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The Hay Wain by John Constable (1821)

Tranquillity (also spelled tranquility) is the quality or state of being tranquil; that is, calm, serene, and worry-free. The word tranquillity appears in numerous texts ranging from the religious writings of Buddhism—where the term passaddhi refers to tranquillity of the body, thoughts, and consciousness on the path to enlightenment—to an assortment of policy and planning guidance documents, where interpretation of the word is typically linked to engagement with the natural environment. It is also famously used in the Preamble to the United States Constitution, which describes one of the purposes for which the document was establishing the government as to "insure domestic Tranquility".

History

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The word tranquility dates to the 12th century in the Old French word tranquilite, meaning "peace" or "happiness". The word's sense evolved in the late 14th century, but it maintains its reference to the absence of disturbance and peacefulness.

Benefits

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Being in a tranquil or "restorative" environment allows people to take respite from the periods of sustained "directed attention" that characterise modern living. In developing their Attention Restoration Theory (ART), Kaplan and Kaplan proposed that people could most effectively recover from cognitive overload by engaging with natural restorative environments, those that are away from daily distractions and that have the extent and mystery that allows the imagination to wander, thereby enabling people to engage effortlessly with their surroundings.[1] According to the theory, the amount of reflection possible within such an environment depends upon the type of cognitive engagement (fascination) that the environment holds[clarification needed]. "Soft fascination" is deemed to occur when there is enough interest in the surroundings to hold attention but not so much that it compromises the ability to reflect. It provides a pleasing level of sensory input that involves no cognitive effort other than removing oneself from an overcrowded mental space.[2][3]

Enjoyment

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For many, the chance to experience tranquillity is an advantage of the countryside over cities. In a survey by the United Kingdom Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) 58% of people said that tranquillity was the most positive feature of the countryside.[citation needed]

Health

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In contrast to "soft fascination", "directed attention" requires a significant amount of cognitive effort. Prolonged periods of sustained mental activity can lead to directed attention fatigue. This can affect performance and bring about negative emotions, irritability, and decreased sensitivity to interpersonal cues.[4] As the incidence of mental illness continues to rise,[5][better source needed] there is growing evidence that exposure to natural environments can contribute to health and wellbeing[non sequitur]. Exposure to nature contributes to physical and psychological wellbeing. One review[clarification needed] found evidence of "nature-deficit-disorder" in children, which suggests that the importance of being able to engage with restorative environments applies across a wide age range.[6] Natural tranquil surroundings affect the psychology of people suffering from stress. For example, one study found that stress (as measured by blood pressure, muscle tension, and skin conductance response), induced by showing videos of workplace injuries, improved significantly more quickly if further videos viewed included natural surroundings rather than busy traffic or shopping scenes.[7] Another study demonstrated the benefits of simulating such environments for pain relief during bone marrow aspirate and biopsy.[8]

Economic

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The presence of tranquil areas helps boost rural tourism. Rural tourism in the U.K. supports 380,000 jobs and contributes £13.8 billion annually to the rural economy,[9] and one survey showed that tranquillity is the main reason why 49% of visitors are attracted to the countryside.[citation needed]

Research

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Natural settings that effortlessly engage our attention are associated with soft fascination and with the analysis of tranquillity discussed above. One study attempted to distinguish empirically between the constructs of tranquillity and preference as affective qualities of natural environments.[2] Motivated by ART, from which they took tranquillity as a reasonable term to describe soft fascination, they produced definitions for each component. Tranquillity they defined as "how much you think this setting is a quiet, peaceful place, a good place to get away from everyday life", and preference as "how much you like this setting for whatever reason". Subjects were asked to score the following visual settings: mountains, deserts, fields / forests, and waterscapes against those two target variables (tranquillity and preference) and four descriptor variables: mistiness, unstructured openness, focus, and surface calmness. Tranquillity and preference were positively correlated across all settings with tranquillity scoring higher ratings in the field / forest, waterscape, and mountain categories, whilst rushing water had the highest rating in the preference category.

Analysis of the results identified three physical features that help explain the apparent split between tranquillity and preference: mistiness, unstructured openness (how open the scene is and how difficult it is to establish a sense of depth or distance), and surface calmness. Mistiness and unstructured openness tended to depress preference relative to tranquillity whilst surface calmness tended to enhance it. A follow-up study included deserts and waterscapes in the setting types.[10]

Another study investigated the relationship between tranquillity and danger in urban and rural settings.[11] The key results were 1) that "setting care", which relates to how safe we feel in a particular setting, is more salient for judgments of danger in urban settings than natural ones, and 2) that openness was a significant predictor of danger but not of tranquillity. The authors concluded that tranquillity and danger should not be viewed as polar opposites, but, like preference and tranquillity, as distinct constructs.

The role of audio-visual interaction within the tranquillity construct

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Within tranquillity studies, much of the emphasis has been placed on understanding the role of vision in the perception of natural environments. People can very quickly form an impression of a landscape upon viewing it.[12] The speed with which people process complex natural images was tested by using colour photographs of a wide range of animals (mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish) in their natural environments, mixed with distracters that included pictures of forests, mountains, lakes, buildings, and fruit.[13] During this experiment, subjects were shown an image for 20ms and asked to determine whether it contained an animal or not. The electrophysiological brain responses obtained in this study showed that a decision could be made within 150ms of the image being seen, indicating the speed at which cognitive visual processing occurs.

Audition, and the components that comprise the soundscape (a term coined by Schafer[14] to describe the array of sounds that constitute the sonic environment) also inform the ways people characterise landscapes. Auditory reaction times are 50 to 60ms faster than visual ones.[15] Sound can also alter visual perception,[16] and under certain conditions areas of the brain involved in processing auditory information can be activated in response to visual stimuli.

