheric refraction, in which the Earth's atmosphere bends light rays near the horizon. The second effect is caused by the angular diameter of the Sun as seen from the Earth's orbital distance (which varies very slightly during each orbit). These factors mean the ground-observed boundaries are 80 to 100 kilometres (50 to 62 mi) away from the circle.[citation needed] A further global factor for this numerical range is Earth's nutation, which is a very small change in tilt. Observers higher above sea level can see a tiny amount of the Sun's disc (see horizon) where at lower places it would not rise. For the Arctic Circle, being 80–100 km north of the circle in winter, and 80–100 km south of the circle in summer; the inverse directions apply to the other circle.[2]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Polar circle

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The polar circles, consisting of the at 66°33′51″ north latitude and the at 66°33′51″ south latitude (as of 2025), are parallel lines of latitude that demarcate the northern and southern . These circles represent the boundaries beyond which the Sun does not completely set or rise for at least one full day each year, defining zones of extreme seasonal daylight variations known as the midnight sun and . Positioned approximately 23°26′ from each geographic pole—corresponding to Earth's current axial obliquity of about 23.44°—the polar circles arise directly from the planet's tilted rotational axis relative to its around the Sun. The significance of the polar circles extends to , , and human exploration, as they enclose the and , the coldest and least populated regions on , characterized by unique ecosystems, ice-covered landscapes, and profound influences on global weather patterns. Within these zones, the occurs during (around June 21 in the and December 21 in the ), when the Sun remains visible for 24 hours or more, while the dominates winter, with the Sun staying below the horizon for equivalent periods—effects that intensify toward the poles and last for months at higher latitudes. These phenomena not only drive seasonal ecological adaptations, such as perpetual daylight supporting algal blooms in polar waters, but also play a critical role in 's energy balance, as the polar regions reflect more sunlight (albedo effect) than equatorial areas, helping regulate global temperatures. Historically, crossing the polar circles has held symbolic importance for explorers and navigators, marking entry into realms of perpetual light or darkness, with the first documented in and the traversed by in 1773. Today, these lines serve as reference points for international treaties, scientific research stations, and climate monitoring, underscoring the polar regions' vulnerability to global warming—evidenced by accelerating ice melt and shifting wildlife patterns that impact worldwide sea levels and ocean currents. The slight northward drift of the circles over millennia, due to changes in Earth's , highlights their dynamic nature, though they remain stable on human timescales at roughly 66.56° .

Definition and Geometry

Arctic Circle

The Arctic Circle marks the northern boundary of the polar regions in the , situated at approximately 66°33′50.7″ N as of 2025, accounting for minor shifts due to changes in Earth's axial obliquity. This position reflects the current tilt of Earth's axis relative to its , calculated as 90° minus the obliquity value. Geometrically, the Arctic Circle is defined as the parallel of where the center of the Sun remains continuously above the horizon for 24 hours on (June) or entirely below it for 24 hours on the (December), delineating the onset of continuous daylight or darkness. It traces a circular path centered on the Earth's rotational axis, encompassing the and spanning a of about 16,000 km at , which represents roughly 40% of the equatorial due to the cosine of the . In the , the uniquely encircles the while crossing landmasses in eight countries: , , , the (via ), , (through ), and . This path highlights its role in defining Arctic territories, where phenomena like the midnight sun and begin, though durations vary by exact location. The circle's position experiences gradual change from variations in Earth's axial obliquity, which cycles over approximately 41,000 years and is currently decreasing, causing the to drift northward at a rate of about 15 meters per year. Over the next 25 years to 2050, this shift is projected to move the boundary northward by roughly 375 meters, subtly altering the geographic extent of polar conditions.

