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Super-Jupiter
Super-Jupiter
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Artist's impression of 2M1207b

A super-Jupiter is a gas giant exoplanet that is more massive than the planet Jupiter. For example, companions at the planet–brown dwarf borderline have been called super-Jupiters, such as around the star Kappa Andromedae.[1]

Makeup

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By 2011 there were 180 known super-Jupiters, some hot, some cold.[2] Even though they are more massive than Jupiter, they remain about the same size as Jupiter up to 80 Jupiter masses.[2] This means that their surface gravity and density go up proportionally to their mass.[2] The increased mass compresses the planet due to gravity, thus keeping it from being larger.[2] In comparison, planets somewhat lighter than Jupiter can be larger, so-called "puffy planets" (gas giants with a large diameter but low density).[3] An example of this may be the exoplanet HAT-P-1b with about half the mass of Jupiter but about 1.38 times larger diameter.[3]

CoRoT-3b

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CoRoT-3b, with a mass around 22 Jupiter masses,[4] is predicted to have an average density of 26.4 g/cm3, greater than osmium (22.6 g/cm3), the densest natural element under standard conditions. Extreme compression of matter inside it causes the high density, because it is likely composed mainly of hydrogen.[5] The surface gravity is also high, over 50 times that of Earth.[4]

Kappa Andromedae b

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In 2012, the super-Jupiter Kappa Andromedae b was imaged around the star Kappa Andromedae,[1] orbiting it about 1.8 times the distance at which Neptune orbits the Sun.[6]

See also

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References

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Super-Jupiter

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A super-Jupiter is a with a mass ranging from approximately 4 to 13 times that of , distinguishing it from less massive Jupiters (1–4 Jupiter masses) and approaching the lower mass limit for at around 13–15 Jupiter masses. These planets are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, similar to , but often exhibit more extreme atmospheric properties due to their greater gravities and formation environments, including potential for complex chemistry in their upper atmospheres as observed by telescopes like the . Super-Jupiters are notable for challenging models of planet formation, as their high masses suggest either rapid core accretion processes enhanced by high in host stars or gravitational instability in the leading to direct collapse. Unlike the hot Jupiters that orbit close to their stars, many super-Jupiters reside in wide orbits, often tens to hundreds of astronomical units from their host stars, making them prime targets for direct imaging techniques using ground-based observatories and space telescopes. For instance, Kappa Andromedae b, a well-studied super-Jupiter with a mass of about 12.8 masses, orbits a young B-type star at roughly 55 times the Earth-Sun distance and glows brightly in due to residual heat from its formation. Another example, TOI-2145b, has a mass of approximately 5.7 masses and orbits an evolved A-star in 10.3 days with a moderate eccentricity of 0.21, providing insights into post-formation dynamical evolution through potential collisions or disk interactions. These planets often form around more massive stars (up to several solar masses), and their detection has expanded our understanding of how giant planets assemble in diverse stellar environments. The formation of super-Jupiters remains debated, with core accretion theory supporting growth from rocky cores that rapidly accrete gas in metal-rich disks, while gravitational instability favors the fragmentation of massive, unstable disks into planet-sized clumps, particularly for objects beyond 4–10 masses. Observational evidence, such as the lack of a strong correlation for the most massive examples, leans toward gravitational instability for some super-Jupiters, though hybrid scenarios involving mergers of lower-mass giants may explain their eccentric orbits and compositions. Over 100 super-Jupiters have been confirmed as of 2025, primarily through , transit, and direct imaging methods, contributing to broader demographics that reveal gaps in mass and orbital distributions.

