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Thant (Burmese: သန့်, MLCTS: san., pronounced [θa̰ɰ̃]; 22 January 1909 – 25 November 1974), known honorifically as U Thant (/uː θɑːnt/),[a] was a Burmese diplomat and the third secretary-general of the United Nations from 1961 to 1971, the first non-Scandinavian as well as Asian to hold the position. He held the office for a record 10 years and one month.[b]

A native of Pantanaw, Thant was educated at the National High School and at Rangoon University. In the days of tense political climate in Burma, he held moderate views positioning himself between fervent nationalists and British loyalists. He was a close friend of Burma's first Prime Minister U Nu and served in various positions in Nu's cabinet from 1948 to 1961. Thant had a calm and unassuming demeanour that won his colleagues' respect.[2]

He succeeded James Barrington as Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations. He was appointed Secretary-General in 1961, six weeks after his predecessor, Dag Hammarskjöld, had died in an air crash. In his first term, Thant facilitated negotiations between U.S. president John F. Kennedy and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, helping to avert a global catastrophe. Later, in December that year, Thant ordered Operation Grandslam, which ended a secessionist insurgency in Congo. He was reappointed as Secretary-General on 2 December 1966, by a unanimous vote of the Security Council. During his second term Thant was well known for publicly criticizing U.S. conduct in the Vietnam War. He oversaw the entry of several newly independent African and Asian states into the UN. He refused to serve a third term, and retired in 1971.

Thant died of lung cancer in 1974. A devout Buddhist and the foremost Burmese diplomat on the international stage, he was widely admired and held in great respect by the Burmese populace. When the military government refused him any honours, riots erupted in Rangoon; these were violently crushed by the government, leaving scores of casualties.

Early life

[edit]
Thant as a Rangoon University student in 1927

Thant, the eldest of four sons, was born in Pantanaw, Colonial Burma, to a moderately wealthy family of landowners and rice merchants. His father Po Hnit, who had been educated in Calcutta, was the only person in the town who could communicate well in English.[3] He was a founding member of the Burma Research Society and had helped establish The Sun (Thuriya) newspaper in Rangoon.[3][4] Although his family members were ethnic Bamars and devout Buddhists, Thant's father, according to Thant Myint-U (U Thant's grandson), had distant ancestors who were "people from both India and China, Buddhists and Muslims, as well as Shans and Mons".[5] He hoped that all his four sons would each earn a degree.[6] His other sons, Khant, Thaung, and Tin Maung went on to become politicians and scholars.[4]

Po Hnit had collected a personal library of various American and British books and cultivated a reading habit among his children. As a result, Thant became an avid reader and his school friends nicknamed him "The Philosopher".[7] Apart from reading, he enjoyed various sports including hiking, swimming and playing chinlone.[8] He went to the National High School in Pantanaw. At the age of eleven Thant participated in strikes against the University Act of 1920. He dreamed of becoming a journalist and surprised the family by writing an article for the Union of Burma Boy Scouts magazine. When Thant was fourteen, his father died and a series of inheritance disputes forced Thant's mother, Nan Thaung, and her four children into difficult financial times.[9]

After the death of his father, Thant believed he would not be able to complete a four-year degree and instead worked for a two-year teaching certificate at Rangoon University in 1926. As the eldest son he had to fulfill his filial duties and responsibilities to the family. At university, Thant, together with future Prime Minister Nu studied history under D. G. E. Hall. Nu was told by a distant mutual relative to take care of Thant and the two soon became close friends.[10] Thant was elected joint secretary of the University Philosophical Association and secretary of the Literary and Debating Society.[11] In Rangoon, Thant met J.S. Furnivall, the founder of The Burma Book Club and The World of Books magazine, to which Thant regularly contributed. Promising a good post, Furnivall urged Thant to complete a four-year university course and join the Civil Service, but Thant refused.[12] After earning the certificate, he returned to Pantanaw to teach at the National High School as a senior teacher in 1928. He contacted Furnivall and Nu regularly, writing articles and participating in The World of Books translation competitions.[13]

In 1931, Thant won first place in All Burma Teachership Examination and became the school's headmaster by the age of twenty-five.[14][15] Urged by Thant, his friend Nu took the local superintendent of schools position. Thant regularly contributed to several newspapers and magazines under the pen name "Thilawa" and translated a number of books, including one on the League of Nations.[16] His major influences were Sir Stafford Cripps, Sun Yat-sen and Mahatma Gandhi.[7] In the days of tense political climate in Burma, Thant stood moderate grounds between fervent nationalists and British loyalists.[15]

Civil servant

[edit]
Thant with U Nu in 1955 on an early morning walk

During World War II, the Japanese occupied Burma from 1942 to 1945. They brought Thant to Rangoon to lead the Educational Reorganizing Committee. However, Thant did not have any real power, and returned to Pantanaw. When teaching the Japanese language was made compulsory in Pantanaw high schools, Thant defied the orders and cooperated with the growing anti-Japanese resistance.[17]