Antarctic Circle

The is the southern polar circle, defined as the parallel of at which the center of the Sun remains continuously above or below the horizon for a full 24 hours during the . This geometric boundary marks the northern limit of the Antarctic polar region, where the midnight sun phenomenon occurs on the summer solstice and the on the . As of 2025, its position is approximately 66°33′50.7″ south of the , determined by subtracting Earth's current axial obliquity from 90 degrees. Unlike the northern counterpart, the Antarctic Circle lies primarily over the Southern Ocean, with minimal intersection of landmasses, emphasizing its remote and isolated nature. It touches the coastal fringes of in limited areas, such as near the and parts of the East Antarctic coast, but encloses the vast majority of the continent within the polar zone to its south. The circle passes through no territories beyond the claimed sectors of , which are regulated under international agreements rather than national . The position of the Antarctic Circle is not fixed, shifting due to gradual changes in Earth's axial obliquity caused by tidal gravitational influences over long timescales. Currently, this results in an identical precessional drift to the , with the moving slowly southward—toward the —at a rate of approximately 14.5 meters per year. Over millennia, this poleward migration will continue as the obliquity decreases within its 41,000-year cycle.

Astronomical Phenomena

Midnight Sun and Polar Night

The , also known as the , is a natural phenomenon in which the Sun remains continuously visible above the horizon for at least 24 hours, without setting, even at midnight. This occurs during summer in regions north of the (approximately 66.5°N) or south of the (approximately 66.5°S), where the Earth's directs sunlight toward the poles for extended periods. At the geographic poles, the persists for up to six months, from the spring equinox to the autumn , but its duration shortens progressively toward the polar circles, lasting only a single day exactly at those latitudes. The is the complementary phenomenon, characterized by continuous darkness where the Sun does not rise above the horizon for more than 24 hours. It takes place during winter within the polar circles, mirroring the seasonal timing of the midnight sun but in the opposite hemisphere: from late September to late March near the and from late March to late September near the . The length of polar night increases poleward from the circles, reaching a maximum of six months at the poles, during which twilight may provide minimal indirect light but true darkness dominates. At the polar circles themselves, these phenomena are most precisely defined, with exactly one full day of continuous daylight during the on the summer solstices— for the and December 21 for the —and one full day of on the corresponding winter solstices. Observers at these latitudes experience the Sun grazing the horizon at its lowest point around during the solstice, creating a dramatic, low-angle arc across the with maximum elevations reaching about 47° at noon but dipping to 0° geometrically at . Atmospheric bends , allowing the upper limb of the Sun's disc to appear briefly visible (up to approximately 0.5° above the true horizon) for short periods just outside the polar circles, extending the observable slightly beyond the geometric boundary. This effect, combined with the Sun's , can make the phenomenon perceptible up to 50 km south of the under clear conditions. Historically, the midnight sun was first documented by the ancient Greek explorer around 330 BC during his voyage beyond the into waters, where he described the Sun circling the horizon without setting, a that marked the earliest recorded encounter with the phenomenon. In the Antarctic region, Captain provided one of the first modern accounts during his second in 1772–1773, noting the Sun's persistent visibility above the horizon even at as his ship Resolution crossed the on January 17, 1773, amid icy seas and perpetual summer light. These early sightings highlighted the stark contrast in solar behavior within polar latitudes, influencing later scientific understandings of and tilt.