Definition and Classification

Definition

A super-Jupiter is a class of characterized by a ranging from approximately 4 to 13 times that of (4–13 M_Jup) but below the threshold for sustained . These objects are primarily composed of and , forming a deep envelope that dominates their structure, much like itself, though their increased gravity compresses the interior to higher densities. This classification emphasizes their planetary nature, distinguishing them from stellar remnants while highlighting their role as the most massive confirmed planets. The typical mass range for super-Jupiters spans approximately 4 to 13 M_Jup, encompassing a diverse group of worlds that bridge the gap between familiar solar system gas giants and substellar objects. Within taxonomy, super-Jupiters occupy an intermediate position, aiding researchers in understanding the continuum of formation processes and evolutionary pathways from planetary to near-stellar regimes. Their gaseous makeup, dominated by light elements, results in low overall densities compared to rocky worlds, though variations arise from and core composition. The term "super-Jupiter" entered literature in the mid-2000s, gaining traction through theoretical models exploring heavy element enrichment and evolution in massive gas giants. A seminal discussion appeared in Baraffe et al. (2008), which modeled structures from super-Earths to super-Jupiters up to ~10 M_Jup. The first confirmed example with a precisely measured mass was HAT-P-2b, a transiting orbiting an F-type at ~0.07 AU, with a mass of approximately 9 M_Jup as determined in 2007. Subsequent discoveries, often via or direct imaging, have expanded the catalog, underscoring super-Jupiters' importance in probing the upper limits of planetary formation.

Boundaries with Brown Dwarfs

The boundary between super-Jupiters and brown dwarfs is primarily defined by mass, with super-Jupiters having masses up to approximately 13 Jupiter masses (M_Jup), above which deuterium fusion becomes possible, transitioning the object into the brown dwarf regime spanning 13 to 80 M_Jup. This threshold arises because objects exceeding ~13 M_Jup achieve the central temperatures and densities required to ignite and sustain thermonuclear deuterium burning, albeit briefly, distinguishing them from planets that rely solely on gravitational contraction for energy. The exact limit varies slightly, ranging from ~11 to ~16 M_Jup depending on factors like metallicity and initial deuterium abundance, but 13 M_Jup serves as the conventional benchmark. The (IAU) formalized this divide in its 2003 working definition of , adopted by the IAU Working Group on Extrasolar Planets, which classifies all substellar objects with true masses above the deuterium-burning limit as , irrespective of their formation history or . This mass-based criterion avoids ambiguities tied to observational challenges, such as direct mass measurement, and emphasizes the physical process of fusion as the key differentiator. Subsequent updates, including reports from exoplanet working groups in 2018 and 2022, have reaffirmed and refined this guideline, maintaining the ~13 M_Jup threshold while incorporating evolutionary models to account for age-dependent burning efficiency. Observationally, super-Jupiters and low-mass can appear similar in size and composition, but the absence of sustained fusion in super-Jupiters results in lower intrinsic luminosities and cooler effective temperatures over time, leading to spectra dominated by molecular absorption bands typical of planetary atmospheres rather than the enhanced thermal emission from fusion-heated interiors in . This luminosity gap becomes more pronounced with age, as retain residual heat from burning, while super-Jupiters cool more rapidly. Borderline objects with estimated masses of 10–15 M_Jup frequently provoke debate in the astronomical literature, as their classification hinges on precise mass determinations and model-dependent predictions of whether deuterium fusion occurs, highlighting the fuzzy nature of the boundary for young or metal-poor systems.

