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Salus
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3rd-century statue of Salus in the Getty Villa

Salus (Latin: salus, "safety", "salvation", "welfare")[1] was the Roman goddess of safety and well-being (welfare, health and prosperity) of both the individual and the state. She is sometimes equated with the Greek goddess Hygieia, though their functions differ considerably.

Salus is one of the oldest Roman goddesses: she has also been referred to as Salus Semonia,[2] a fact that might hint at her belonging to the category of the Semones (gods such as Semo Sancus Dius Fidius). The two gods had temples in Rome on the Collis Salutaris and Mucialis respectively,[3] two adjacent hilltops of the Quirinal located in the regio Alta Semita. The temple of Salus, as Salus Publica Populi Romani, was voted in 304 BC, during the Samnite Wars, by dictator Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus,[4] dedicated on 5 August 302, and adorned with frescos at the order of Gaius Fabius Pictor.[5]

The high antiquity and importance of the cult of Salus is testified by the little-known ceremony of the Augurium Salutis, held every year on August 5 for the preservation of the Roman state.[6] Her cult was spread over all Italy.[7] Literary sources record relationships with Fortuna[8] and Spes.[9] She started to be increasingly associated with Valetudo, the Goddess of Personal Health and the romanized name of Hygieia.

Later, Salus also became a protector of personal health. Around 180 BCE, sacrificial rites in honor of Apollo, Aesculapius, and Salus took place (Livius XL, 37). There was a statue to Salus in the temple of Concordia. She is first known to be associated with the snake of Aesculapius from a coin of 55 BC minted by M. Acilius.[10] Her festival was celebrated on March 30.

Salus and Sancus

[edit]
Salus, seated and holding a patera (libation bowl), on an aureus issued under Nero

The two deities were related in several ways. Their shrines (aedes) were very close to each other on the Quirinal (see above).[11] Some scholars also claim some inscriptions to Sancus have been found on the Collis Salutaris.[12] Moreover, Salus is the first in the series of deities mentioned by Macrobius as related in their sacrality: Salus, Semonia, Seia, Segetia, Tutilina,[13] who required the observance of a dies feriatus of the person who happened to utter their name. These deities were connected to the ancient agrarian cults of the valley of the Circus Maximus that remain mysterious.[14]

German scholars Georg Wissowa, Eduard Norden and Kurt Latte write of a deity named Salus Semonia,[15] who is attested to only in one inscription of year 1 A.D., mentioning a Salus Semonia in its last line (seventeen). Scholars agree that this line is a later addition of uncertain date.[16] In other inscriptions, Salus is never connected to Semonia.[17]

Representation

[edit]
A marble statuette of Salus made during the Roman Imperial Period (c. 69–192 A.D.)

Salus was often shown seated with her legs crossed (a common position for Securitas), leaning her elbow on the arm of her throne. Often, her right hand holds out a patera (shallow dish used in religious ceremonies) to feed a snake which is coiled round an altar. The snake is reared up and dips its head to the patera.

Sometimes her hand is open and empty, making a gesture. Sometimes the snake directs its gaze along with hers. Sometimes there is no altar; the snake is coiled around the arm of her throne instead.

Occasionally, Salus has a tall staff in her left hand with a snake twined around it; sometimes her right hand raises a smaller female figure. Later, Salus is shown standing, feeding her snake. This became the most common pose: she is standing and grasping the wriggling snake firmly under her arm, directing it to the food she holds out on a dish in her other hand. Rarely, Salus is holding a steering oar in her left hand indicating her role in guiding the emperor through a healthy life. This really belongs to Fortuna.

