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Swimming stroke
Swimming stroke
Swimming stroke
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Human swimming typically consists of repeating a specific body motion or swimming stroke to propel the body forward. There are many kinds of strokes, each defining a different swimming style or crawl.

In high school, collegiate, and Olympic swimming, there are two undulating strokes (breaststroke and butterfly stroke) and two alternating strokes (front crawl and backstroke).

Most strokes involve rhythmic and coordinated movements of all major body parts — torso, arms, legs, hands, feet, and head. Breathing typically must be synchronized with the strokes, too. It is possible, however, to swim by moving only legs without arms or only arms without legs; such strokes may be used for special purposes, for training or exercise, or by amputees (paralympians) and paralytics.

Swimming styles

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Within a competitive sense particularly, swim stroke techniques are continuously changing to become either easier or more efficient as more people explore the activity.

  • Front crawl: the fastest style for swimming on the surface. Done while face down. The arms alternate while the legs perform a flutter kick.
    • Dolphin crawl: Similar to front crawl, but with a dolphin kick. One kick per arm or two kicks per cycle. This style is often used in training.
    • Catch up stroke: A variation of the front crawl where one arm always rests at the front while the other arm performs one cycle. This can also be used as a drill when training in competitive swimming.
    • Head-high crawl (also known as the water polo stroke, lifeguard approach stroke, or Tarzan drill): This stroke is used for water polo, lifeguards to keep the victim in sight, or those who simply want to see where they're going and breathe with ease. It is similar to front crawl, but with head above the water. This can also be used as a drill when training in competitive swimming.
  • Trudgen: The trudgen is similar to the front crawl, except that it is paired with a scissors kick, similar to that used in the sidestroke.
    • Trudgen crawl: Similar to the trudgen, but with the use of a flutter kick (up and down leg kick) between the scissors kicks.
    • Double trudgen: Similar to the trudgen, but the sides of the scissors kick alternate.
    • Double trudgen crawl: Similar to the double trudgen, but with a flutter kick between the scissors kick alternate.
  • Butterfly stroke: performed face down in the water. The legs perform a dolphin kick while the arms move in a forward circle at the same time.
    • Slow butterfly (also known as "moth stroke"): Similar to butterfly, but with an extended gliding phase, Breathing during the pull/push phase, return head into the water during recovery. This style uses two kicks per cycle.
  • Breaststroke: performed face down in the water without rotating the torso. The arms stay in the water and move synchronously, while the legs perform a whip kick (which is sometimes called a breaststroke kick). It is possible to keep the head elevated out of the water throughout the stroke, although the head usually dips in and out.
    • Inverted breaststroke: Similar to elementary backstroke, but with a whip kick and arm motions.
  • Backstroke (Back crawl): Done while lying on the back. One arm reaches behind the head with a fingertip entry while the other arm is by the side. The legs perform a flutter kick.
    • Elementary backstroke: Both arms move synchronized (They begin out like an airplane, then go beside the body like a soldier then they run up the sides and back out to an airplane position) with whip kick.
    • Inverted butterfly: Similar to elementary backstroke, but with a dolphin kick. This is often used for training.
    • Back double trudgen: Similar to the backstroke, but with a scissors kick to alternating sides.
    • Old English Backstroke : Lying on back, breaststroke legs and butterfly arms
  • Sidestroke: On the side, pull the water as if with a rope with arms going out and stopping in the middle while ensuring that the strokes are most hydrodynamic when moving towards the desired location, and pushing the most water when moving away from the location. In addition, the legs are performing a scissors kick, which is like whip kick, but sideways.
    • Lifesaving stroke: Similar to the side stroke, but only the bottom arm moves while the top arm tows a swimmer in distress.
    • Combat sidestroke: This stroke was developed and used by the United States Navy SEALs and is designed to be more efficient and reduce profile in the water.
  • Composite stroke is drill stroke within one basic stroke, ins (for example, Front crawl flutter/scissor Dolphin/Dolphin flutter) or between two basic stroke, weens (Over arm 1 Arm Lead Sidestroke to 2 Arms Lead Dolphin). It is a strength and stamina training technique.
  • Dog paddle: face over water and paddling with alternate hands, often with the nose and mouth above the water. This stroke can be used in reverse to propel the body feet first.
  • Survival travel stroke: Alternating underwater arm stroke, one cycle for propulsion, one for a lift to stay on the surface. This style is slow but sustainable.[citation needed]
  • Breast feet first strokes: With legs extended, use the arms with a pushing, flapping, clapping or uplifting motion.[citation needed]
  • Snorkeling: Swimming on the breast using a snorkel, usually in combination with masks and fins. Any stroke on the breast can be used, and there is no need to lift or turn the head for breathing.
  • Finswimming is the progression of a swimmer using fins either on the water surface or underwater. Finswimming is usually done on the breast.
  • Flutter back finning: Symmetrically underwater arm recovery with flutter kick.
  • Feet first swimming: A very slow stroke on the back where a breaststroke movement with the arms propels the body forward feet first. Also the arms can be lifted out of the water and pulled backwards together with a scooping movement. Alternatively, the arms can be raised behind the head, alternately or together pushing with the hands, propelling the body. Similarly, the hands can be brought together in a clapping action. These strokes are often used for training.
  • Corkscrew swimming: Alternating between front crawl and backstroke every arm. This leads to a constant rotation of the swimmer. The stroke is used mainly for training purposes and is also sometimes known as Newfie Stroke, referring to Newfoundland. When rotating every third stroke, this is called waltz crawl.
  • Gliding: The swimmer is stretched with the arms to the front, the head between the arms and the feet to the back. This streamlined shape minimizes resistance and allows the swimmer to glide, for example after a start, a push off from a wall, or to rest between strokes.
  • Turtle stroke: On the breast, extend right arm then pull, after pushing with the left leg (while opposite limbs are recovering), then opposite limbs repeat this process, i. e. left arm pulls after right leg pushes. Uses muscles of the waist. Head can easily be above or below water: this is a slow but very sustainable stroke, common in turtles and newts.
  • Open water swimming: Mostly freestyle stroke. Difference is that due to swimming in open water visibility will be an issue and every 4th or 6th stroke the head is slightly lifted upwards for visibility.