When individuals make tranquillity assessments based on a uni-modal auditory or visual sensory input, they characterise the environment by drawing upon a number of key landscape and soundscape characteristics. For example, when making assessments in response to visual-only stimuli the percentage of water, flora, and geological features positively influence how tranquil a location is perceived to be. Likewise when responding to uni-modal auditory stimuli, the perceived loudness of biological sounds positively influences the perception of tranquillity, whilst the perceived loudness of mechanical sounds have a negative effect. However, when presented with bi-modal auditory-visual stimuli the individual soundscape and landscape components alone no longer influence the perception of tranquillity. Rather configurational coherence was provided by the percentage of natural and contextual features present within the scene and the equivalent continuous sound pressure level (LAeq).[citation needed]

Predicting tranquillity

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Researchers at the Bradford Centre for Sustainable Environments developed a methodology with which the perceived tranquillity rating (TR) of an amenity area such as park, green, or urban square can be measured, on a 0–10 scale.[17] The method involves assessing average daytime noise levels Lday (usually traffic noise) and measuring the percentage of natural and contextual features (NCF) contained within the visual scene. The latter includes the percentage area in the visual scene occupied by natural features in the landscape such as vegetation, water, and geological features (for example, exposure of rock), and contextual features such as listed[jargon] buildings, religious and historic buildings, landmarks, monuments, and elements of the landscape such as traditional farm buildings that directly contribute to the visual context of the natural environment. Lastly, moderating factors (MF) also occur that can influence the perception of tranquillity. The moderating factors are not large; because they are relatively difficult to quantify they are the subject of ongoing research. The TR of an area is then a function of noise, NCF, and MF.

One potentially effective solution to improving tranquillity is to mask traffic noise or distract attention from it with an attractive water sound. Water-generated sounds may improve the perceived tranquillity of gardens blighted by noise.[18] Litter can degrade an environment such that the tranquillity rating drops on average by one scale point[clarification needed].[19]

A study using fMRI neuro-imaging techniques demonstrated the significant differences in effective connectivity between areas of the brain, namely the auditory cortex and the medial pre-frontal cortex, under tranquil and non-tranquil conditions.[20] Specifically the medial pre-frontal cortex receives significantly enhanced contributions from the auditory cortex when presented with a more tranquil visual scene.

Mapping tranquillity

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2007 Tranquillity map of England. Green areas denote very tranquil areas, whereas red areas denote areas with much less tranquillity.

The first method of mapping tranquillity was developed by Simon Rendel of ASH Consulting for a Department for Transport study in 1991. This led to the production of a set of Tranquil Area maps covering England, produced by Rendel and ASH Consulting and published by the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) and the former Countryside Commission.

In these maps tranquil areas were defined as "places sufficiently far from the visual or noise intrusion of development or traffic to be considered unspoilt by urban influences".

More sophisticated mapping techniques are now available following work by researchers at Northumbria University, Newcastle University, and CPRE.

Maps have been produced for the whole of England that show the tranquillity score of Ordnance Survey Grid-derived 500m×500m squares. The tranquillity rating for each is based on 44 factors that add to or detract from people’s feelings of tranquillity.[21] These factors were defined following extensive public consultations.[22]

The methodology examines the diffusion of the impact of these factors over distance, taking into account the terrain of the land. For example, the tranquillity increases gradually the further one is from a busy road, but increases more sharply if the road is hidden in a cutting.

This cartographic study showed that tranquillity is not the absence of all noise, activity, and buildings. Indeed, it found that many rural activities, such as farming and hiking, and natural noises such as birdsong and cows lowing, enhance people’s experience of tranquillity.

Some factors with positive impacts on tranquillity

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  • a natural landscape, including woodland
  • presence of rivers, streams, lakes or the sea
  • birds and other wildlife
  • wide open spaces
  • clear open night sky with/without moon
  • beach in a unique location
  • open field, flora etc. with gentle to moderate wind flow

Some factors with negative impacts on tranquillity

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See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Tranquillity

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Tranquillity is a state of serene calmness and peacefulness, marked by the absence of disturbance from agitation, , or intrusive elements, whether in the mind or surrounding environment. In psychological and philosophical contexts, it manifests as inner composure achieved through detachment from overwhelming emotions or impulses, fostering and mental clarity. Environmentally, tranquillity denotes the restorative quality of natural landscapes with high degrees of remoteness, natural features, and low levels of artificial or visual clutter, as quantified in mapping methodologies. Empirical studies link exposure to such tranquil conditions with reduced psychological distress, lower anxiety, and enhanced overall , underscoring its role in human restoration beyond mere absence of stress. Historically pursued in Stoic philosophy as a of the soul amid external chaos and in Eastern traditions through meditative stillness, tranquillity remains a core component of frameworks, distinct from but complementary to by emphasizing settled repose over active awareness. In contemporary applications, particularly in landscape planning, organizations like the Campaign to Protect Rural have developed tranquillity maps to identify and preserve areas scoring highly on criteria such as sky visibility, lack of , and auditory quietude, countering urbanization's erosion of these spaces. While not without methodological debates over subjective perceptions versus objective metrics, these efforts highlight tranquillity's causal links to physiological recovery, including lowered levels in natural settings.

Definition and Conceptual Foundations

Tranquillity is defined as the or state of being free from disturbance or agitation, manifesting as , quietness, and peacefulness. This encompasses both a psychological condition of mental repose and an experiential in environments conducive to such states. In philosophical and psychological , it is characterized as a calm state of mind undisturbed by strong emotions, passions, impulses, or wishes, often achieved through detachment or cessation of mental fluctuations. Philosophically, Western traditions such as Stoicism conceptualize tranquillity (ataraxia) as an undisturbed equanimity central to eudaimonia, or human flourishing, distinct from mere absence of pain. Eastern perspectives, including Yoga and Buddhism, align it with the stilling of the mind's modifications (citta-vritti-nirodha) or equanimity (upekkha), emphasizing non-reactive awareness to mitigate suffering. Psychologically, it involves a subjective interplay of mood, perception, and sensory inputs, rendering it measurable through self-reported experiences rather than purely objective metrics like silence. Tranquillity differs from , which often denotes or absence of conflict without necessitating personal absorption or detachment, potentially coexisting with internal unrest. Serenity and calm focus more narrowly on emotional unruffledness or temporary stillness, whereas tranquillity incorporates broader elements like immersive presence and freedom from perceptual intrusions. shares non-reactivity but extends to balanced responsiveness across stimuli, contrasting tranquillity's emphasis on undisturbed quietude. These distinctions highlight tranquillity's holistic, multi-sensory nature, vulnerable to both internal dispositions and external factors like or crowding.