Bibliography

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See also

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References

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Salus

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Salus was the Roman goddess personifying safety, welfare, health, and prosperity for both individuals and the Roman state. Often equated with the Greek goddess Hygieia, daughter of the healing god Asclepius (Aesculapius), Salus represented personal and public well-being, with her name deriving from the Latin word for health and salvation. Her cult emerged in Rome following the Samnite Wars in the late 4th century BCE, initially tied to military victories and the security of the Republic, later evolving to emphasize imperial health and civic harmony under figures like Augustus. In Roman religion, Salus was invoked for protection against disease and misfortune, with her worship incorporating Greek influences such as associations with medicine and hygiene. Temples dedicated to her, including the Temple of Salus Publica on the Quirinal Hill, served as sites for public vows and rituals, particularly the augurium salutis, an augural ceremony seeking omens for the state's prosperity. During the Empire, her imagery appeared on coins and monuments, often linked to the emperor's health—such as vota pro salute Augusti—and paired with deities like Pax and Concordia to symbolize peace and stability. Iconographically, Salus is typically depicted as a draped female figure holding a patera ( bowl) or feeding a serpent coiled around a staff, symbols borrowed from Asclepius denoting healing and renewal. Early Republican representations connected her to Victoria (victory) and Valetudo (personal health), while later imperial art blended her with Hygieia, as seen in statues from the 2nd century CE and denarii from 49 BCE showing her laureate head or standing with a serpent. Her enduring role highlighted Rome's emphasis on collective welfare, influencing later concepts of public health and salvation in Western tradition.

Identity and Attributes

Role in Roman Religion

In Roman religion, Salus personified the abstract of salus, embodying , , , and overall well-being for both individuals and the Roman state. As a deified , she represented preservation from , encompassing personal and as well as public welfare and the stability of the . Unlike , whose domain primarily centered on personal , preventive , and physical as a of , Salus held a distinctly broader civic in Roman . While was occasionally equated with —particularly in contexts involving physical , where salus served as a Latin translation of ὑγίεια—her role extended beyond bodily well-being to include the collective prosperity and security of the Roman people and empire. Theologically, Salus functioned as a protectress against various threats, including diseases, military dangers, and social upheavals that could undermine public order. She was invoked in oaths, consular sacrifices, and public prayers to safeguard the res publica, often through vows (vota) for the state's welfare, such as during plagues or times of crisis. A key example of her invocation in state ceremonies was the Augurium Salutis, an annual augural rite conducted on days of peace to seek divine permission for magistrates to pray for the safety (salus) of the Roman people, underscoring her central role in ensuring the continuity and prosperity of the empire.

Associations with Other Deities

Salus, the Roman goddess personifying , , and welfare, exhibited significant with the goddess , whom she largely supplanted in Roman practices while adapting her attributes to emphasize and state welfare over . , of and goddess of , was introduced to alongside her during a plague in 293 BCE, but Salus's Roman form diverged by prioritizing public salus, as seen in dedications like the mid-second-century BCE inscription at Fregellae's temple of Aesculapius invoking Salus for communal preservation. This adaptation is evident in Plutarch's reference to the Temple of Salus on the Quirinal as the "temple of ," highlighting a translational equivalence that integrated medical iconography into Roman civic religion without fully adopting Hygieia's personal therapeutic focus. Salus maintained close ties to healing deities, particularly Aesculapius and Apollo, reflecting her role in averting communal crises like plagues. In 180 BCE, amid an epidemic, the Roman senate commissioned golden statues of Apollo, Aesculapius, and Salus for placement in the Temple of Concordia, underscoring their joint invocation for public health (Livy 40.37.1). This association persisted, with Salus often depicted as Aesculapius's daughter in Roman contexts, blending her welfare aspects with his curative powers. In imperial periods, Salus Augusta—invoked for the emperor's well-being—further linked to Apollo through shared themes of protection and prosperity, as Apollo's oracular and medicinal roles complemented Salus's safeguarding of the state's vitality. Salus also connected with Fortuna and Spes, deities embodying prosperity and hope, which aligned with her broader connotations of security and flourishing. Literary and epigraphic evidence from the late Republic onward portrays Salus alongside Fortuna (goddess of fortune) and Spes (goddess of hope) in contexts of communal welfare, such as vows for the res publica, where their attributes converged in Hellenistic-influenced triads leading to victory (Soteria, Elpis, Tyche). At Praeneste around 300 BCE, an altar to Salus (CIL I² 62) near Fortuna Primigenia's sanctuary suggests early overlap, with strigils dedicated to a savior goddess (σώτειρα) implying shared protective and prosperous domains. These links reinforced Salus's integration into Roman personifications of abstract virtues, emphasizing hope for welfare and fortunate outcomes for the state. The association of Salus with Sancus remains debated, centered on the epithet Salus Semonia, which may represent a syncretic form combining oaths, truth, and public safety. This form appears in a single inscription from 1 CE (CIL 6.30975), added to a dedication alongside Victoria Populi, suggesting a late Republican or early imperial fusion with Semo Sancus Dius Fidius, an ancient Italic god of fidelity invoked in the Carmen Saliare and Arval rites (Macrob. Sat. 1.16.8; Festus 404 L). Scholars like Georg Wissowa interpreted Salus Semonia as reflecting archaic Sabine or agrarian roots tied to the Semones—primitive field spirits—but others, including Jacques Poucet, argue it is a later invention with scant evidence beyond this inscription, questioning any deep syncretism and favoring interpretation as an ad hoc epithet for state security rather than an independent deity. Salus's potential ties to early Italic agrarian cults are enigmatic, with indirect hints but no direct epigraphic or literary confirmation of links to fertility rites. Some scholars posit connections to pre-Roman Italic numina of abundance and soil protection, given Salus's etymological roots in "safety" and prosperity, akin to Semones in agrarian invocations, yet evidence remains speculative and overshadowed by her later civic evolution. This absence of concrete attestation underscores the challenges in tracing Salus's origins beyond Roman adaptations.