Physical Characteristics

Composition and Atmosphere

Super-Jupiters consist primarily of hydrogen and helium, which comprise approximately 90-95% of their total mass, reflecting a composition similar to the solar nebula from which they formed. The outer layers are dominated by molecular hydrogen (H₂) and helium (He), while deeper interiors transition to metallic hydrogen under extreme pressures. Trace elements, including metals and ices such as water, ammonia, and methane, constitute the remaining fraction and are concentrated in the planet's core and mantle regions. The atmospheric structure of super-Jupiters features thick envelopes of and , with cloud layers that may include metal s like (CrH) in hotter variants, alongside (NH₃) and (H₂O) in cooler regimes. These clouds form due to condensation in the , where decreases with altitude, creating gradients from intensely hot interiors—reaching up to 2000 K near the core-mantle boundary—to relatively cooler exteriors around 100-500 K in the upper atmosphere, depending on the planet's age, mass, and orbital distance. Higher planetary masses enhance in the envelope and support larger rocky or icy cores beneath the gaseous layers. Observational insights into super-Jupiter atmospheres come primarily from transmission spectroscopy, which probes molecular absorption during transits. For instance, has been detected in the atmosphere of the super-Jupiter WASP-18b (~10 M_Jup) using JWST, with recent 2025 observations providing a 3D temperature map revealing dynamic . Similarly, (CO) has been identified in young super-Jupiters like TYC 8998-760-1 b at >6σ confidence, with an enriched ^{13}CO/^{12}CO ratio suggesting accretion from carbon-rich ices. These detections highlight the role of spectroscopic methods in revealing trace gases and constraining .

Mass, Size, and Density

Super-Jupiters span a mass range of approximately 4 to 13 masses (M_Jup), delineating the boundary between massive and , beyond which ignites. This range encompasses objects significantly more massive than itself, yet still classified as due to their inability to sustain fusion. As mass increases within this range, the radii of super-Jupiters tend to plateau at approximately 1 to 1.2 Jupiter radii (R_Jup). This stabilization arises primarily from electron degeneracy pressure in the interiors, which resists further gravitational compression and limits radial growth despite added mass. For non-irradiated models, radii show minimal variation above 1 M_Jup, with slight contraction at the higher end due to enhanced degeneracy effects. Mean densities of super-Jupiters rise markedly with mass, starting from around 1 g/cm³ near the lower end of the range and reaching up to about 15 g/cm³ for the most massive examples. This trend stems from the near-constant radius combined with increasing mass, leading to greater compression of the hydrogen-helium-dominated envelopes. The mean density can be expressed as ρ≈3M4πR3\rho \approx \frac{3M}{4\pi R^3}, where the plateau in RR amplifies the density's sensitivity to MM, highlighting the role of structural compression. To derive this, one computes the volume from the observed or modeled radius and divides the mass by that volume, revealing how degeneracy and equation-of-state effects tighten the interiors at higher masses. Surface gravity for super-Jupiters, calculated as g=GMR2g = \frac{GM}{R^2}, escalates with mass given the subdued radius growth. For objects above 10 M_Jup, gg typically reaches 20 to 50 times Earth's surface gravity (approximately 200–500 m/s²). This follows from substituting and into the formula, where the quadratic dependence on MM and inverse square on RR yields values far exceeding Jupiter's 24.8 m/s², emphasizing the intense . To arrive at these figures, multiply Jupiter's gravity (∼2.5 times Earth's) by the while adjusting for any minor inflation, confirming the scaling for compact models. Certain super-Jupiters display puffy configurations with densities below 0.5 g/cm³, contrasting compact subtypes and resulting from atmospheric powered by residual internal from formation.