Etymology and Philosophical Roots

The term "tranquillity" derives from the Latin tranquillitas, denoting a state of calm, , and spiritual serenity, which entered around 1374 via tranquilite. The root tranquillus, meaning quiet or undisturbed, combines elements suggesting stillness across agitation, reflecting an absence of disturbance in both literal and metaphorical senses. Philosophically, the concept traces to ancient Greek notions of ataraxia, a condition of unperturbed central to Hellenistic schools as a path to or human flourishing. In , (341–270 BCE) positioned ataraxia as the highest pleasure, achieved by eliminating unfounded fears of death and gods through rational moderation and simple natural satisfactions, rather than excess. Stoics, including (c. 334–262 BCE) and later Romans, viewed tranquility as an outcome of virtue and alignment with nature, emphasizing control over judgments to maintain inner calm amid external chaos, though not as an end in itself but a byproduct of rational indifference to indifferents. Skeptics like of (c. 360–270 BCE) pursued ataraxia via , freeing the mind from dogmatic disturbances. In Roman Stoicism, Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4 BCE–65 CE) explicitly elaborated the ideal in (c. 45 CE), a advising his friend Serenus on countering anxiety, tedium, and life's volatility through self-examination, selective engagement with society, and detachment from ambition's excesses. Seneca prescribed alternating retreat and activity, of the present, and viewing hardships as opportunities for resilience, framing tranquility as an active mental rather than passive repose. This work bridged Greek ataraxia with Latin tranquillitas, influencing later Western thought by grounding the pursuit in over abstract theory.

Historical Development

Early Conceptualizations in Philosophy and Literature

In , particularly during the following the in 323 BCE, ataraxia—often rendered as tranquility or unperturbedness—emerged as a central ethical ideal denoting a state of mental free from distress, fear, and excessive desires. (341–270 BCE), founder of , positioned ataraxia as the highest form of pleasure, achievable through the rational pursuit of modest needs, withdrawal from political turmoil, and comprehension of natural processes to dispel unfounded fears such as those of death or divine punishment; this tranquility arises causally from limiting desires to those necessary for bodily health and serene reflection, rather than from indulgence or external achievements. Similarly, of Elis (c. 360–270 BCE), progenitor of Pyrrhonian Skepticism, advocated ataraxia via (epochē) on dogmatic beliefs, arguing that undecidability regarding truth claims prevents emotional perturbation and fosters imperturbable calm amid life's uncertainties. Stoic philosophers adapted tranquility under the related concept of , a freedom from irrational passions that enables rational alignment with nature's order, though they distinguished it from Epicurean passivity by emphasizing active virtue and endurance of externals. (c. 334–262 BCE), Stoicism's founder, and later Roman adherents viewed tranquility as a byproduct of living according to reason, where external events neither disturb the sage's inner citadel nor disrupt ; causal realism here underscores that tranquility stems from accurate discernment of what is within one's control (judgments) versus beyond it (fortune). In literature, early evocations appear in pastoral works like Theocritus's Idylls (c. 3rd century BCE), which depict rural simplicity and absence of urban strife as conducive to serene contentment, reflecting Hellenistic ideals of retreat for mental repose without explicit philosophical systematization. Transitioning to Roman philosophy, Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BCE–65 CE) explicitly theorized tranquillitas animi in his essay De Tranquillitate Animi (c. 45–62 CE), advising moderation in ambitions, selective social engagement, and philosophical reflection to counteract restlessness from fluctuating fortunes; he causally links mental turbulence to overambition and recommends alternating retreat with measured activity to sustain equanimity, drawing on Stoic principles while acknowledging individual variability in temperament. Plutarch (c. 46–119 CE), in his Moralia treatise De Tranquillitate Animi, extends this by prescribing detachment from petty envies and focus on self-sufficiency, positing tranquility as derivable from ethical self-examination rather than mere withdrawal, with empirical undertones in observing how public life erodes inner peace. These Roman adaptations integrated Greek concepts into practical ethics amid imperial volatility, prioritizing causal mechanisms like disciplined cognition over passive idleness.

Emergence in Environmental Psychology (20th Century)

The field of coalesced in the 1960s, initially under the banner of architectural psychology, to examine how physical settings influence human cognition, emotion, and behavior, including early explorations of natural environments' capacity to foster calm states akin to tranquillity. By the late and , amid growing interest in stress reduction and mental restoration, researchers shifted focus to natural landscapes as antidotes to urban overstimulation, laying groundwork for tranquillity as a psychological outcome. Roger Ulrich's experiments in this era demonstrated that brief exposure to natural scenes—characterized by low and absence of threat—accelerated physiological recovery from stress, with participants reporting reduced anxiety and enhanced emotional equilibrium, effects attributable to the environments' inherent soothing qualities. Stephen and Rachel Kaplan's parallel work on (ART), formalized through studies in the 1980s, further embedded tranquillity within restorative processes, positing that natural settings promote "soft fascination" and effortless engagement, yielding mental rejuvenation and a profound sense of distinct from mere relaxation. Their analyses of experiences highlighted tranquillity as a core benefit, linked to features like extent (perceived scope) and being away (escape from routine), supported by self-reported data from hikers showing correlations between environmental immersion and lowered cognitive fatigue. The explicit conceptualization and measurement of tranquillity advanced in the 1990s through empirical rating scales applied to landscape preferences. Thomas Herzog and Patrick Bosley (1992) quantified tranquillity as an independent affective dimension in natural environments, using participant ratings across categories like field-forests and misty mountains; findings revealed strong positive correlations with overall preference (r ≈ 0.7-0.8) yet distinct patterns, with tranquillity peaking in coherent, low-disturbance scenes featuring visual elements such as openness and calm. This study, building on prior restoration paradigms, identified predictive factors including mystery and coherence, establishing tranquillity as a verifiable perceptual construct amenable to psychological assessment rather than vague . Subsequent validations, including Herzog's 1999 revisit, confirmed its robustness across diverse terrains, underscoring tranquillity's role in evaluations. These developments marked tranquillity's transition from implicit restorative element to a focal variable in , influencing later policy-oriented mappings.