Seasonal Variations and Axial Tilt

The , or obliquity of the (ε), refers to the angle between Earth's rotational axis and its around the Sun, currently measured at approximately 23.44° as of 2025. This tilt is fundamental to the definition of the polar circles, which are located at latitudes φ = 90° - ε, placing them at about 66.56° north and south. The arises from the solstice conditions, where the Sun's reaches its maximum of +ε during the and -ε during the , as viewed from ; at these points, —the boundary between day and night—grazes the polar circle latitudes, marking the onset of continuous daylight or darkness poleward of these lines. To derive the latitude formula, consider the solstice geometry: the Sun's declination δ equals ε when the Earth's axis points maximally toward the Sun, aligning the ecliptic pole with the celestial equator's projection. For an observer at φ, the Sun's altitude at noon on the solstice is 90° - |φ - δ|; setting the condition for the Sun just skimming the horizon (altitude 0°) at the circle yields φ = 90° - ε. This can be expressed mathematically as: ϕ=90∘−ϵ\phi = 90^\circ - \epsilon where φ is the polar circle and ε is the obliquity. Earth's drive these seasonal variations through its 365.25-day orbit, during which solstices occur twice annually when the rotational axis achieves maximum alignment toward or away from the Sun, tilting to tangent the polar circles and initiating the midnight sun or effects. Over longer timescales, the obliquity varies due to gravitational perturbations from the Sun, , and , primarily tidal torques that cause a secular decrease of about 0.47 arcseconds per year; for instance, the obliquity was near its recent maximum of approximately 24° around 10,000 years ago (circa 8000 BCE). These changes occur within a 41,000-year cycle, oscillating between 22.1° and 24.5°. Additionally, —a slow wobble of Earth's rotational axis due to gravitational torques from the Sun and —completes a full cycle every 26,000 years at a current rate of 50.3 arcseconds per year, gradually shifting the orientation of the axis relative to the .

Geographical and Environmental Impacts

Bounded Regions and Borders

The , at approximately 66°33′N latitude, delineates a region encompassing parts of eight countries: , , , the (Alaska), , (Greenland), and . This boundary crosses diverse terrains, including forested areas in and tundra in , influencing human activities such as tourism and resource extraction. In , the circle passes directly through , where a marked crossing point near the airport serves as a major , drawing visitors for certificates and experiences. In , the lies entirely north of the circle and hosts significant fields, such as the Bovanenkovo field, which supports major projects like , contributing to global energy supplies. The total land area within the Arctic Circle spans approximately 14.5 million square kilometers, including vast expanses of , boreal forests, and islands, though much of this is sparsely populated. Mapping these polar regions presents challenges due to projection distortions; the , while useful for navigation, grossly exaggerates sizes near the poles, making Greenland appear larger than , whereas azimuthal equidistant projections preserve distances from the pole and are preferred for accurate polar representations, such as in UN flag designs. In modern contexts, the Arctic Circle's boundaries account for insular adjustments, with Iceland's mainland south of the line but its northernmost island, , straddling the circle, serving as a symbolic Arctic outpost with puffin colonies and a marked latitude monument. Exclusive economic zones (EEZs) extend 200 nautical miles from coastal baselines in the Arctic, granting littoral states rights to resources like fisheries and hydrocarbons, which overlap with circle-enclosed areas and shape international maritime boundaries under the UN Convention on the . The , at 66°33′S, bounds a region that includes nearly the entire continent of , excluding only the northern tip of the . This circle encloses about 14 million square kilometers of the continent's ice-covered landmass, primarily uninhabited except for research stations. Territorial claims overlap within this area, asserted by seven nations—, , , , , , and the —prior to the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, which freezes new claims and promotes scientific cooperation without recognizing sovereignty. Functionally, polar circles serve legal and navigational purposes; in the Arctic, the (NSR) follows Russia's northern coast, often north of the circle, facilitating shorter shipping paths from to and regulated under Russian law for icebreaker escorts and environmental compliance. In Antarctica, the circle informally aids in delineating treaty-governed zones for and conservation, though primary boundaries are set at 60°S by the itself. These lines thus inform high-latitude governance, from to transit corridors, amid evolving geopolitical interests.