Cult and Worship

Temples and Sanctuaries

The primary temple of , known as the , was situated on the in , specifically on the collis Salutaris near the and adjacent to the temple of . It was vowed by the consul Junius Bubulcus Brutus in 311 BC during the Second Samnite War and dedicated by him as dictator on August 5, 302 BC, marking it as one of the earliest temples dedicated to an abstract deity in the . The structure served as a major votive site, commemorating military successes and the safety of the Roman state, with its dedication funded from war spoils and reflecting the goddess's role in public welfare during wartime crises. Although no substantial architectural remains survive due to later imperial constructions on the site, including the Palazzo del Quirinale, ancient sources describe it as a standard Republican temple with fresco decorations depicting Samnite War scenes painted by Fabius Pictor. This temple was central to state rituals, particularly the Augurium Salutis, an annual augural ceremony performed on to invoke the preservation and prosperity of , underscoring Salus's significance in official religious practices for civic . The building endured multiple , including lightning strikes in 276 BC and 206 BC, a under , after which it was restored, remaining in use into the 4th century AD. Beyond Rome, sanctuaries and altars dedicated to Salus proliferated across Italy, evidenced by epigraphic dedications from municipal centers such as Pompeii and Ostia, where inscriptions record local veneration often linked to personal or communal health and safety. These sites typically featured modest shrines or integrated worship spaces rather than grand temples, reflecting the goddess's widespread but decentralized cult in urban and port settings. In the provinces, the worship extended through Roman expansion, with archaeological finds including dedications in Dacia and other frontier regions, where Salus was invoked alongside imperial welfare motifs. Archaeological for these sites primarily consists of surviving inscriptions and fragmentary , cataloged in the (CIL), which document dedications by magistrates, emperors, and private individuals; for instance, CIL VI entries restorations and offerings at the Quirinal temple, while provincial CIL volumes record similar epigraphic tributes indicating and popular support for Salus's .