Detection and Discovery

Detection Methods

Super-Jupiters, with masses typically ranging from 4 to 13 masses, present unique detection challenges due to their substantial gravitational influence on host stars and their thermal emission in the , yet their rarity and often wide orbits complicate from Earth-based or telescopes. These massive gas giants are more readily detectable than lower-mass because their effects on stellar motion or curves are amplified, but distinguishing them from requires precise mass determinations. Primary methods exploit indirect signatures like stellar perturbations or direct capture of planetary , with ongoing advancements enabling characterization of their atmospheres and orbits. The method measures the periodic Doppler shift in a star's lines caused by the gravitational tug of an orbiting super-Jupiter, revealing the planet's and a minimum derived from Mpsin⁡iM_p \sin i, where ii is the and the sin⁡i\sin i factor accounts for the unknown . This technique is particularly sensitive to massive planets like super-Jupiters, as their larger masses induce greater stellar wobbles (up to tens of m/s for close-in orbits), allowing detection around Sun-like stars with high-precision spectrographs such as HARPS or . However, it yields only the line-of-sight component of the velocity, limiting true estimates without additional data like transits. Direct imaging captures the thermal infrared emission from self-luminous super-Jupiters, especially those on wide orbits (>10 AU) around young stars, using to correct atmospheric distortion and coronagraphs to suppress overwhelming stellar light, achieving contrast ratios below 10−510^{-5} at angular separations of 0.1–1 arcseconds. This method excels for super-Jupiters due to their brightness in the mid-infrared (from residual formation heat) and large separations, enabling spectral analysis of atmospheres without stellar contamination. Ground-based facilities like the and space telescopes have imaged several such objects, revealing molecular features like and . Recent advancements with the (JWST), operational since 2021, utilize mid-infrared imaging (e.g., with ) to detect cooler, older super-Jupiters at contrasts approaching 10−610^{-6}, as demonstrated in observations of companions like Ab. Transit photometry detects super-Jupiters by observing periodic dips in stellar flux when the planet passes in front of its host star, with the transit depth given by ΔF/F≈(Rp/R∗)2\Delta F / F \approx (R_p / R_*)^2, where RpR_p and R∗R_* are the planetary and stellar radii, respectively, allowing radius estimates for edge-on orbits. This method is effective for massive, inflated super-Jupiters close to their stars, as deeper transits (up to several percent) are easier to detect amid noise, and combined with radial velocity data, it provides true masses and densities. Space missions like Kepler and TESS have identified transiting super-Jupiters through high-cadence monitoring, though the requirement for near-perfect alignment limits the sample to ~1% of systems. JWST enhances this by enabling transmission spectroscopy during transits to probe atmospheric compositions. Microlensing and astrometry offer complementary approaches for detecting super-Jupiters in challenging configurations, such as around distant or low-mass host stars. Microlensing occurs when a foreground super-Jupiter and its star align with a background source, briefly magnifying its light via gravitational lensing, with planetary caustics producing detectable anomalies in the light curve; this is sensitive to wide-orbit massive planets but yields only statistical masses without follow-up. Astrometry tracks the tiny positional wobble of the host star across the sky, with the astrometric signature approximated as θ≈(Mp/M∗)⋅(a/d)\theta \approx (M_p / M_*) \cdot (a / d) arcseconds, where aa is the semi-major axis in AU and dd is the distance in parsecs, making it ideal for nearby super-Jupiters with long periods. While microlensing has confirmed super-Earth to Jupiter-mass planets in microlensing surveys like OGLE, astrometry has gained traction post-2020 with the mission, which has astrometrically detected super-Jupiters like Gaia-4b through precise parallax and measurements over billions of stars.

Key Historical Discoveries

One of the earliest transiting super-Jupiters, XO-3b, was discovered in 2008 through a combination of transit photometry and follow-up measurements, revealing a mass of approximately 11.8 masses (M_Jup). This object, orbiting an F5 V star every 3.2 days with high eccentricity, provided early insights into massive close-in gas giants and their dynamical properties. The era of direct imaging for super-Jupiters began in 2012 with Andromedae b, visually confirmed using the Subaru Telescope's system. This ~13 M_Jup companion, located at a projected separation of 55 AU from its B9-type host star, provided the first clear visual evidence of a super-Jupiter around a massive young star, advancing techniques for detecting wide-orbit giants. Advancements with the (JWST) yielded a breakthrough in 2024, when Ab was directly imaged in the mid-infrared, representing the first such observation of a temperate super-Jupiter with an of about 2°C. This ~6 M_Jup world, orbiting at ~20 AU from its K5-type star, highlighted JWST's capability to probe cooler, older exoplanets previously inaccessible to ground-based telescopes. In 2025, the detection of HD 118203 c, a ~11 M_Jup super-Jupiter on a wide 14-year at ~6 AU, expanded the known sample to include cold, outer companions in systems with inner hot Jupiters. This discovery, based on long-term spectroscopic monitoring, underscored the diversity of multi-planet architectures involving super-s. By 2025, over 100 super-Jupiters (4–13 Jupiter masses) had been confirmed, with approximately 10% detected via direct imaging, reflecting improved observational sensitivities across methods.