A study done by Barbosa Tiago M. called Energetics and biomechanics as determining factors of swimming performance: Updating the state of the art discusses the relationship between segmental kinematics and center of mass kinematics in competitive swimming, focusing on how stroke length (SL) and stroke frequency (SF) influence swimming velocity (v) and performance. Freestyle is the fastest stroke, followed by Butterfly, Backstroke, and Breaststroke, with performance variations depending on distance and stroke technique. A decline in velocity during a race is linked to a decrease in SL, with greater reliance on SF for speed when SL is short. High-level swimmers maintain higher and more stable spatial-temporal parameters, particularly in Freestyle, where SF variability is lower than in Backstroke. Across laps, both genders exhibit a “zig-zag” pattern in SF, peaking during the final lap, with this pattern being more pronounced in males and less variable among elite swimmers. A study done by Rejman Marek called Goggle-free swimming as autonomous water competence from the perspective of breath control on execution of a given distance explored adolescents’ ability to maintain breathing rhythm while swimming with and without goggles, emphasizing water competence over stroke techniques. Results showed that the absence of goggles negatively impacted breath control for both genders, with boys struggling more to swim effectively and safely. The study recommends incorporating goggle-free swimming into elementary education, focusing on simple forms of swimming for breath control training, and accounting for gender differences in visual perception and motor control during instruction.

Special purpose styles

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A number of strokes are only used for special purposes, e.g. to manipulate an object (a swimmer in distress, a ball), or just to stay afloat.

Underwater swimming

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Swimming underwater is faster than swimming on the surface. Underwater swimming is not its own category in the Olympics, but in the 1988 Olympics several competitors swam much of the backstroke race underwater. After that, the Olympics created a rule that swimmers are only allowed to stay underwater for the first 10 meters (later changed to 15 meters) after a start or a turn.[1]

Any style with underwater recovery can be done underwater for certain distances depending on the need for air. Underwater swimming on the back has the additional problem of water entering the nose. To avoid this, the swimmer can breathe out through the nose or wear a nose clip. Some swimmers can close their nostrils with the upper lip or with the compressor naris muscles.

  • Dolphin kick: The feet kick up and down, while pressed together. This is the style that is usually used at the beginning of the race, to hold on to the speed the swimmer generates by pushing off the walls at the start and the turns.[2] When it is used for underwater swimming, the arms are usually extended in front of the head, keeping still with the hands together.
  • Fish kick: Similar to the dolphin kick, but performed while on the swimmer's side. This may be the fastest form of swimming. Swimming creates vortices which propel the swimmer forward. In the dolphin kick, the vortices go up and down, where they're disturbed when they hit the surface of the water or the bottom of the pool. But with the fish kick, they go sideways, where there are no obstructions.[3]
  • Pull-down Breaststroke: most common swim stroke underwater as it requires very low energy. Main application is for dynamic apnea (DNF)
  • Sea lion stroke: based on the swimming style of sea lions,[4] this swimming stroke is primarily performed with sculling, arms at the side along the bodyline and strongly supported with flutter kicks in a contralateral sequence. It is very effective when swimming through narrow underwater places.

Lifesaving strokes

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  • Lifesaving stroke: Similar to the side stroke, but only the bottom arm moves while the top arm tows a swimmer in distress.
  • Lifesaving approach stroke (also known as head-up front crawl or Tarzan stroke): Similar to the front crawl, but with the eyes to the front above the water level, such as to observe the surroundings as for example a swimmer in distress or a ball.
  • Pushing rescue stroke: This stroke helps to assist a tired swimmer: The tired swimmer lies on the back and the rescuer swims a whip kick and pushes against the soles of the tired swimmer (not taught or recognized by the RLSS body governing UK lifeguarding).
  • Pulling rescue stroke: This stroke helps to assist a swimmer in distress. Both swimmers lie on the back, and the rescuer grabs the armpits of the swimmer in distress and performs a whip kick (on the back) for forwarding motion. The kick has to be not too shallow as otherwise the victim will be hit.
  • Extended Arm Tow (unconscious victim): swimming sidestroke or breaststroke on their back, the rescuer holds the head with a straight arm, the hand cupping underneath the chin, and ensures that the mouth and nose are out of the water.
  • Arm Tow: the rescuer swims sidestroke, behind the casualty holds the upper right arm of a casualty with their left hand or vice versa, lifting the casualty out of the water.
  • Vice Grip Turn and Trawl: used on a victim with a suspected spinal injury. The lifeguard approaches slowly to the victim (who is usually face down in water), places one hand on the victim's chin, with arm pressed firmly against the victim's chest. The other hand is placed on the back of the victim's head with the arm down the victim's back. Both arms press together (like a vice), and the lifeguard uses his feet to begin moving forward and then rolls under the victim to come up alongside her or him, but with the victim now on his or her back. (This is one of the hardest lifesaving maneuvers, as the grip must be perfect on the first attempt; otherwise, the victim may be given further spinal damage, such as paralysis.)
  • Clothes swimming: The swimmer is wearing clothes that restrict movement when wet, i.e. almost all clothes. This is done to practice situations where the swimmer fell in the water dressed or the rescuer did not have time to undress. Due to the restricted movement and the weight of wet clothes out of the water, overarm recovery is harder, which makes a style with underwater recovery, like the breaststroke, the better option.
  • Rescue tube swimming: The lifeguard pulls a flotation device, which is pushed forward when approaching the victim.