Festivals and Rituals

The primary festival honoring Salus occurred annually on , featuring sacrifices and public processions to invoke and for the Roman people. These ceremonies emphasized communal , with offerings typically including libations and animal sacrifices conducted in public spaces. A key rite dedicated to Salus was the Augurium Salutis, performed on at her temple on the , where augurs sought divine signs for the state's safety through bird observation and prayer. In the Republican period, this ritual was held irregularly, only during times of to request permission for vows of welfare (vota pro salute rei publicae), but restored it as an event in the early to symbolize stability. The involved a sacrifice overseen by the college of augurs to interpret auspices favoring Rome's security. Priestly involvement in Salus worship fell under state officials such as consuls, who performed initial sacrifices upon assuming office, and colleges like the pontifices and decemviri sacrorum, who managed major rites during crises like plagues. Votive offerings, including statues and altars, were common for both personal health and public salus, as seen in dedications from the onward at sites like Praeneste and Pisaurum. Private rituals for Salus differed from state ceremonies, focusing on household invocations for family health through simple daily offerings like salt at lararia shrines. These personal practices, often led by the paterfamilias, involved prayers without formal priesthoods, contrasting the elaborate public processions and augural consultations.

Iconography and Representation

Artistic Depictions

Artistic depictions of Salus, the Roman goddess of health and prosperity, primarily appear in sculpture, numismatics, and reliefs, reflecting her role as a symbol of well-being for individuals and the state. In Republican-era art (c. 509–27 BC), Salus is primarily portrayed on coins in symbolic styles, often as a standing female figure holding a patera (libation bowl) and feeding a snake coiled around an altar or her arm, motifs drawn from her associations with healing and renewal. A notable example is the silver denarius issued by moneyer Mn. Acilius Glabrio in 49 BC, featuring a laureate head of Salus on the obverse and, on the reverse, Valetudo, a goddess of personal health related to Salus, standing left, feeding a snake from a patera while leaning on a column, underscoring her protective attributes during a period of civil strife. During the Imperial period ( onward), depictions evolved under Hellenistic influences following Rome's conquests in the after the 2nd century BC, incorporating more graceful, idealized forms with flowing drapery and dynamic poses to align with imperial propaganda linking the emperor's to the state's welfare. statues from temples exemplify this shift; for instance, a 2nd-century AD Roman copy of a Hellenistic original in the shows Salus ( with ) standing in a chiton and himation, with a snake entwined around her body and a patera in her hand, evoking serenity and divine favor. Similar bronze statuettes, such as one from the Getty Villa dated to the first half of the 2nd century AD, depict her with elaborate coiffure and attributes emphasizing her Hellenistic pedigree, often scaled for votive or decorative use in public and private spaces. Reliefs on coins and monuments further illustrate this stylistic progression, with Imperial issues like those under (AD 138–161) showing Salus seated on a throne, feeding her snake, in a more ornate, propagandistic manner to invoke stability under the ruler. In provincial contexts, such as and Britain, variations emerge in Romano-Celtic art, where Salus appears on local altars and coinage with hybrid elements—Roman iconography blended with indigenous motifs, like curvilinear patterns or bilingual inscriptions—adapting her image to regional cults while maintaining core attributes like the snake and patera, as seen in dedications from sites in northern Britain. These adaptations highlight Salus's versatility across the empire, from rigid Republican forms to fluid Imperial expressions serving political ends.