Key Milestones in Landscape Assessment (2000s Onward)

In 2006, the commissioned researchers from to produce the first national tranquillity map of , marking a pivotal advancement in systematic assessment. This effort built on earlier pilot mappings by identifying and quantifying tranquillity-influencing factors through empirical surveys of over 2,500 individuals, who rated 77 scenes for perceived tranquillity. The resulting methodology scored 50 specific attributes—such as the presence of natural features, absence of visible development, and remoteness from intrusive infrastructure—allowing for GIS-based mapping of tranquillity levels across the country. The map revealed that only 48% of retained significant tranquillity in 2006, down from 56% in 1997 estimates, highlighting quantifiable losses due to and expansion. Parallel developments in predictive modeling emerged around 2007–2010, led by acoustic and environmental researchers at the . They formulated the Tranquillity Rating (TR) prediction tool, expressed as TR = NCF + SCF - VDF, where NCF represents natural content factors (e.g., extent of sky visibility and ), SCF denotes special content factors (e.g., historic landmarks enhancing calm), and VDF accounts for visual and auditory disturbances like traffic or buildings. This model was calibrated using and field experiments with participants rating audio-visual stimuli from diverse landscapes, achieving correlations above 0.8 between predicted and observed ratings. Validation studies in 2010 confirmed its applicability to both rural and urban settings, with field trials in 12 sites demonstrating reliable predictions of visitor-perceived tranquillity scores. By the 2010s, these tools integrated into broader landscape character assessments and planning frameworks. adopted tranquillity mapping in its 2010–2015 priorities, applying refined methodologies to designate "tranquil areas" in national parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs). A 2015 analysis evaluated local authority policies, finding 20% of English councils had incorporated tranquillity criteria into development plans, often using TR models to predict impacts from proposed infrastructure. Subsequent refinements included probabilistic extensions to the TR model for urban contexts, tested in 2021 via analysis of 1.6 million geolocated social media posts correlating textual sentiment with landscape metrics. International adaptations followed, with Switzerland's 2010s mapping of the Central Plateau using similar factor-based approaches tailored to dense populations, emphasizing acoustic remoteness. In the UK, 2023 reviews underscored the models' robustness against biases in perceptual data, though limitations persist in accounting for individual variability beyond averaged population responses. These milestones shifted tranquillity from qualitative descriptor to quantifiable planning metric, supported by repeatable empirical protocols rather than anecdotal evidence.

Psychological and Physiological Underpinnings

Mechanisms of Tranquillity Induction

Tranquillity arises through psychological processes that restore cognitive resources depleted by sustained directed attention, as posited in attention restoration theory, where exposure to natural environments promotes "soft fascination" that effortlessly engages the mind without effortful control, fostering a sense of calm and reduced mental fatigue. This mechanism operates via the involuntary capture of attention by moderate, non-threatening stimuli, such as gentle natural movements or sounds, which allow executive functions to recover and diminish rumination on stressors. Empirical evidence from field studies supports that such restorative experiences correlate with self-reported tranquility ratings, independent of mere preference for settings. Physiologically, tranquillity induction involves a shift toward parasympathetic dominance in the , characterized by decreased , lowered levels, and enhanced , often triggered by low- sensory inputs like or slow-paced natural rhythms. , for instance, activates the ventral vagal complex, suppressing sympathetic and promoting alongside physiological relaxation, as measured by reduced skin conductance and electroencephalographic indicators of activity. Slow, further mediates this by engaging a pontine neuronal cluster that inhibits noradrenergic pathways linked to , directly coupling respiratory patterns to states of reduction and tranquility, as identified in optogenetic studies on mice extrapolated to analogs. Neurally, contextual modulation of underpins subjective tranquility, with revealing enhanced effective connectivity in auditory networks during serene conditions, where natural ambient sounds amplify prefrontal-auditory interactions to heighten of peacefulness over urban noise. This integration filters out discordant inputs, aligning objective environmental features—such as absence of mechanized intrusions—with internal states of quietude and , distinct from mere relaxation by incorporating reflective awareness. Viewing non-threatening natural scenes accelerates this by eliciting positive affect that downregulates amygdala reactivity, hastening recovery from acute stress as quantified by faster normalization of and muscle tension in experimental paradigms.

Individual Variability and Cultural Influences

Individual variability in the experience of tranquillity arises from factors such as personal connection to , which positively correlates with perceived restorativeness in natural environments, as individuals with stronger nature relatedness report higher tranquility in restorative settings like walking paths. Personal definitions of tranquillity also influence , with subjective interpretations of calm affecting evaluations of sonic environments in urban areas, where those viewing tranquillity as low noise and rate soundscapes more favorably. Demographic differences contribute, as age and can shape understandings of tranquillity in spaces, with older respondents and certain gender groups showing distinct preferences for elements like quietness and greenery in urban open areas. However, some studies find no significant gender differences in overall tranquility ratings across professional groups. Personality traits further modulate tranquillity, with lower in the Big Five model linked to better and sustained calm, enabling greater appreciation of tranquil states amid environmental stimuli. Mental and physical states at the time of assessment also vary responses, as transient conditions like can alter tranquility impressions independently of environmental factors. Cultural influences on tranquillity perception reflect preferences for emotional arousal levels, with East Asian cultures favoring low-arousal positive states such as calm and peacefulness over high-arousal excitement valued more in Western contexts. This aligns with broader patterns where Eastern philosophical traditions emphasize inner tranquility through practices like , contrasting Western pursuits of dynamic engagement, though both seek transcendent peace in spiritual experiences. emotion research supports these divergences, attributing them to socialization that prioritizes serene equilibrium in collectivist societies versus individualistic stimulation.

Environmental Determinants

Positive Contributors to Tranquillity

Environmental features that promote tranquillity primarily involve landscapes offering visual openness, , and minimal human intrusion. In the Campaign to Protect Rural 's () tranquillity mapping methodology, positive contributors include elevated terrain such as hills and mountains, which provide screening effects against distant disturbances, as well as coastal views and open water bodies that enhance perceptual calm. Similarly, broadleaved woodlands, heathlands, and arable lands contribute through their and low structural clutter, fostering a sense of and harmony. These elements align with empirical findings that landscapes with high naturalness ratings correlate with elevated tranquillity perceptions, as validated in field studies across . Vegetation density and wildlife presence further amplify tranquillity by introducing restorative visual and auditory cues. Research demonstrates that areas with dense greenery and observable fauna, such as birds or mammals, significantly boost subjective tranquillity ratings compared to barren or urbanized settings, likely due to biophilic responses triggering physiological relaxation. Coastal and low-lying natural vegetation zones, including heathlands and grasslands, have been linked to heightened positive affect in large-scale surveys, with participants reporting greater peace in such environments over built ones. Natural sounds, including gentle winds, water flows, and avian calls, reinforce these effects by providing auditory congruence with visual serenity, as opposed to mechanical noises. Atmospheric conditions like clear skies and high night sky visibility also serve as positive modifiers, particularly in rural contexts where light pollution is absent. CPRE's model assigns weights to unlit skies and natural horizon lines, which empirical validation through public surveys confirms enhance overall tranquillity by evoking a profound of vastness and timelessness. spaces, integrating water elements with vegetation, exhibit compounded benefits in urban fringes, mitigating residual noise and promoting sustained attentional restoration, as evidenced in reviews of perceptual studies. These contributors collectively underscore tranquillity's dependence on environments that prioritize ecological integrity over anthropogenic dominance, with quantifiable impacts on stress reduction metrics in exposed individuals.