Without forward motion

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  • Survival floating (also known as dead man float and drownproofing): Lying on the prone (face down in water) with minimal leg movement, and staying afloat with the natural buoyancy. Lift the head to breathe only then back to floating. This style is only to stay afloat and to rest.
  • Back floating: Similar to the survival floating, except on the back.
  • Treading water: The swimmer is in the water head up and feet down. Different kicks, such as the whip kick[5] or eggbeater kick, and hand movements (Sculling) are used to stay afloat. This is useful to keep the head out of the water for a better view or to catch an object as for example in water polo. In addition, treading water is used in training by competitive swimmers in order to build up the strength of the kick; butterfly or scissors kick are most common when training vertically.
  • Sculling: This is a figure 8 movement of the hands for forward motion or upward lift. Used in surf lifesaving, water polo, synchronized swimming and treading water.
  • Turtle float: The knees are raised to the chest and encircled by the arms.[6]
  • Jellyfish float: Holding the ankles with the hands.[6]
  • Head first surface dive
  • Foot first surface dive
  • Pencil float

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Swimming stroke

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A swimming stroke is a coordinated pattern of arm and leg movements designed to propel the body efficiently through water, essential for both recreational and competitive swimming. In competitive swimming governed by organizations like (formerly FINA), there are four official strokes: freestyle (commonly the front crawl, involving alternating arm pulls and a ), backstroke (performed on the back with alternating arms and ), breaststroke (symmetrical arm pulls and a frog-like kick, with the head breaking the surface each cycle), and butterfly (simultaneous arm recovery over the water paired with a ). These strokes define the events in major competitions, including individual races and relays at the Olympics. The evolution of these strokes reflects centuries of human adaptation to water, beginning with ancient practices and advancing through 19th-century European competitions. , the oldest documented stroke, originated as a survival technique in and became the dominant style in early modern races, debuting as an Olympic event in 1904 for men over 440 yards. Freestyle, or , traces its competitive roots to 1844 when Native American swimmers demonstrated it in , but it gained prominence after John Trudgen introduced a version in Britain in 1873, with further refinement by figures like , who popularized the six-beat kick cycle at the Olympics. developed as a variation of the in the late 19th century, allowing swimmers to adapt overarm techniques while supine, and was first contested at the 1900 Paris Olympics over 200 meters for men. emerged later, evolving from in the 1930s through innovations like the over-water arm recovery by swimmers such as David Armbruster, and was officially recognized as a separate stroke by FINA in 1952, debuting in the Olympics in 1956. These strokes not only vary in technique and energy demands—freestyle being the fastest and most efficient, while is the most physically taxing—but also require adherence to strict rules on starts, turns, and finishes to ensure fair competition. For instance, swimmers must remain on their back throughout, and demands simultaneous movements with hands touching the wall at turns. Mastery of these strokes underpins training programs worldwide, contributing to swimming's status as a low-impact, full-body exercise that enhances cardiovascular health, strength, and coordination.

Fundamentals and Principles

Definition and Classification

A swimming stroke is a coordinated sequence of arm, leg, and trunk movements designed to propel the through while optimizing through drag reduction and utilization. These movements generate forward primarily via the limbs, countering water's resistance, which arises from frictional, , and forces acting on the swimmer's body. in a stroke depends on streamlining the body to minimize surface and frontal resistance, aligning the center of with the center of for horizontal flotation, and ensuring continuous propulsion without excessive energy waste. Swimming strokes are classified by purpose and propulsion method, with body position serving as a key differentiator—typically on the front (prone), back (), or side. Competitive strokes, standardized by (formerly FINA), emphasize speed and include freestyle, , , and , each with strict rules on limb alternation or simultaneity to ensure fair racing. Recreational strokes, such as the or elementary backstroke, prioritize comfort and endurance for leisure activities, allowing relaxed body positions that facilitate breathing and reduce fatigue. Instructional strokes, like the , focus on building foundational skills for beginners by simplifying coordination and promoting water confidence. Specialized strokes, including variants like the inverted or , are adapted for practical applications such as water or therapeutic exercise, often keeping the head elevated for visibility or support. Central to all strokes are the concepts of , resistance, and coordination. Propulsion occurs through hydrodynamic forces generated by accelerating limbs against the water, ideally directed horizontally to maximize forward . Resistance, or drag, must be mitigated by smooth, rhythmic actions that prevent and maintain a streamlined profile, as drag increases quadratically with speed. Coordination synchronizes arm pulls, leg kicks, and body into a cyclical , enabling sustained movement and .

Biomechanical Basics

Swimming strokes are governed by fundamental biomechanical forces that interact with the aquatic environment to enable locomotion. Drag represents the primary resistive force, comprising frictional drag from water along the body surface and form drag due to differences across the swimmer's . Frictional drag accounts for approximately 25% of total resistance during , while form drag dominates at higher speeds owing to the swimmer's . Lift, generated perpendicular to the flow, arises from body undulations that create gradients, contributing to alongside drag-based from limb sweeps. primarily stems from the generated by coordinated arm and leg actions, where limbs accelerate surrounding to produce forward momentum, with arms providing 85-90% of total in . Buoyancy principles underpin effective body positioning, as the upward buoyant force equals the weight of displaced per , determining flotation based on the swimmer's specific —typically near 0.99 for humans, influenced by fat (buoyant) versus muscle and bone (denser). occurs when the body's weight equals the displaced volume, allowing horizontal flotation without excessive effort; misalignment of the centers of (near hips) and buoyancy (lower chest) causes rotation, with head elevation sinking the legs and vice versa. Streamlining minimizes —the resistance from surface waves created at higher speeds—by maintaining a horizontal body position, reducing frontal area and wave formation, which becomes negligible below 0.6 meters depth. Major muscle groups facilitate these forces through targeted activation. The core muscles, including abdominals, obliques, and lower back, enable body rotation and stability, stabilizing the trunk to optimize hydrodynamic positioning. Upper body muscles, particularly the latissimus dorsi, drive the pulling phase by extending the arms backward, generating thrust via broad surface engagement with water. Lower body muscles such as the and glutes power the , with extending the legs for propulsion and glutes aiding hip extension to maintain streamline and force transfer. The drag force, a key limiter of speed, is quantified by the equation Fd=12ρv2CdAF_d = \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 C_d A where ρ\rho is water density (approximately 1000 kg/m³), vv is the swimmer's velocity, CdC_d is the drag coefficient (dependent on body shape, typically 0.3-1.0 for streamlined swimmers), and AA is the projected frontal area. Qualitatively, this quadratic velocity dependence means drag rises sharply with speed, emphasizing the need for efficiency; for instance, reducing AA through streamlining can lower CdC_d by up to 20%, enhancing stroke efficiency by minimizing energy wasted against resistance, as seen in reduced intra-cyclic velocity fluctuations in skilled swimmers. Energy efficiency in swimming balances mechanical power output against metabolic cost, with maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂ max) serving as a benchmark for aerobic capacity, typically around 60 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹ in trained swimmers. Power output increases with , but metabolic cost escalates nonlinearly due to rising drag, with aerobic contributions dominating at 95% of VO₂ max (83%) but declining to 59% at 105%, supplemented by anaerobic sources. Efficiency is reflected in the energy cost per distance, minimized by low fluctuations and optimal coordination, allowing sustained performance near VO₂ max for 2-5 minutes.