Symbols and Attributes

Salus, the Roman goddess personifying health, safety, and prosperity, was commonly depicted with emblematic objects that underscored her protective and restorative roles. The snake stands as her primary symbol, representing healing and renewal due to its ability to shed its skin, a process interpreted as a metaphor for rejuvenation and recovery from illness. This association linked Salus directly to the Greco-Roman healing tradition, particularly through her syncretism with Hygieia, the Greek goddess of health and daughter of Asclepius, whose iconography featured the serpent as a sacred emblem of medicine. The snake also carried a dual role in Roman religious symbolism, embodying not only medical restoration but also chthonic protection, as serpents were viewed as guardians against underworld threats and symbols of fertility and vigilance in Italic and broader Mediterranean cults. Complementing the snake is the patera, a shallow bowl used for offerings, which Salus holds while feeding the serpent, signifying devotion and the nourishment of divine favor for communal . Other attributes include the , a horn of plenty overflowing with fruits and grains, emblematic of the and abundance that Salus bestowed upon individuals and the state alike. Additionally, she is portrayed with a rudder resting on a globe, symbols denoting her guidance over the welfare and stability of the Roman empire, evoking control over fate and the secure navigation of public fortunes. The iconography of these symbols evolved from Salus's Italic origins in the late 4th century BCE, where she initially represented abstract safety and salvation in military contexts, such as the temple dedicated in 302 BCE following victories in the Samnite Wars, to a more Greco-Roman form by the 2nd century BCE. This shift incorporated Hellenic influences, particularly after the introduction of Asclepius's cult to Rome in 291 BCE, blending native concepts of protection with Greek medical motifs like the snake to emphasize personal and public health. Numismatic evidence provides extensive illustration of these symbols, particularly on imperial coin reverses from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE, where Salus often appears feeding a snake coiled around an altar from her patera, a motif symbolizing the restoration of public health and imperial recovery from crises. For instance, sestertii of Antoninus Pius (ca. 145–161 CE) depict Salus standing left, patera in her right hand extended to the snake on the altar, and rudder on globe in her left, issued to commemorate the emperor's health and the state's stability following plagues or political threats. Similarly, coins of Caracalla (ca. 198–217 CE) show Salus with a cornucopia alongside the snake and patera, reinforcing themes of prosperity amid military successes, while radiate issues under emperors like Postumus (ca. 260–269 CE) feature her with the cornucopia and altar-entwined snake to invoke safeguarding against barbarian incursions. These reverses, minted in Rome and provincial centers, transformed Salus's attributes into propaganda tools, equating the emperor's rule with divine safeguarding of the populace's salus publica.

Historical Development

Origins and Early Cult

The name Salus derives from the Latin noun salus, denoting "safety, health, welfare, and salvation," which originates from the Proto-Indo-European root solh₂-, meaning "whole" or "completed." This etymological foundation underscores Salus as an abstract embodiment of wholeness and preservation, rather than a narrative-driven deity. Pre-Roman influences on the cult of Salus likely stem from broader Italic agrarian traditions, where deities of fertility, protection, and communal welfare played central roles in local cults across Latium, Etruria, and Sabine territories. Potential links exist to Sabine figures such as Semonia, a goddess associated with sowing and oaths, as noted in ancient sources connecting Salus Semonia to agricultural prosperity and oaths of fidelity. These Italic roots reflect a conceptual overlap with saviour goddesses like Iuno Sospita and Fortuna Primigenia, who emphasized protection and well-being in pre-Roman central Italy during the 4th century BC. The early Republican development of Salus's worship occurred amid the intense conflicts of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, particularly the , marking the first major state integrations of her . The temple of Salus Publica Populi Romani was vowed in 311 BC by the Junius Bubulcus Brutus during these wars and dedicated in 302 BC on the , symbolizing the goddess's in ensuring Roman and . Unlike anthropomorphic deities with elaborate myths, Salus remained an abstract personification focused on welfare, with no associated narratives in surviving sources, emphasizing her function as a deified rather than a mythological figure. Scholarly debates highlight the incompleteness of sources on archaic rituals and the extent of pre-302 BC worship, with fragmentary evidence suggesting possible private devotion but lacking direct attestation. Earlier claims by scholars like Georg Wissowa of deep archaic Italic integrations, such as ties to Semonia in sowing rites, have been largely in modern analyses to the late dating of key testimonies and insufficient epigraphic support. These gaps underscore the challenges in reconstructing Salus's formative phases, relying heavily on later Republican literary accounts like those of Livy and Varro for indirect insights.