Negative Disruptors and Human Impacts

Auditory disturbances, particularly mechanical noise from transportation sources such as road traffic, aircraft overflights, and rail operations, constitute primary disruptors of perceived tranquillity in natural and rural landscapes. Empirical assessments indicate that such anthropogenic sounds exert a strong negative influence on tranquillity ratings, often overriding the restorative effects of natural soundscapes like birdsong or wind. For instance, in controlled studies evaluating auditory stimuli, mechanical noises consistently lowered participants' perceptions of calm and peace, with traffic noise specifically demonstrated to mask mood recovery benefits from natural environments. Noise levels exceeding 50-60 dB(A), common near highways or airports, correlate with elevated stress responses and diminished psychological restoration, as measured through self-reported tranquility scales and physiological indicators like cortisol levels. Visual intrusions from human further erode tranquillity by introducing elements of artificiality and dominance over natural vistas. Prominent man-made features, including buildings, power pylons, roads, and , reduce the sense of remoteness and naturalness essential to tranquil experiences. Research involving panoramic assessments of rural and urban sites has quantified this effect, showing that visibility of developed structures accounts for up to 40% of variance in tranquility judgments, sometimes surpassing acoustic factors in impact. , graffiti, and obtrusive lighting exacerbate these effects, with light pollution fragmenting night-time tranquility by suppressing starry skies and altering circadian rhythms in affected areas. Human activities amplify these disruptors through patterns of and development. Urban expansion and proliferation have measurably contracted tranquil zones; for example, in , mapping efforts reveal a decline from 2003 to 2020, with over 10% loss attributed to increased road networks and routes fragmenting quiet rural expanses. Over-tourism in protected areas introduces crowd noise and trampling, while industrial operations add persistent vibrational and olfactory disturbances, collectively diminishing that underpins acoustic tranquility. These impacts are causally linked to policy decisions favoring connectivity over preservation, resulting in cascading effects on human well-being, including heightened anxiety and reduced cognitive restoration in proximity to disrupted sites.

Measurement and Prediction

Methodological Approaches to Assessing Tranquillity

Assessing tranquillity typically involves a combination of perceptual, acoustic, and geospatial methods, often validated against human experiential data. Perceptual approaches rely on subjective ratings from individuals exposed to environments, using tools such as visual analogue scales or questionnaires where participants rate scenes for qualities like calm, peacefulness, and absence of disturbance. These methods capture psychological responses but are resource-intensive, requiring field visits or simulations with photographs or videos. The Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) tranquillity mapping methodology, first developed in 2006 and refined in subsequent iterations, represents a prominent geospatial predictive approach for landscapes. It employs (GIS) analysis of 42 indicators—12 positive (e.g., presence of mountains, rivers, and ) and 30 negative (e.g., of roads, buildings, and aircraft flight paths)—weighted according to their influence on perceived tranquillity, derived from public consultations involving over 2,500 participants rating landscape photographs. modeling accounts for earth curvature up to a 6 km radius, producing tranquillity scores from 0 to 21, with higher values indicating greater potential for tranquillity; this has been applied nationally in to identify tranquil areas covering about 48% of the land in 2006, declining to 43% by 2021 due to urban expansion. The method's strength lies in its scalability for , though it models potential rather than experienced tranquillity, showing discrepancies with on-site surveys in urban-proximate areas. ![CPRE England tranquillity map showing areas of high tranquillity in green and low in red][center] Acoustic assessments integrate sound pressure level measurements and noise mapping to quantify quietness as a proxy for tranquillity, often combined with visual and contextual factors. European Union directives, such as the Environmental Noise Directive (2002/49/EC), mandate strategic noise mapping for agglomerations over 100,000 inhabitants, using Lden (day-evening-night) levels below 50 dB(A) to designate quiet areas, though studies indicate that tranquillity extends beyond mere decibel thresholds to include natural soundscapes and low human intrusion. Holistic soundscape frameworks, building on ISO 12913-1:2014 standards, evaluate perceptual attributes like pleasantness alongside biophysical metrics. Emerging data-driven methods leverage crowdsourced and digital traces for cost-effective assessment. (NLP) applied to geotagged user-generated content, such as reviews or posts, extracts sentiment indicators of tranquillity (e.g., keywords like "peaceful" or "serene") and correlates them with landscape features like vegetation cover and water proximity, achieving moderate predictive accuracy (R² ≈ 0.4-0.6) against field validations. Multi-criteria analysis with open geospatial data, including from Copernicus datasets and infrastructure layers from , enables tranquility indices without primary surveys, as demonstrated in Italian case studies scoring environments on naturalness and accessibility. These approaches enhance scalability but require caution due to sampling biases toward tourists rather than locals. Methodological —integrating perceptual surveys with predictive models and digital analytics—improves robustness, as single methods like CPRE's overlook dynamic factors such as seasonal variations or individual differences. Validation often involves comparing mapped predictions against empirical ratings, revealing that experienced tranquillity aligns better with visible natural elements than modeled quietness alone.