Historical Development

Ancient and Early Modern Origins

Evidence of the earliest swimming strokes dates back to prehistoric times, with in the located in the plateau of the , southwest , depicting human figures engaged in motions resembling the around 8,000 years ago during the period. These illustrations, created when the was a lush, wetter region with lakes and rivers, suggest primitive, survival-oriented techniques for crossing water bodies, emphasizing basic propulsion through alternating arm and leg movements to evade predators or reach resources. Such depictions highlight swimming's origins as a practical necessity rather than , with the figures' exaggerated limb actions indicating an instinctive, paddle-like stroke adapted to natural environments. In ancient civilizations, swimming strokes evolved within cultural and military contexts. and tomb paintings from circa 2000 BCE portray overarm strokes—alternating arm pulls with sometimes flutter kicks—to navigate the River for fishing, transportation, and ritual purposes. Similarly, in , referenced swimming as essential military training in his Laws (), equating proficiency in it with and deeming those unskilled as uneducated, while artistic evidence points to overarm strokes—alternating overhead arm reaches with flutter kicks—as precursors to later techniques like the trudgen. Roman texts echoed this emphasis on swimming as essential for training in and survival at sea, underscoring swimming's role in imperial expansion. During the medieval period through the Renaissance, swimming knowledge persisted and revived amid practical demands. In Europe, the 16th to 18th centuries saw a resurgence driven by naval needs and drowning prevention, with early manuals like Nicholaus Wynmann's Colymbas (1538) detailing breaststroke techniques and flotation methods for lifesaving in maritime training. This era's focus on utilitarian strokes laid groundwork for formalized instruction, particularly in naval contexts where swimming aided shipwreck survival and combat readiness. Key early adopters included Japanese practitioners during the 1600s , where texts on (water martial arts) described the use of simple flotation aids like inflated animal bladders or devices to support synchronized strokes in river and sea training for . These developments bridged ancient survival methods to emerging structured practices, setting the stage for 19th-century competitive evolution.

19th-20th Century Evolution

In the , feats highlighted the prominence of as the dominant technique. Captain Matthew Webb became the first person to successfully swim the in 1875, covering approximately 21 miles from Dover, , to , , in 21 hours and 45 minutes primarily using at a rate of about 26 strokes per minute. Around the same time, English swimmer John Trudgen introduced an overhand stroke in 1873 after observing indigenous South American techniques during travels, adapting it into a faster, alternating-arm motion that bridged and emerging crawl variants, marking a key innovation in competitive efficiency. The establishment of governing bodies formalized rules and promoted stroke standardization. The Amateur Swimming Association (ASA) was founded in 1869 in the United Kingdom as the world's first national swimming organization, developing regulations that influenced early front crawl precursors and organized competitions to encourage technique refinement. Internationally, the Fédération Internationale de Natation Amateur (FINA), now , was created in 1908 in by representatives from eight nations, establishing unified rules for strokes, pool dimensions, and events to govern global competitions. Twentieth-century advancements saw significant stroke evolutions, particularly in the 1930s when emerged as a variation of to enhance speed. Swimmers like Armbruster and his trainees, including Jack Sieg, experimented with an overarm recovery combined with a dolphin-like kick, first demonstrated competitively in 1933 at events such as a YMCA meet, separating it from traditional while retaining the undulating body motion. also underwent refinements for better propulsion and starts, first included as a 200-meter event for men at the 1900 Paris Olympics, with a 100-yard version raced in a 50-yard pool at the 1904 Games to emphasize straight-line efficiency over the previously freestyle-dominated program. Key Olympic milestones accelerated these changes. debuted as an official event at the 1904 Olympics with a men's 440-yard race, establishing it as a distinct competitive stroke beyond freestyle dominance. gained full recognition in 1956 at the Olympics, where it was ratified as a separate stroke with dedicated 100-meter and 200-meter events for men and women, solidifying the modern four-stroke framework. Post-World War II infrastructure and educational resources further propelled 's growth. A construction boom in the late and , driven by economic prosperity and suburban expansion, led to thousands of new public and private pools across the , increasing access and participation. Concurrently, coaching manuals from the in the 1920s, such as those outlining survival swimming and instructor training established in 1922, standardized teaching methods and emphasized stroke fundamentals, influencing widespread adoption through national aquatic schools.

Competitive Strokes

Freestyle

Freestyle, officially designated as in competitive , is the fastest and most versatile stroke, allowing swimmers to maintain high speeds over various distances due to its efficient propulsion and low-drag body position. Swimmers alternate arm pulls in a motion while executing a continuous from the hips, with the head positioned neutrally for streamlined to one side. This stroke's emphasize reducing hydrodynamic resistance through body rotation, enabling elite athletes to achieve velocities exceeding 2 meters per second in short sprints. The core technique involves a high-elbow catch during the arm pull, where the elbow bends to remain above the and hand as they enter the at a slight , pulling backward in an S-shaped path close to the body for maximal application. The , originating from the hips rather than the knees, typically follows a six-beat —two kicks per arm cycle—to maintain rhythm and stability, with feet flexed and ankles loose for whip-like motion. Body roll, rotating the approximately 30-45 degrees to each side on alternate arm strokes, enhances reach and power while minimizing frontal drag by slicing through the edge-on. The arm recovery phase occurs above the with a relaxed, circular motion to conserve energy and avoid excessive splash. Propulsion in freestyle derives primarily from the underwater arm action, which generates 85-90% of forward thrust by sweeping water backward with the hand and forearm acting as paddles, while the leg kick contributes 10-15% mainly for balance, rotation assistance, and minor acceleration. This distribution underscores the arms' role in speed, with the kick preventing leg drag and stabilizing the body's undulating wave-like motion. Body roll further aids efficiency by reducing drag, as the rotated position presents a slimmer silhouette to oncoming water flow. Variations adapt the stroke to event demands: sprinters emphasize a rapid six-beat for explosive power and higher , often exceeding 60 per minute, whereas distance swimmers favor a two-beat —one kick per arm cycle—to prioritize and oxygen conservation, reducing leg over longer races. Historically, the stroke evolved from the "Australian crawl" introduced in the late , refined by Hawaiian Olympian in the through his signature "Kahanamoku Kick"—a vigorous six-beat variation that propelled him to multiple gold medals and popularized the modern form globally. Effective training addresses common flaws like the dropped elbow, where the elbow dips below the hand during entry or pull, slashing through inefficient water grasp; corrective drills include the fingertip drag—trailing fingertips along the water surface during recovery to reinforce high-elbow positioning—and single-arm freestyle with a to isolate and perfect the catch. In elite competition, these techniques yield remarkable performances, such as the men's 50m freestyle Olympic record of 21.07 seconds, set by at the 2020 Tokyo Games.