Climate and Biodiversity

The regions within the exhibit to polar climates, characterized by long, cold winters and short, cool summers, with average annual temperatures in coastal areas ranging from -10°C to 0°C. In contrast, the encompasses polar climates dominated by extensive ice cover, where coastal annual averages hover around -10°C, while interior temperatures plummet to approximately -50°C due to elevation and isolation from moderating ocean influences. These temperature gradients create sharp environmental transitions, including the shift from seasonally frozen ground to continuous zones north of the , where soil remains frozen year-round and underlies about 25% of the Northern Hemisphere's land surface. Biodiversity in the Arctic Circle supports a range of terrestrial and marine species adapted to conditions, including iconic mammals like (Ursus maritimus), which rely on for hunting seals, and (Rangifer tarandus), whose migrations sustain indigenous herding practices across vast low-Arctic landscapes. flora, such as mosses, lichens, and low shrubs, dominate the vegetation, providing critical forage and habitat amid sparse tree cover. Within the , ecosystems are predominantly marine due to the continent's ice-dominated interior, with species like Adélie and emperor (Pygoscelis adeliae and Aptenodytes forsteri) forming large colonies that depend on (Euphausia superba) swarms for sustenance, supporting a that extends to seals and whales. The polar circles delineate key environmental boundaries, notably the onset of widespread in the , which influences and patterns, and the seasonal dynamics that modulate ocean-atmosphere interactions in both hemispheres. summer minimums have averaged around 4 million km² in recent years, with the 2024 extent at 4.28 million km² (seventh lowest on record) and 2025 at 4.60 million km² (tenth lowest), reflecting ongoing contraction. summer minima are typically smaller, reaching 1.98 million km² in 2025, tying for the second lowest observed, which underscores the variability and recent declines in ice cover. Climate change has amplified warming within these circles at rates 2-3 times the global average, driven by feedback mechanisms like ice-albedo loss, leading to accelerated thaw and shifts. In 2025, conditions contributed to record-low maximum extents of 14.33 million km², exacerbating habitat fragmentation for ice-dependent species. These changes threaten , with potential range contractions for and disruptions to krill-dependent Antarctic food webs. Permafrost within the serves as a major , storing 1460-1600 Gt of organic carbon—nearly twice the atmospheric amount—yet thawing releases greenhouse gases, posing risks to global climate regulation. Surrounding polar waters support vital fisheries, including Arctic stocks of and pollock that bolster food security for northern communities, and harvests exceeding 300,000 tonnes annually, which underpin commercial and ecological productivity in the .

Historical and Cultural Context

Discovery and Scientific Measurement

Ancient Greek astronomers demonstrated early awareness of the polar circles through calculations of Earth's , or obliquity, derived from solstice shadow measurements. , in the 2nd century BCE, refined these estimates by comparing shadow lengths at different locations during solstices, inferring the obliquity as approximately 24° and thus positioning the around 66° N . This work built on prior observations, establishing a foundational understanding of the circles as boundaries where the sun's rays become tangential to the horizon at solstices. In the BCE, of conducted an exploratory voyage northward, providing the first eyewitness descriptions of Arctic phenomena beyond the Mediterranean, including regions near the where nights shortened dramatically in summer. His accounts, preserved in fragments by later writers, detailed frozen seas and extended daylight, linking these observations to higher latitudes. By the early 18th century, advanced polar science with his 1716 analysis of the aurora borealis, attributing the phenomenon to magnetic particles confined to high latitudes near the poles, which implicitly delineated polar boundaries through geomagnetic modeling. The brought precise geodetic surveys that solidified the polar circles at approximately 66°33′ N and S, based on refined obliquity measurements of 23°27′ using meridian arcs and astronomical transits. The First (1882–1883) marked a collaborative milestone, with stations established across high latitudes—including near the —for synchronized magnetic and astronomical observations that confirmed these positions through and determinations. Twentieth-century advancements in models, such as those developed under the , enhanced predictions of polar circle variations by accounting for 's wobble and orbital perturbations, improving obliquity estimates to within arcseconds. Technological progress evolved from sextant-based fixes, accurate to minutes of arc, to modern techniques like (VLBI), which monitors orientation parameters with milliarcsecond precision, and GPS/satellite data refining positions to sub-meter equivalents in . These methods continue to track subtle shifts due to and .