Tranquillity Rating and Prediction Models

The Tranquillity Rating Prediction Tool (TRAPT) is a predictive model designed to estimate tranquillity levels in outdoor environments, including urban parks and open spaces, by integrating objective environmental variables such as ambient sound pressure levels and the visibility of human-made structures. Developed through empirical studies correlating perceptual ratings with measurable factors, TRAPT employs multiple linear regression to forecast tranquillity scores on a scale typically ranging from 0 to 10, where higher values indicate greater perceived calm. Validation efforts, including field tests in densely populated urban settings, have demonstrated moderate to strong correlations (r ≈ 0.7–0.8) between predicted and visitor-reported tranquillity ratings, supporting its utility for pre- and post-development assessments. However, the model's accuracy diminishes in highly variable micro-environments, as it relies on averaged inputs rather than real-time individual perceptions. In landscape-scale applications, the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) tranquillity model assigns numerical ratings to areas based on approximately 25 biophysical and perceptual indicators, including terrain variability, vegetation cover, and proximity to noise sources like roads or airports. This GIS-integrated approach predicts tranquillity by weighting positive natural elements (e.g., +1 to +2 points for rivers or hills) against negative intrusions (e.g., -1 to -3 for visible pylons or traffic), yielding a composite score that delineates "tranquil" zones above a threshold of +10. Applied nationally in since 2006, the model has informed policy by identifying over 500,000 hectares of high-tranquillity land, though its static parameters overlook temporal fluctuations like seasonal visitor density. Emerging urban-focused models, such as the Tranquil City Index (TCI), extend prediction frameworks by incorporating psychological metrics alongside acoustic and visual data to benchmark city-wide tranquillity for planning. TCI validation studies link index scores to self-reported stress reduction, achieving predictive reliability through refinements on datasets from over 1,000 urban sites, but require further cross-cultural testing to account for demographic variances in baseline expectations. These tools collectively prioritize causal predictors like soundscape dominance over subjective biases, enabling quantifiable forecasts for environmental interventions, yet their reliance on averaged data limits precision for outlier experiences.

Mapping Tranquillity

Techniques for Spatial Mapping

Spatial mapping of tranquillity employs geographic information systems (GIS) to model areas of high tranquillity potential based on environmental indicators of naturalness and disturbance. One established technique, developed by the in 2008, integrates public perception data from participatory appraisals involving over 4,000 respondents across regions to identify key factors such as visual naturalness, auditory quietude from birdsong or water, and intrusions like traffic noise or urban development. These factors are translated into GIS layers using datasets including vectors for infrastructure, Map 2000 for vegetation screening, and noise models derived from traffic and rail data. The CPRE methodology applies threshold analysis to define distance buffers—such as 1 km from major roads or 20 km from airfields—reclassifying them on a 0-10 scale weighted by empirical public responses (e.g., 60% weighting for presence of people as a negative visual factor). Positive scores accrue from features like open landscapes or sky visibility, enhanced by screening effects from tree cover, while negative scores subtract for visible or audible human elements; final tranquillity values are computed per grid cell (typically 250m x 250m) as weighted sums, yielding continuous maps validated against field surveys with standard deviations below 10% in regional tests. Alternative approaches map experienced tranquillity through empirical data collection, such as structured interviews at specific sites where participants rate locations on a 1-5 scale and describe attributes like absence of crowds or proximity to . In a 2017 study in and , 100 interviewees' responses were aggregated to identify high-tranquillity zones, revealing alignments with water bodies but divergences from infrastructure-avoidance models like CPRE's, which prioritize remoteness. Crowdsourced methods leverage for large-scale empirical mapping, analyzing geotagged photographs from platforms like filtered by tranquillity-associated tags (e.g., "peaceful," "serene") derived from keywords. A chi-expectation surface on a 1 km grid compares observed tag densities against baseline photo distributions, highlighting over-represented tranquil areas near natural features; this 2020 analysis of 22,082 images confirmed water-adjacent hotspots but challenged pure remoteness assumptions by identifying tranquility near low-impact roads. Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) with open geospatial data offers a cost-effective variant, constructing composite indices from barriers like noise propagation modeled via digital elevation models and enablers such as from Copernicus services. Applied in 2018 near a Greek highway, analytic functions and yield tranquility zones validated at 80% accuracy and Kappa 0.71 against photo-interpreted , emphasizing scalable use of free data for regions lacking proprietary surveys. These techniques collectively distinguish potential tranquillity (predictive, indicator-driven) from experienced (data-calibrated), with hybrids improving robustness through triangulation of objective metrics and subjective validations.

Applications in Urban and Rural Planning

Tranquillity mapping techniques, initially developed by the in collaboration with the Countryside Agency, provide planners with spatial data to identify areas distant from and visual intrusions, such as roads, airports, and urban development. These maps, based on zonal models incorporating empirical factors like natural screening and settlement density, have informed planning since the early 2000s, enabling the designation of tranquil areas for protection under policies emphasizing undisturbed landscapes. In rural planning, tranquillity assessments guide conservation priorities in protected designations like National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs), where 40% of management plans incorporated tranquillity policies as of 2017, primarily to restrict developments that could introduce auditory or visual disturbances. For example, forest planning frameworks utilize these maps to allocate quiet zones away from mechanized activities, preserving ecological and recreational values tied to low human impact. Local strategies, such as those in South Oxfordshire and the Vale of White Horse districts finalized in 2024, integrate tranquillity scores into landscape character assessments to oppose incompatible infrastructure like wind farms or transmission lines. Urban applications leverage tranquillity prediction models, including the Tranquillity Rating Prediction Tool (), to design green spaces that attenuate through vegetation and water features, achieving perceived calm in densely populated settings. Studies in urban parks demonstrate that sites scoring high on tranquillity indices—factoring levels below 40 dB(A) and high naturalness—correlate with reduced stress, informing bylaws for buffers around recreational areas. The UK's National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF), revised in 2018 and 2021, mandates identifying and protecting tranquil spaces, prompting local authorities like to apply these assessments in development control, ensuring new builds incorporate mitigation to maintain adjacent quietude. Challenges in application arise from balancing growth pressures with preservation, as evidenced by surveys showing only partial adoption among 340 contacted planning authorities, highlighting variability in enforcement due to subjective elements in mapping methodologies. Nonetheless, replicable frameworks like the Broadly Engaging with Tranquillity project extend these tools to peri-urban fringes, aiding hybrid planning that enhances tranquility through targeted restoration.