Formation Theories

Core Accretion Model

The core accretion model proposes that super-Jupiters form via the sequential accumulation of a rocky and icy core from planetesimals in the , followed by rapid gas capture once the core reaches a . The core grows through collisions and gravitational capture of solid particles, typically attaining 10-20 masses before the onset of substantial atmospheric buildup. At this stage, the protoplanet's strengthens sufficiently to bind and accrete and from the disk, entering a runaway phase that rapidly increases the planet's mass to super-Jupiter scales. This process unfolds over timescales of 1-10 million years, dominated by the core formation phase, which demands lifetimes exceeding 5 million years to enable the necessary solid accumulation before gas dispersal. The model particularly suits the formation of close-in super-Jupiters, or hot super-Jupiters, as accretion rates for solid cores accelerate near the where volatile ices enhance availability, with subsequent inward migration accounting for their observed orbital configurations. Forming super-Jupiters exceeding 5 Jupiter masses presents challenges, as the model's efficiency wanes for such high masses absent disk migration to sustain exposure to dense gas reservoirs. Supporting evidence includes the elevated metallicities observed in host stars of super-Jupiters, aligning with the model's requirement for metal-rich disks to facilitate rapid core growth and metal-enriched planetary interiors.

Disk Instability Mechanism

The disk instability mechanism posits that super-Jupiters arise from the gravitational fragmentation of a massive protoplanetary disk, where regions of enhanced density collapse directly into bound clumps of gas exceeding 1 Jupiter mass (M_Jup), bypassing the accumulation of a solid core. This top-down process begins when the disk cools sufficiently for self-gravity to overcome thermal pressure and shear forces, leading to nonlinear instabilities that spawn self-gravitating protoplanetary embryos. These clumps then contract over dynamical timescales, accreting additional gas to reach super-Jupiter masses while retaining low metallicities reflective of the ambient disk material. For fragmentation to occur, the must satisfy stringent conditions, including a high surface density exceeding 100 g/cm² and low temperatures below 50 K, typically in the outer regions at 20–50 AU from the host star. The Toomre stability parameter , defined as Q=csΩπGΣQ = \frac{c_s \Omega}{\pi G \Sigma} where csc_s is the sound speed, Ω\Omega is the , GG is the , and Σ\Sigma is the surface density, must drop below 1 to allow , with efficient cooling on timescales shorter than a few orbital periods being essential to prevent reheating of perturbations. Under these circumstances, fragmentation proceeds rapidly, forming initial clumps within roughly 1000 years—far quicker than alternative pathways—enabling super-Jupiters to assemble before significant disk dispersal. This mechanism is well-suited to explain the formation of wide-orbit super-Jupiters, particularly those observed at large separations where slower buildup processes struggle to deliver sufficient mass in the available time. Direct imaging of such cold, massive companions aligns with predictions of disk instability, as these objects exhibit compositions dominated by primordial gas and orbits inconsistent with in situ core growth followed by migration. Nonetheless, the model faces challenges in accounting for close-in super-Jupiters, as initial fragmentation favors distant formation sites, necessitating subsequent dynamical interactions like migration to explain inner-orbit examples, which introduces uncertainties in survival rates and final architectures. The relative roles of core accretion and disk instability in super-Jupiter formation remain debated as of 2025. Recent studies show that while many super-Jupiters orbit metal-rich stars consistent with core accretion, others lack strong metallicity enhancements, suggesting disk instability may contribute, particularly for wide-orbit examples. Hybrid scenarios, such as mergers of lower-mass planets, have also been proposed to explain observed eccentricities and compositions.