Cultural and Symbolic Significance

In Indigenous cultures of the , the —known as Taaq in Kalaallisut—holds profound cultural significance as a period of introspection and communal bonding, inspiring myths that emphasize harmony with nature's extremes. oral traditions, such as oqaaluktuara storytelling gatherings, portray the endless darkness as a nurturing embrace akin to a mother's, fostering tales of peace where ice and stones embody the Earth's living energy. Similarly, Sámi features shamanic practices where (shamans) use trance-inducing drums to journey across cosmological realms—spanning the middle world of humans, the upper divine realm, and the netherworld—often invoking polar extremes to heal communities and predict natural cycles. These narratives tie the polar circles to spiritual transitions, viewing light and darkness as interconnected forces guiding shamanic voyages. The polar circles symbolize extremes of light and darkness in literature, representing human limits and optical illusions in Jules Verne's novels. In , parhelia (sun halos) and paraselenae (moon halos) evoke mystery and peril during polar expeditions, drawing from real accounts like Elisha Kent Kane's to underscore duality between revelation and concealment. Verne's The Sphinx of the Icefields further employs fog-shrouded magnetic mountains and mythic terrors, such as a man-eating sphinx-like formation, to symbolize obscured truths and nature's unforgiving boundaries. In contemporary eco-symbolism, polar regions embody climate crisis urgency, with artists reimagining them through feminist and Indigenous lenses to critique colonial exploitation and global inequities. Works like Ursula Biemann's Deep Weather (2013) use polar motifs to link carbon geopolitics across hemispheres, transforming the circles into symbols of interconnected environmental activism. Festivals celebrating the midnight sun in highlight the Circle's cultural vibrancy, fostering communal joy amid perpetual daylight. In , midsummer gatherings on Finnmarksvidda—home to Sámi heritage—emphasize social bonds through bonfires and shared experiences, reflecting the sun's role in sustaining reindeer herding traditions. cruises, meanwhile, ritualize crossings as modern adventure rites, including champagne toasts, symbolic baptisms with saltwater, and initiations into the Order of the Red Nose, evoking historical explorers' triumphs over isolation. These ceremonies, such as kissing a in tribute to , blend humor and reverence, marking the boundary as a threshold of personal achievement. In art, Caspar David Friedrich's (1824) captures the Arctic's sublime terror, depicting a amid towering icebergs inspired by William Edward Parry's 1819–1820 expedition, symbolizing human fragility against polar vastness. The painting's icy palette and dramatic composition evoke isolation and inevitable doom, influencing Romantic interpretations of polar extremes. In media, John Carpenter's The Thing (1982) amplifies polar isolation's dread, setting an Antarctic base during endless night to explore and the 'Other' through a shapeshifting alien, resonating with real expedition strains. The film's cult status, including annual screenings at Scott-Amundsen Base, underscores its role in portraying polar environments as metaphors for societal fragmentation. In the , polar circles inform analogies, with historical polar missions simulating Mars' psychological challenges like prolonged isolation and under duress. These terrestrial extremes parallel Martian voyages, informing countermeasures for interpersonal stress in confined habitats. Polar further symbolizes global , as seen in the System's suspension of claims, fostering shared scientific stewardship amid cultural tensions over Indigenous integration. In the , initiatives like the Gwich’in Council’s use of in highlight the circles' role in equitable environmental dialogue.