Backstroke

The backstroke, also known as back crawl, is one of the four competitive swimming strokes recognized by , performed while lying on the water surface. It is unique among the competitive strokes for its back-floating position, which allows the swimmer's face to remain above water for continuous breathing without interruption. The stroke involves alternating arm pulls and a , with the body rotating side to side to optimize efficiency and reduce drag. This supine orientation contrasts with the prone positions of freestyle, , and , making backstroke the only competitive stroke where the swimmer starts from the water rather than a . In terms of technique, the backstroke begins with the swimmer pushing in a streamlined position, arms extended overhead, and body aligned horizontally with a slight downward tilt toward the feet to maintain balance. The arms alternate in a windmill-like motion: each enters the water pinky-first just beyond shoulder width, with the thumb pointing upward to facilitate the catch phase. The underwater pull forms a continuous sweep—starting with an inward catch using the hand and , then an outward sweep to the hip—providing the primary , which accounts for approximately 70-80% of forward . The recovering exits thumb-first, remains straight or slightly bent, and arcs overhead back to entry position. The legs execute a similar to freestyle, with knees slightly bent and ankles loose for a whip-like action, typically six kicks per cycle to synchronize with the upper body rhythm. Body rotation, alternating 30-45 degrees to each side, enhances the pull's leverage and streamlines the profile during recovery, while the head remains neutral and still, gazing upward to avoid disrupting balance. Historically, debuted as an Olympic event with the men's 200-meter race at the 1900 Games, evolving from rudimentary overarm adaptations of in the late . Early techniques featured straight-arm pulls and a breaststroke-like kick, but by the late , Australian swimmers introduced the bent-arm underwater pull for greater power, which became standard by the alongside increased body roll for efficiency. The 100-meter distance was added for men in and women in , with the 200-meter returning for men in 1964 and women in 1968. These refinements transformed into a faster, more hydrodynamic stroke, with modern variations including single-arm drills for beginners to isolate pull mechanics and build symmetry. The elementary , a simplified simultaneous arm and leg version, serves as a precursor for novices but differs from the competitive alternating style. Common issues in backstroke include body drift caused by inadequate , leading to a zigzag path and increased drag; this can be corrected through wall push-off drills, where swimmers focus on straight-line by pressing firmly against the pool wall with feet and maintaining neutral head position during rollout. Another frequent error is excessive knee bend in the , which originates from the knees rather than hips, reducing —remedied by emphasizing hip-driven flutter with pointed toes. Proper mitigates these by aligning the body for maximal arm extension and minimizing surface area exposed to water resistance.

Breaststroke

The breaststroke is the oldest known competitive swimming stroke, featuring a symmetrical motion that involves simultaneous arm and leg actions while facing downward on the water's surface. Unlike the undulating , it emphasizes a steady, wave-like progression with minimal body rotation. This stroke's design promotes a balanced , making it suitable for both competitive events and recreational swimming, though it is generally slower than freestyle due to higher drag from the head-up breathing position. The technique follows a distinct pull-breathe-glide-kick sequence to optimize efficiency. During the pull phase, the arms begin extended forward underwater, then execute a narrow outsweep where the hands move outward and slightly downward, followed by an insweep that accelerates water toward the chest for propulsion. Breathing occurs as the head lifts naturally during the insweep, with the mouth breaking the surface. The glide phase follows, where the body streamlines horizontally—arms extended forward and legs together—to minimize resistance and maintain momentum, often comprising a significant portion of the cycle, up to 50% in less experienced swimmers. The kick concludes the cycle with a whip action: heels draw toward the hips with feet flexed outward, then the legs extend and snap inward and backward in a circular motion for thrust. Propulsion in breaststroke arises equally from the arms and legs, with the glide phase playing a key role in reducing drag by allowing passive forward movement. Research indicates that arms contribute approximately 50-67% of total thrust through the insweep acceleration, while the whip kick provides the remainder via high-velocity leg extension, together enabling steady velocity despite the stroke's inherent resistance. This balanced contribution supports energy efficiency relative to more demanding strokes like butterfly, though breaststroke requires higher overall energy expenditure than freestyle at equivalent speeds. Governing rules, as outlined by (formerly FINA), mandate one arm pull, one leg kick, and one breath per cycle, with all movements symmetrical and the body remaining on the breast except during turns. The start permits a single pull back to the legs followed by one before the first kick, but subsequent underwater recovery must not exceed the initial pull-out distance, and no motions—defined as alternating or circular hand movements beyond the narrow pull—are allowed, leading to disqualification. Turns require touching the wall with both hands simultaneously, followed by a single before resuming on the breast, while finishes demand a two-hand touch at or above water level. Excessive underwater pulling or failure to surface the head per cycle also results in disqualification. Training variations include full breaststroke, which adheres strictly to the complete cycle, and half-breaststroke (also called two-kick-one-pull), where swimmers perform two kicks per single arm pull to build leg strength and timing without full fatigue. Historically, the "old English" style, prevalent before the , featured a wider arm outsweep and overwater recovery with the head held high throughout, contrasting modern narrow-pull techniques that prioritize underwater efficiency; this older form was used in early Channel crossings, such as Matthew Webb's 1875 feat. In performance terms, breaststroke is slower than freestyle—typically 20-30% reduced speed at equal effort—but offers relative energy efficiency for sustained efforts due to its rhythmic glide. The men's 100 m long-course is 56.88 seconds, set by of at the 2019 World Championships in , .