Imperial Period and Later Interpretations

During the Imperial period, was prominently integrated into the as or , embodying the and salvific power of the and the stability of the Roman state. This began under , where her worship emphasized the 's personal well-being and the empire's prosperity, evolving into a formal attested in by ' , though likely established earlier. Imperial extensively utilized on coinage from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD, depicting her enthroned with a scepter and patera (a libation dish), often feeding a serpent to symbolize healing and security; examples include denarii of (AD 14–37) and sestertii of (AD 138–161), linking her to vows for the 's (pro salute Augusti) and the realm's enduring welfare. The cult of Salus spread to the Roman provinces, particularly along frontiers, where it adapted through syncretism with local healing deities to reinforce imperial loyalty and personal protection. In Britain, inscriptions dedicated to Salus by soldiers attest to her worship among military communities, such as an altar at Birdoswald (Banna) on (RIB 1131, ca. 2nd–3rd century AD) invoking Salus alongside and Caelestis Brigantia, blending with local traditions. In Dacia, epigraphic from sites like Apulum includes dedications to Salus alongside provincial gods, reflecting fusion with indigenous Dacian therapeutic cults to promote settler integration and frontier security. In late antiquity, the cult of Salus waned with the ascendancy of from the AD onward, as state-sponsored pagan worship declined under emperors like (r. AD 379–395), leading to the abandonment of her temples and altars. However, her attributes of salvation and well-being were reinterpreted in Christian contexts, notably in texts where "salus" denoted spiritual redemption; by the 6th–7th centuries, the title was applied to the Virgin Mary in veneration of a in , transforming pagan health imagery into Marian devotion for communal protection. Salus's legacy persists in modern symbolism, where her identification with influenced emblems of healing and prevention, such as the —a staff with a coiled serpent—adopted in the Health Organization's logo since 1948, echoing ancient Roman iconography of Salus nurturing a sacred snake to signify welfare and . Despite this, scholarly research on Salus reveals significant gaps, particularly in non-Italian inscriptions, which remain underrepresented compared to urban Roman evidence, and in the potential agrarian dimensions of her cult, including possible mystery rituals tied to rural prosperity that lack detailed epigraphic or literary attestation beyond state propaganda.

References

  1. https://becker.wustl.edu/news/goddess-for-the-renaissance/
  2. https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/10405S
  3. https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/1997/1997.03.07/
  4. https://www.artic.edu/artworks/9900/denarius-coin-depicting-the-goddess-salus
  5. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-5681
  6. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-969
  7. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstreams/3729f063-fd2e-4364-bf8e-2e24ec3a179c/download
  8. https://www.academia.edu/35015388/_An_Italo_Celtic_Divinity_and_a_Common_Sabellic_Sound_Change_Classical_Antiquity_36_2_370_389
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  10. https://www.digitalaugustanrome.org/records/salus-aedes/
  11. https://danubianreligion.wordpress.com/2019/12/23/catalogue-of-the-sanctuaries-of-roman-dacia-106-271-a-d/
  12. https://academic.sun.ac.za/antieke/coins/muntwerf/persalus.html
  13. https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/156645/8/Miano%20From%20saviours%20to%20Salvation%20Salus%20in%20Republican%20Italy%20%28accepted%29.pdf
  14. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/roman-army-and-the-roman-religious-year/1FDD43568BCAF2E64F9DC7F503DC50DC
  15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20616669
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  17. https://www.vindolanda.com/blog/salus-goddess-of-security-prosperity-and-well-being
  18. https://harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/180953
  19. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1861-1127-25
  20. https://www.forumancientcoins.com/moonmoth/reverse_salus.html
  21. https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/art-of-the-roman-provinces-1-500-a-d
  22. https://www.etymonline.com/word/%2Asol-
  23. https://www.etymonline.com/word/salute
  24. https://www.academia.edu/49437430/J_Linderski_Salus_OCD_4th_ed_2012
  25. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27031344
  26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/291543
  27. https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/1131
  28. https://www.academia.edu/37870270/Sanctuaries_in_Roman_Dacia_Materiality_and_Religious_Experience_Oxford_Archaeopress_Roman_Archaeology_49_2018
  29. https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-104
  30. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/750908/summary
  31. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG58668
  32. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/empires-of-faith-in-late-antiquity/mystery-cult-and-material-culture-in-the-graecoroman-world/138BF6CDDDCD4FB96ED9B16060B55A19
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