References

  1. https://astro4edu.org/resources/glossary/term/424/
  2. https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/about/k-12-education/optical-phenomena/what-solstice
  3. https://www.usgs.gov/international-programs/polar-regions
  4. https://www.noaa.gov/changing-seasons-at-north-pole
  5. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022MS003198
  6. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/polar-opposites-arctic-and-antarctic
  7. https://lima.usgs.gov/documents/antarctica_in_context.pdf
  8. https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/arctic-zone/faq.html
  9. https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/earth-science/milankovitch-orbital-cycles-and-their-role-in-earths-climate/
  10. https://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/axial-tilt-obliquity.html
  11. https://starwalk.space/en/news/what-is-a-solstice
  12. https://poseidonexpeditions.com/about/articles/where-is-the-arctic-circle/
  13. https://gis.stackexchange.com/questions/2588/the-arctic-circle-moves
  14. https://www.britannica.com/place/Antarctic-Circle
  15. https://antarcticguide.com/about-antarctica/antarctic-geography/what-is-the-antarctic-circle/
  16. https://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/midnight-sun.html
  17. https://www.britannica.com/science/midnight-Sun
  18. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/polar-night-arctic-antarctic
  19. https://fiveable.me/key-terms/intro-astronomy/polar-night
  20. https://wcmauthorguide.illinois.gov/guides-instructions/page-actions/creating-a-new-page/midnight-sun.html
  21. https://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/arctic/330.html
  22. https://pubs.lib.uiowa.edu/bai/article/id/28922/
  23. https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/astro_par.html
  24. https://data.giss.nasa.gov/modelE/ar5plots/srorbpar.html
  25. https://astronoo.com/en/articles/obliquity-earth.html
  26. https://science.nasa.gov/learn/basics-of-space-flight/chapter2-1/
  27. https://www.visitrovaniemi.fi/love/arctic-circle/
  28. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/oct/20/yamal-gas-reserves
  29. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/sabetta-yamal-largest-gas-field
  30. https://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/arctic/geography.html
  31. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/70047422/report.pdf
  32. https://adventures.is/iceland/attractions/grimsey/
  33. https://arcticportal.org/maps/download/maps-arctic-council-member-states-and-observers/3282-exclusive-economic-zones-of-the-arctic
  34. https://www.ats.aq/e/antarctictreaty.html
  35. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/antarctica/
  36. https://russiancouncil.ru/en/northernsearoute
  37. https://nsidc.org/learn/parts-cryosphere/arctic-weather-and-climate
  38. https://www.bas.ac.uk/media-post/new-verified-temperature-record-for-antarctic-continent/
  39. https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2019/permafrost-and-the-global-carbon-cycle/
  40. https://www.arcticbiodiversity.is/index.php/the-report/chapters/mammals
  41. https://www.arcticbiodiversity.is/index.php/findings-start
  42. https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/penguins/
  43. https://nsidc.org/sea-ice-today/analyses/arctic-sea-ice-extent-levels-2024-minimum-set
  44. https://nsidc.org/sea-ice-today/analyses/antarctic-sea-ice-minimum-hits-near-record-low-again
  45. https://arctic.noaa.gov/report-card/report-card-2024/surface-air-temperature-2024/
  46. https://nsidc.org/sea-ice-today/analyses/arctic-sea-ice-sets-record-low-maximum-2025
  47. https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/chapter-3-2/
  48. https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/
  49. https://www.fao.org/4/w5911e/w5911e07.htm
  50. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002182860203300103
  51. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7834/phoenix.68.3-4.0247
  52. https://grbs.library.duke.edu/index.php/grbs/article/download/16505/7343/21078
  53. https://www.jstor.org/stable/228424
  54. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071310000052
  55. https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/arctic/article/view/65592/49506
  56. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/earth-sciences-history/article/10/2/223/615286/THE-FIRST-INTERNATIONAL-POLAR-YEAR-1882-1883-AND
  57. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2000JB000042
  58. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/19/aa5091-06.pdf
  59. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2506.15859
  60. https://90-north.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Taaq_the_Polar_Night.pdf
  61. https://oceanwide-expeditions.com/blog/myths-of-the-arctic
  62. http://www.verniana.org/volumes/02/HTML/Huet.html
  63. http://artjournal.collegeart.org/?p=17743
  64. https://www.visitnorway.com/things-to-do/nature-attractions/midnight-sun/
  65. https://www.responsiblevacation.com/vacations/antarctica/travel-guide/crossing-the-antarctic-circle
  66. https://www.wga.hu/html_m/f/friedric/3/309fried.html
  67. https://theconversation.com/the-thing-dread-fears-and-the-other-in-the-polar-environment-85569
  68. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063309001561
  69. https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2024/science-diplomacy-challenges-poles
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.