Butterfly

The , recognized as one of the four competitive strokes, is characterized by its symmetrical, undulating motion that mimics the movement of a , making it the most demanding in terms of coordination and power. Originating as a variation of the in the early , it evolved into a distinct style by the , emphasizing simultaneous arm pulls and a continuous wave-like body motion rather than the breaststroke's pull-out-glide pattern. This stroke requires precise timing between the arms, core, and legs to generate efficient propulsion while minimizing drag, and it forms the opening leg of the individual medley event. The technique involves a simultaneous arm recovery and pull, with the hands entering the water shoulder-width apart and extended forward, thumbs slightly down. Underwater, the arms execute a keyhole-shaped pull: the hands sweep outward slightly before converging inward in a heart-like toward the chest, then accelerate backward past the hips to maximize , finishing with elbows high and hands brushing the thighs. This pull is synchronized with the , a full-body undulation initiated from the hips and propagating through the to the feet, creating a whip-like wave that propels the swimmer forward. Standard execution features two dolphin kicks per arm cycle—one downward kick during the arm pull to initiate the body wave, and one upward kick during the arm recovery to maintain momentum—though rules permit any number of simultaneous dolphin kicks without alternation. Propulsion in the butterfly primarily arises from the undulating body wave, which generates hydrodynamic lift similar to a dolphin's tail motion, while precise timing reduces by keeping the body near the surface during the peak of each cycle. Studies indicate arms provide the majority of (up to 90%), with body undulation and kicks contributing significantly (around 40-60% combined) through integrated wave motion, with optimal reaching up to 78% . The pull provides the bulk of forward , but the integrated body wave accounts for a significant portion of sustained speed, highlighting the stroke's reliance on core strength over isolated limb power. Under World Aquatics regulations, the butterfly requires simultaneous arm movements throughout the race, with the body breaking the surface once per cycle, and legs executing without alternation—a clarification reinforced in rule updates around 2006 to prohibit any scissoring or uneven leg motions beyond the permitted simultaneous action. Swimmers are limited to one underwater arm pull after the start or turn, followed by a single dolphin kick before surfacing. These constraints ensure the stroke's undulatory nature while preventing hybrid techniques. The stroke's development accelerated in the 1950s when World Aquatics officially separated it from breaststroke in 1953, allowing the dolphin kick variation to become standard and introducing it as an independent event. This split enabled innovations like the full-body undulation, culminating in its Olympic debut in 1956, where American William Yorzyk won gold in the men's 200-meter butterfly, setting the stage for its integration into medley relays and individual medleys by the late 1950s. The evolution emphasized refining arm-leg timing to reduce fatigue, transforming butterfly from a breaststroke offshoot into a high-speed, symmetrical powerhouse. Butterfly swimming presents significant physiological challenges due to its intense, full-body demands, leading to rapid accumulation from anaerobic energy reliance, particularly in distances under 200 meters. This buildup causes and requires specialized , such as fly drills focusing on isolated kicks, single-arm pulls, or shortened stroke counts to build and technique without full-stroke exhaustion. Elite performances reflect this rigor; the men's 100-meter long-course is 49.45 seconds, set by of the at the 2021 Tokyo Olympics, remaining unbroken as of November 2025.

Recreational and Instructional Strokes

Sidestroke

The is a recreational technique performed while lying on one side of the body, with the head aligned such that one goggle or eye remains partially submerged to maintain a streamlined profile. The body remains nearly horizontal and to the surface, with the top and hip slightly breaking the surface at an angle of about 30 to 40 degrees, which helps minimize wave resistance compared to prone or positions in competitive strokes. This lateral orientation allows for efficient forward movement through asymmetric arm and leg actions, making it suitable for open-water endurance or instructional purposes. In the arm motion, the trailing (bottom) arm starts extended forward along the water's surface, while the leading (top) arm rests at the side or hip. The leading arm then sweeps in a half-circle pull toward the chest, with the palm facing downward to generate propulsion, as the trailing arm simultaneously recovers forward in a straight glide. The hands meet briefly at the chest before the trailing arm pulls back to the hip and the leading arm extends forward again, creating a continuous alternating cycle that supports body roll without full rotation. The leg action features a scissor kick, where the top leg extends forward with the knee slightly bent and heel raised, while the bottom leg draws back similarly; the legs then snap together straight and pointed, propelling the swimmer forward in a streamlined glide phase. This kick synchronizes with the arm pull for maximum efficiency, emphasizing power in the closure rather than excessive flexion. The sidestroke's propulsion derives from its lateral body position, which presents a narrower profile to the water than face-down strokes, thereby reducing frontal drag in recreational techniques. This efficiency, combined with the ability to keep the face above water for easy breathing without rhythmic head turns, makes it ideal for long-distance swimming or maintaining visibility in open water. It conserves energy for sustained efforts, such as training swims, and was particularly valued in early 20th-century military survival programs, including World War II naval training where it facilitated extended treading or evasion in rough seas without fatigue. Common errors include over-rotating the body off the side during the pull, which increases drag and disrupts balance, or executing a weak scissor kick by bending the knees too much, reducing propulsive force; correcting these involves focusing on a flat hip line and timed leg snap. Historically, the emerged as an alternative to the in 19th-century lifesaving and instructional manuals, with early adopters like British swimmers in the modifying it for speed by recovering one arm above water. Texts such as Archibald Sinclair and William Henry's 1893 book described it for distance and rescue, emphasizing its simplicity for non-competitive swimmers learning to cross currents or tow objects. By the early , American instructors like Frank Dalton included it in comprehensive guides for its ease in teaching body control on the side. A key variation is the (CSS), developed in the early 2000s by former U.S. Navy SEAL Stew Smith and Total Immersion Swimming coach specifically for military applications. Introduced around 2004 for SEAL training, it refines the traditional with a more streamlined glide phase, incorporating elements of undulation and freestyle arm recovery to accommodate gear like fins or packs while enhancing stealth and endurance in open-water missions. This adaptation maintains the core scissor kick but adds a subtle body undulation for reduced visibility and drag, allowing swimmers to cover distances like 500 yards efficiently under load.