Empirical Benefits

Health and Physiological Outcomes

Exposure to tranquil environments, defined by low levels of and sensory disturbances, has been associated with reduced physiological markers of stress, including lower salivary levels. A study published in found that spending 20 minutes in a natural setting significantly decreased concentrations compared to urban environments, indicating a rapid stress-relieving effect attributable to the calming sensory input of tranquility. Similarly, interventions promoting tranquility through immersion or quietude have demonstrated efficacy in modulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, thereby attenuating responses to acute stressors. Tranquil settings contribute to cardiovascular health by mitigating the adverse effects of chronic exposure, which independently elevates risks for and ischemic heart disease. Epidemiological evidence from long-term cohort studies links sustained low- environments—hallmarks of tranquility—to lower incidence of elevated and , with levels below 50 decibels correlating with reduced activation and vascular strain. For instance, meta-analyses of transportation impacts reveal dose-response relationships where quieter, tranquil exposures inversely predict decreased arterial prevalence by 5-10% per 10-decibel reduction in ambient sound. Physiological benefits extend to improved autonomic balance, as tranquility fosters enhanced and parasympathetic dominance, countering the fight-or-flight responses induced by disruptive stimuli. Research on restorative natural environments, proxies for tranquility, shows decreased resting heart rates and within minutes of exposure, persisting for hours post-immersion. These outcomes are supported by randomized controlled trials demonstrating that low-stimulation, serene conditions outperform urban noise in promoting endothelial function and reducing inflammatory biomarkers linked to . Overall, such findings underscore tranquility's role in buffering physiological wear from environmental stressors, though remains strengthened by longitudinal designs over cross-sectional associations.

Psychological and Cognitive Effects

Tranquil environments, characterized by low sensory disturbance and natural features, elicit psychological states of calm and restoration, reducing self-reported stress and anxiety levels. Experimental studies in demonstrate that participants exposed to tranquil scenes—such as open natural landscapes with minimal human intrusion—experience heightened subjective tranquility, which correlates with decreased physiological and improved emotional compared to urban or disrupted settings. This effect is attributed to the absence of perceived threats and the presence of moderate fascination, fostering a of and aesthetic that buffers against daily psychological strain. Psychologically, tranquility supports mental well-being by mitigating rumination and promoting positive affect, with longitudinal data showing weak but consistent positive associations between tranquil states and overall metrics over time. In clinical contexts, such as , brief exposures to tranquil natural settings yield measurable improvements in mood and reduced depressive symptoms, outperforming equivalent time in non-natural environments. These benefits extend to broader populations, where tranquility derived from quiet, biophysically favorable surroundings enhances resilience to psychological distress, though effects vary by individual predisposition to affinity. Cognitively, tranquil environments facilitate attention restoration and enhanced executive function, countering prevalent in high-stimulation urban life. Field experiments reveal that viewing or immersing in tranquil natural vistas improves , , and , with effect sizes comparable to restorative breaks in controlled settings. Electroencephalographic (EEG) evidence further links tranquil natural stimuli to activity patterns indicative of relaxed , supporting recovery of cognitive resources without the interference of or visual clutter. However, while affective gains are robust, cognitive enhancements are less consistent across tasks, particularly in short exposures or non-clinical samples, suggesting mediation by factors like baseline and exposure duration.

Economic and Societal Valuations

Tranquillity enhances values through its association with low levels and natural amenities, as demonstrated by hedonic pricing analyses of environmental factors. For instance, reductions in road exposure correlate with higher residential prices, with marginal willingness-to-pay estimates indicating that a 1 dB decrease in can yield benefits equivalent to 0.08-0.17% of value in European urban contexts, reflecting the premium placed on quieter surroundings. Proximity to natural habitats and designated quiet areas further capitalizes into elevated land prices, with studies estimating that access to such features adds 1-5% to nearby values depending on visibility and accessibility. In and sectors, tranquillity drives economic activity by attracting visitors seeking calm rural experiences. In the UK, it ranks as a key motivator for to protected landscapes, supporting rural economies through day trips and overnight stays that generate from accommodations, local services, and outdoor pursuits. National estimates attribute to tranquillity an annual economic contribution of £6.76 billion and 186,200 jobs in , primarily via industries reliant on undisturbed natural settings. Societally, tranquillity is appraised for its role in fostering public , with surveys indicating widespread preference for preserving quiet spaces over development in planning consultations. Empirical assessments link tranquil environments to broader quality-of-life metrics, including reduced psychological distress and enhanced community cohesion, as valued in policy frameworks by organizations like . This valuation manifests in strategic protections, such as tranquillity-based , which prioritize long-term societal gains in health and restorative opportunities over short-term infrastructural expansions.

Criticisms and Limitations

Methodological Shortcomings in Research

A primary methodological shortcoming in tranquillity research involves the heavy reliance on expert-derived models for spatial assessment, which often employ fixed-distance thresholds from and visual intrusions, such as roads or settlements, without adequately incorporating variability in terrain, weather, or temporal factors that influence perception. These models, exemplified by early iterations of the Campaign to Protect Rural (CPRE) tranquillity mapping from 1995, were critiqued by Levett (2000) for assigning criteria weights arbitrarily by consultants rather than through empirical validation or broad stakeholder input, potentially skewing results toward preconceived notions of tranquility rather than observed human experiences. Subsequent refinements addressed some issues by integrating public surveys, yet persistent limitations include the models' static nature, which assumes uniform perceptual responses across diverse populations and ignores individual psychological states or cultural variances in valuing quietude. Empirical validation remains inconsistent, with studies revealing significant discrepancies between predicted "potential" tranquil areas—based on landscape proxies like visibility of man-made structures—and locations where individuals report actual feelings of tranquility during field surveys or geotagged analyses. For instance, people may experience tranquility near low-level human activity or subtle that models undervalue, while overemphasizing isolation; this gap arises because assessments prioritize absence of disturbances over multifaceted sensory integrations, including olfactory or tactile elements, leading to over- or under-prediction in 20-30% of cases depending on the . Self-reported tools like the Tranquillity Rating Questionnaire, while standardized in some protocols, introduce subjectivity through Likert-scale responses prone to response biases, such as or halo effects, and rarely triangulate with objective metrics like levels below 30-40 dB(A) or to confirm perceptual claims. Sample representativeness poses another challenge, as many studies draw from convenience samples of urban dwellers or specific demographics, such as middle-class countryside visitors in the UK, limiting extrapolation to broader populations including rural residents or non-Western cultural groups where tranquility may prioritize social harmony over solitude. Correlational designs dominate, conflating association with causation—e.g., assuming low aircraft noise directly induces tranquility without controlling for confounders like personal mood or prior exposure—while longitudinal tracking of tranquillity effects over time is scarce, hindering causal inference. Peer-reviewed critiques further note insufficient interdisciplinary integration, with acoustic-focused methods sidelining visual or biodiversity contributions, and a lack of falsifiability in predictive algorithms that resist disconfirmation when real-world validations fail. These issues collectively undermine the reliability of tranquillity metrics for policy, as evidenced by CPRE's own acknowledgments of mapping uncertainties in non-absolute classifications.