Notable Examples

Kappa Andromedae b

Kappa Andromedae b is a directly imaged substellar companion near the planet-brown dwarf boundary orbiting the young B9IV star Kappa Andromedae, about 170 light-years away from Earth, serving as a key example of a wide-orbit, low-mass companion. Discovered in 2012 through high-contrast direct imaging with the Subaru Telescope's HiCIAO instrument as part of the Strategic Explorations of Exoplanets and Disks () survey, it was identified via its common with the host star at a projected separation of 55 AU. The object's mass was initially estimated at 12.8 ± 2.0 masses based on evolutionary models assuming a system age of around 30 million years, placing it near the deuterium-burning limit and sparking debate over its classification as a or low-mass . Its radius is approximately 1.2 radii, derived from atmospheric and evolutionary modeling. The companion orbits at a semi-major axis of about 55 AU, corresponding to an orbital period of roughly 180 years around the 2.5 solar mass host star, which has an age of approximately 30 million years. Recent observations with the James Webb Space Telescope's (MIRI) have refined the system age to 47 ± 7 million years, consistent with membership in the stellar association, and updated the mass to 17.3 ± 1.8 masses while maintaining the wide orbital separation. This places it above the deuterium-burning minimum mass, favoring a classification, though its formation and properties continue to inform models for massive companions. Physically, Kappa Andromedae b exhibits an of around 1800 K, with its atmosphere showing an L-type spectral classification featuring cloudy conditions and potential features, though absorption is not prominently detected due to the relatively high . Its low of approximately 2 g/cm³ reflects the object's youth, as inflates the radius compared to older, more compact field of similar mass. This companion holds significance as the first such massive, planet-like object directly imaged around a main-sequence star, challenging core accretion models for its formation at large separations and favoring the disk instability mechanism, where gravitational fragmentation in the rapidly assembles massive objects.

Epsilon Indi Ab

Ab is a temperate super-Jupiter orbiting the K5V star A, located approximately 12 light-years from . It was directly imaged for the first time in 2024 using the (MIRI) coronagraph on the (JWST), with observations conducted on July 3, 2023. This detection confirmed the presence of a previously inferred from measurements dating back to 2019, marking the first direct imaging of this object and the coldest directly observed to date. The planet's mass is estimated at 6.31^{+0.60}_{-0.56} masses, derived from fitting orbital models to historical data combined with the new astrometric position. The exoplanet's orbit places it at a projected separation of about 15 from its host star, with a semimajor axis of 28.4^{+10}_{-7.2} , corresponding to an on the order of several decades under Kepler's third law adjusted for the star's mass of 0.76 ± 0.04 solar masses. Its is approximately 275 K, situating it in a temperate zone conducive to the formation of diverse atmospheric chemistries. The estimated radius is around 1.1 radii, leading to a of roughly 5-6 g/cm³ when calculated from mass and volume assumptions, higher than Jupiter's due to its greater mass and potential internal compression. In mid-infrared observations, Ab appears bright at wavelengths of 10.65 µm (magnitude 13.16) and 15.50 µm (magnitude 11.20), reflecting thermal emission from its cool atmosphere. However, there is no detection in the 3.5-5.0 µm range, suggesting suppression of flux by thick high-altitude clouds or layers. Atmospheric modeling indicates a high ([M/H] = 1.0) and elevated carbon-to-oxygen ratio (2.5 times solar), with prominent absorption features from (CH₄), (CO₂), and (CO), consistent with a composition that may include ammonia-rich components typical of cold gas giants. This discovery highlights JWST's capability for mid-infrared direct imaging of cold super-Jupiters, enabling detailed spectroscopic characterization without prior ground-based direct detection and providing insights into the atmospheric evolution and formation of substellar objects beyond the CO₂ ice line.

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