Elementary Backstroke

The elementary backstroke is a beginner-oriented swimming technique performed in a , utilizing simultaneous and symmetrical arm and leg actions to generate gentle forward propulsion while promoting relaxation and . This stroke allows swimmers to keep their head above water and maintain visibility ahead, making it an ideal introductory method for building water comfort without requiring face submersion. It differs from the competitive by employing coordinated, non-alternating movements rather than rapid, alternating arm pulls and flutter kicks. The technique begins with the swimmer floating on their back, arms extended at the sides with palms facing down, legs together, and head tilted slightly back to align the ears with the s for optimal and forward vision. The arm motion involves a simultaneous pull: hands move under the water in a hugging arc from the sides to the chest, then sweep outward along the body to the thighs before recovering overhead or straight to the sides. Concurrently, the legs execute a frog kick—knees bend and flare outward to about shoulder width with heels drawn toward the hips, toes pointing out, followed by a powerful snap outward and together to streamline the body. The head remains stationary and facing upward throughout, with breathing occurring naturally as the face stays out of the water. Propulsion in the elementary backstroke arises from the synchronized of the arms and legs, creating a balanced, low-resistance glide that emphasizes straight-line travel and . The hugging arm pull and frog kick generate a mild forward surge without excessive strain, allowing beginners to focus on body alignment and rhythmic coordination rather than speed. This approach fosters a relaxed posture, with the buoyant reducing drag and enabling longer distances with minimal fatigue. As a core instructional tool in the learn-to-swim programs, the elementary backstroke serves to teach non-swimmers foundational propulsion and floating skills, easing the transition to more advanced strokes like the competitive . It has been a staple in beginner curricula for building essential competencies, such as maintaining balance on the back and coordinating limbs for survival swimming. Variations of the elementary backstroke include a modified version that substitutes the frog kick with a whip —where the knees flex at a 45-degree angle, heels drop, and legs snap together forcefully—for increased speed and power, often used in intermediate training. Common challenges, such as sinking hips due to poor core activation, can be addressed by engaging the abdominal muscles to maintain a slight back arch and keeping the body streamlined, preventing excessive leg drag. The benefits of the elementary backstroke include enhanced for novices through its non-submersive nature, which alleviates anxiety associated with underwater breathing, and its role as a low-impact exercise suitable for therapeutic applications like rehabilitation for or back issues. By promoting symmetrical movements and relaxation, it supports overall aquatic proficiency and endurance without high physical demands.

Dog Paddle

The dog paddle is a rudimentary swimming stroke primarily driven by the arms, mimicking the paddling motion of a dog or other quadrupedal animals, and is commonly the first technique learned by young children or novice swimmers due to its simplicity and intuitive nature. In this stroke, the swimmer assumes a on the water's surface with the body relatively flat but the head held above the for easy , which allows for natural and reduces the need for coordinated . The arms alternate in a circular scooping motion: one arm extends forward with the palm facing down, then pulls backward and downward in a semi-circular path toward the hip, creating drag-based propulsion, while the other arm recovers forward just above the surface. The legs typically provide minimal support through a gentle, alternating from the hips, with knees slightly bent and feet pointed, though some variations omit the kick entirely for short distances or . This arm-dominant approach makes it accessible for building initial water confidence without requiring advanced coordination. Propulsion in the dog paddle relies on the drag force generated by the sweeping arm motions, where the water is pushed rearward to thrust the body forward, supplemented by the minor thrust from leg kicks if used. However, the stroke's upright head position and lack of body streamlining create significant frontal drag, reducing overall efficiency and limiting its suitability for sustained or competitive swimming. Historical evidence suggests the dog paddle is among the oldest human swimming techniques, with depictions in prehistoric from the in Egypt's [Gilf Kebir](/page/Gilf Kebir) plateau, dating to approximately 8,000 years ago, showing figures in extended prone positions with alternating limb movements resembling this primitive style—likely inspired by observing animals in water. By the early , it was formalized as an introductory skill in structured programs, such as those outlined in the American Red Cross's 1957 swimming manual, where it was termed the "human stroke" or "dog paddle" and taught using arms alone to encourage basic forward movement. A common variation incorporates a more pronounced to enhance propulsion and stability, transforming the basic arm action into a slightly more efficient hybrid suitable for beginners transitioning to other strokes, while maintaining the head-up posture. Despite its ease, the has notable limitations, including rapid from the constant arm effort and high expenditure due to poor hydrodynamic efficiency—often leading swimmers to overestimate their abilities, as the stroke does not develop the or speed required for true competency. Common errors, such as over-paddling with excessive splashing or crossing arms over the body's centerline, exacerbate drag and imbalance; to mitigate these, practitioners are advised to focus on smooth, controlled scoops in shallow , keeping the body as horizontal as possible, and gradually integrating breathing rhythm to build comfort.

Specialized Strokes

Underwater Propulsion

Underwater propulsion in swimming refers to techniques employed while fully submerged to generate forward momentum, primarily through body undulation and streamlined positioning, which minimize resistance compared to surface swimming. The primary method is the , a continuous, wave-like motion that originates from the head and propagates through the trunk, hips, and legs to the toes, creating a hydrodynamic body wave that propels the swimmer efficiently. This undulation mimics the motion of aquatic mammals and is shared briefly with the stroke's kick phase, but in underwater contexts, it is executed entirely submerged for maximal speed. The reduces drag by avoiding surface wave formation, with studies showing ranging from 11% to 29% in streamlined positions due to the body's sinusoidal , which generates while maintaining a low frontal area. Complementary techniques include the torpedo glide, a passive streamlined posture with arms extended overhead and body arrow-straight, used immediately after push-offs from starts or turns to conserve , and initial hand pushes against the wall to initiate velocity. In competitive , these are limited by FINA rules, allowing submersion for no more than 15 meters after the start or each turn in most events to ensure fairness and safety. Beyond competition, underwater propulsion extends to and free diving, where dolphin kicks—often aided by monofins—enhance efficiency for longer horizontal traverses or descents, conserving energy in low-visibility or current-affected environments. Physiologically, these techniques demand precise breath-holding to manage oxygen conservation, as submersion triggers the mammalian dive reflex, slowing and redistributing blood flow to vital organs, though prolonged efforts risk hypoxia. Training incorporates hypoxic sets, such as repeated underwater kicks with controlled , to build tolerance and improve O2 efficiency, typically progressing from short bursts to distances exceeding 25 meters. Elite performances highlight the technique's potential; for instance, in practice settings, swimmers have completed 50-meter underwater dolphin kicks in approximately 22 seconds, showcasing speeds rivaling surface freestyle for short distances. These feats underscore the balance between propulsion power and endurance limits under apnea conditions.