Overemphasis on Environmental Determinism

Tranquility assessment models, such as those developed by the Campaign to Protect Rural (CPRE), predominantly attribute perceived tranquility to objective environmental variables, including low levels, absence of visible , and natural landscape features. These approaches calculate "tranquility scores" based on spatial data proxies like distance from roads or settlements, implying a deterministic link where environmental conditions directly dictate experience of calm. However, such methodologies overlook the subjective of tranquility, which empirical field surveys reveal does not align closely with modelled predictions; for instance, individuals often report tranquility in areas with moderate presence or urban edges that models deem intrusive. Personal factors significantly mediate environmental influences on tranquility , with studies demonstrating that beliefs and viewpoints about what constitutes tranquility shape responses more than uniform environmental metrics. Research using geolocated social media data, such as posts analyzed via , highlights mismatches between potential tranquility maps and actual experiences, attributing divergences to contextual human elements like activity type, emotional state, and cultural background rather than solely acoustic or visual inputs. Qualitative interviews further underscore this subjectivity, where respondents define tranquil urban spaces variably based on personal associations with relaxation or escape, independent of standardized environmental criteria. Genetic and personality traits contribute to variability in environmental sensitivity, challenging purely deterministic frameworks. Noise sensitivity, a key detractor from tranquility, exhibits heritability estimates of 36% to 47% in twin studies, indicating that genetic predispositions influence how individuals process auditory disturbances beyond exposure levels alone. Broader environmental sensitivity, encompassing responses to sensory inputs relevant to tranquility, shows similar polygenic influences interacting with non-shared experiences, accounting for up to 47% of variance. Personality dimensions, such as neuroticism or introversion, correlate with heightened aversion to environmental stressors, amplifying perceived lack of tranquility in otherwise "calm" settings for some while diminishing it for others. This environmental focus in tranquility research inherits limitations from broader deterministic paradigms, including failure to model interactions between traits and contexts or account for adaptive human agency in seeking or interpreting serene spaces. Early critiques of mapping noted rigid assumptions about intrusion distances and neglect of perceptual variability, leading to overstated uniformity in tranquility potential. Consequently, policies derived from such models risk misallocating resources by prioritizing landscape modifications over understanding differential human responses, potentially undervaluing interventions tailored to or genetic baselines.

Policy and Practical Applications

Integration in Urban Design and Conservation

In , tranquillity is integrated through strategies that reduce acoustic and visual disturbances, including the creation of blue-green spaces like parks and water features that attenuate by up to 10-15 decibels in proximate areas. Initiatives such as the Tranquil City project, initiated around 2018, employ mapping tools to identify low-noise urban pockets—defined by levels below 50 dB(A)—and advocate their preservation amid development, influencing to prioritize restorative environments over dense . These approaches draw on empirical models like the Tranquillity Rating Prediction Tool (), which quantifies perceived calm based on versus mechanized , enabling designers to forecast and enhance site-specific serenity. Conservation efforts leverage tranquillity mapping to designate protected zones, with the UK's National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF), revised in 2012 and updated through 2024, mandating local plans to identify and safeguard "tranquil areas which have remained relatively undisturbed by and are prized for their recreational and amenity value." The Campaign to Protect Rural (CPRE) tranquillity maps, first developed in 1995 and refined via 2006 research by , delineate high-tranquillity landscapes—covering about 48% of in 2006—by scoring factors like distance from motorways (over 4 km for peak scores) and pylon-free vistas, informing decisions to restrict and infrastructure in peri-urban fringes. Such tools have supported conservation in national parks, where tranquillity loss from 1995 to 2006 averaged 10-15% due to encroaching development, prompting policies for buffer zones. Practical applications include "Tranquillity Trails," pedestrian routes engineered since the to link urban green corridors, fostering access to calm amid city density while conserving embedded natural assets. In , national tranquillity inventories from 2024 extend mapping to urban edges, guiding conservation by prioritizing low-intrusion sites for preservation and informing EU-level directives on quiet areas under the Environmental Noise Directive (2002/49/EC). These integrations balance expansion with retention, though empirical validation remains challenged by subjective perceptions varying by cultural context.

Challenges in Balancing Development and Preservation

Balancing with the preservation of tranquillity presents significant challenges in , as expanding urban and needs often encroach on quiet rural and natural areas valued for their restorative qualities. In , tranquil areas—defined as places sufficiently distant from and visual intrusions of development or —have experienced a documented decline over decades, with a 1995 Campaign to Protect Rural (CPRE) study highlighting a 30-year reduction attributed to urban expansion, roads, and . Updated national mappings in 2006 further evidenced ongoing losses, with public perceptions citing urban development 373 times as a key negative factor disrupting serenity, alongside constant car (886 mentions) and high human presence (627 mentions). Specific regional pressures exacerbate these tensions; for instance, Swale in faces intense housing estates, road expansions, and aircraft noise from nearby airports, despite its rural character, leading to fragmented tranquil zones amid transportation developments. Similarly, Mid in rural southwest contends with modern development and tourism-driven recreation, which introduce noise and crowds even in low-population areas, as evidenced by participant feedback in tranquility assessments scoring these intrusions heavily. and road traffic amplify the issue nationally, with projections of 30% road traffic growth by 2015 and rising air traffic overflying serene landscapes, such as national parks, where noise erodes solitude. Policy frameworks like the UK's National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) acknowledge tranquility's importance by directing protection of quiet spaces, yet implementation falters due to economic priorities favoring and , creating conflicts between developers seeking growth and conservationists emphasizing empirical benefits of undisturbed environments. Quantifying tranquility for remains problematic, as GIS-based maps reveal variability (scores from -140 to +148) but struggle to incorporate temporal fluctuations—like weekend surges or seasonal —complicating trade-off assessments. These challenges underscore the need for robust , green buffers, and integrated to reconcile development imperatives with causal links between preserved tranquility and psychological , though vested interests often prioritize measurable economic gains over intangible ecological assets.

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  107. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/13/4/501
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