Lifesaving and Rescue Techniques

Lifesaving and rescue techniques in swimming prioritize the rescuer's ability to support and transport a victim while maintaining visibility, control, and endurance in emergency situations. These methods adapt foundational strokes like breaststroke and sidestroke to accommodate the added load of a victim, ensuring the rescuer can keep the victim's airway above water and respond to struggles or unconsciousness. Key techniques include tow strokes, such as the breaststroke with the victim secured under the arm via an armpit or collar tow, where the rescuer uses one arm to grasp the victim while propelling with the other arm and a modified kick to minimize drag. Sidestroke variations, including the cross-chest carry, involve positioning the victim across the rescuer's chest with one arm securing the shoulders and the other aiding propulsion, allowing the rescuer to monitor the victim's face and condition throughout the tow. Propulsion in these techniques relies on modified or to sustain contact and forward movement, with the rescuer's body angled to support the victim's weight and prevent submersion. The inverted breaststroke kick, for instance, provides continuous power while , often combined with scissor kicks in sidestroke adaptations to avoid striking the victim. Integration of flotation aids, such as rescue or buoys, is emphasized to reduce resistance; the rescuer clips the aid to the victim and uses it for during the tow, enabling longer distances without excessive strain. Standards for these techniques are governed by organizations like the International Life Saving Federation (ILS), founded in 1910 as the Fédération Internationale de Sauvetage, which establishes protocols for training and certification worldwide. ILS guidelines require lifeguards to demonstrate a 50-meter swim with head above water in under 50 seconds as a baseline for rescue readiness, alongside simulated tows such as retrieving and carrying a victim or manikin over 25-50 meters. Historically, the Royal Life Saving Society, established in 1891 in , first codified strokes and maneuvers to address high rates, influencing modern protocols through early competitions and manuals that standardized victim support methods. Challenges in lifesaving tows include rapid fatigue from the increased hydrodynamic resistance caused by the victim's body mass, which can double drag compared to solo and limit to short bursts without aids. Common errors, such as losing grip on a struggling victim due to panic-induced clutching, are mitigated through prevention drills in programs, like repetitive cross-chest carries and release simulations to build secure holds under stress. These adaptations draw briefly from recreational for efficiency but emphasize victim stabilization over speed.

Stationary and Therapeutic Strokes

Stationary and therapeutic strokes in swimming are techniques designed to maintain a vertical or hovering position without net forward propulsion, emphasizing balanced forces to suspend the body in place. These methods rely on alternating or symmetrical movements that generate equal upward against , often combining leg and arm actions for stability. They are particularly valuable in scenarios requiring sustained positioning, such as sports training or rehabilitation, where controlled muscle engagement minimizes joint stress while building endurance. The is a primary technique involving alternating circular motions of the , with one rotating and the other counterclockwise to create continuous upward . This motion traces elongated ovals with the feet, utilizing circumduction, flexion and extension, and ankle plantarflexion to maximize hydrodynamic lift via flow over the foot and drag forces from downward pushes. complements this by employing figure-eight hand patterns—typically with arms extended at shoulder level and wrists flexing to sweep inward and outward—generating lift for hovering and fine adjustments in body position. Vertical kicks, another key method, involve a rapid from the while standing upright in deep , keeping the head above the surface to focus on without forward travel. In water polo, the eggbeater kick enables players to elevate their upper body into a shooting position, freeing the arms for passing, dribbling, or blocking while maintaining vertical stability. For therapeutic purposes, these stationary strokes, including low-impact treading variations like the eggbeater, are integrated into aquatic therapy programs to rehabilitate joints affected by conditions such as osteoarthritis. The buoyancy of water reduces load on knees and hips, allowing gentle, sustained movements that alleviate pain and improve function; clinical trials show small but significant short-term reductions in pain (about 5 points on a 0-100 scale) and disability after 12 weeks of sessions. Propulsion in these strokes achieves balance through opposing thrusts: for instance, the eggbeater generates vertical forces of 60-112 newtons per leg cycle, supporting 10-20% of body weight without directional . demands are moderated by the technique's ; the eggbeater requires lower perceived and metabolic cost compared to synchronous kicks, sustaining high-effort treading for 30-60 seconds in trained individuals before sets in, though drills can extend this to several minutes. These strokes gained prominence in during the mid-, where the eggbeater was adopted for maintaining height during complex figures and routines popularized in the water ballet era. Military training programs have incorporated the eggbeater since the late for stealthy, low-profile water treading in , emphasizing silent propulsion for . Beyond applications, stationary strokes like the eggbeater build leg endurance by targeting hip flexors, , and adductors through repetitive rotary actions, with variations such as modified rotary kicks adjusting size for progressive resistance. This isolation enhances muscular stamina and , transferable to dynamic while providing a low-risk foundation for therapeutic recovery.

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  96. https://www.ilsf.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ILS-2023-ILS-Competition-Rulebook-FINAL-June-2023.pdf
  97. https://www.ilsf.org/about/history/fis/
  98. https://www.royallifesaving.com.au/about/who-we-are/History
  99. https://www.fireengineering.com/technical-rescue/fundamentals-of-open-water-rescue/
  100. http://www.lifesavingsociety.com/media/174375/98swimprogramataglance-january2014.pdf
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