In 1948, Burma gained independence from the United Kingdom. Nu became the prime minister of the newly independent Burma and appointed Thant as director of broadcasting in 1948. By then, civil war had broken out. The Karen insurgency began and Thant risked his life to go to Karen camps to negotiate for peace. The negotiations broke down, and in 1949 the advancing insurgents burned his hometown, including his house. The insurgents pushed the front to within four miles of the capital Rangoon before they were beaten back. In the following year, Thant was appointed secretary to the government of Burma in the Ministry of Information. From 1951 to 1957, Thant was secretary to the prime minister, writing speeches for U Nu, arranging his foreign travel, and meeting foreign visitors. During this entire period, he was U Nu's closest confidant and advisor.[17]

He also took part in a number of international conferences and was the secretary of the 1955 Bandung Conference in Indonesia, which gave birth to the Non-Aligned Movement. From 1957 to 1961, he was Burma's permanent representative to the United Nations and became actively involved in negotiations over Algerian independence. In 1961, Thant was named Chairman of the UN Congo Commission. The Burmese government awarded him the title Maha Thray Sithu as a commander in the order of Pyidaungsu Sithu.[18]

United Nations Secretary-General

[edit]
See also: 1961 United Nations Secretary-General selection

In September 1961, United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld was killed in a plane crash en route to Congo. Within two weeks, the United States and the Soviet Union had agreed to appoint Thant as the Acting Secretary-General for the remainder of Hammarskjöld's term. However, the two superpowers spent another four weeks arguing over the details of his appointment. On 3 November 1961, the Security Council recommended Thant in Resolution 168, and the General Assembly voted unanimously to appoint Thant to a term of office ending on 10 April 1963.[19]

During his first term, he was widely credited for his role in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis and for ending the civil war in the Congo. He also said that he wanted to ease tensions between major powers while serving at the UN.[20]

First term: Cuban Missile Crisis

[edit]

At a critical moment—when the nuclear powers seemed set on a collision course—the Secretary-General's intervention led to the diversion of the Soviet ships headed for Cuba and interception by our Navy. This was the indispensable first step in the peaceful resolution of the Cuban crisis.

—Adlai Stevenson, Senate Foreign Relations Committee 88th Congress, 13 March 1963[21]
Thant with John F. Kennedy during Kennedy's 1961 visit to the UN Headquarters

In less than one year in office, Thant faced a critical challenge to defuse the Cuban Missile Crisis, the moment when the world came closest to a nuclear war. On 20 October 1962, two days before public announcements were made, U.S. president John F. Kennedy showed Thant U-2 aerial reconnaissance photographs of Soviet missile installations in Cuba. The president then ordered a naval "quarantine" to remove all offensive weapons from Soviet ships bound for Cuba. Meanwhile, Soviet ships were approaching the quarantine zone. To avoid a naval confrontation, Thant proposed that the U.S. should make non-invasion guarantees in exchange for missile withdrawal from the Soviet Union. Soviet Premier Khrushchev welcomed the proposal, which formed the basis of further negotiations.[22] Khrushchev further agreed to suspend missile shipments while the negotiations were ongoing.[23] However, on 27 October 1962, a U-2 plane was shot down over Cuba, deepening the crisis. Kennedy was under intense pressure to invade from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Executive Committee (ExComm). Kennedy hoped Thant would play the role of mediator and subsequently replied to ExComm and the Joint Chiefs, "On the other hand we have U Thant, and we don't want to sink a ship...right in the middle of when U Thant is supposedly arranging for the Russians to stay out."[24]

Negotiations continued. The U.S. agreed to dismantle missiles in Turkey and guaranteed never to invade Cuba in exchange for removal of Soviet missiles in Cuba. Thant flew to Cuba and discussed with Fidel Castro allowing UN missile inspectors and the return of the body of the downed U-2 pilot. Castro, furious that the Soviets had agreed to remove missiles without his knowledge, categorically rejected any UN inspectors, although he did return the pilot's body. The inspection was done at sea by US reconnaissance aircraft and warships. The crisis was resolved and a war between superpowers was averted.[15][25]

Continuation of first term: War in the Congo

[edit]

Thant's reappointment was assured when Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev made several favorable references to Thant in letters to U.S. president John F. Kennedy.[26] In November 1962, the General Assembly voted unanimously to promote Thant from Acting Secretary-General to Secretary-General for a term ending on 3 November 1966.[27] For personal reasons, Thant wanted his term to end five years from his initial appointment,[26] and he would henceforth consider his first five years in office to be a single term.[28]

Although a manifest pacifist and a devout Buddhist, Thant did not hesitate to use force when required. During the Congo Civil War in 1962, Katangan secessionists led by Moise Tshombe repeatedly attacked UN Operation in the Congo forces (ONUC). In December 1962, after ONUC suffered a sustained four-day attack in Katanga, Thant ordered the "Operation Grandslam" to gain "complete freedom of movement for ONUC all over Katanga." The operation proved to be decisive and ended the secessionist insurgency once and for all. By January 1963, the secessionist capital Elizabethville was under full UN control.[29] In his speech at Columbia University Thant expressed expectation of completion of the United Nations Operation in the Congo in mid 1964.[30]

For his role in defusing the Cuban crisis and other peacekeeping efforts, the Norwegian Permanent Representative of the United Nations informed Thant that he would be awarded the 1965 Nobel Peace Prize. He humbly replied, "Is not the Secretary-General merely doing his job when he works for peace?"[2] On the other hand, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace Prize committee lobbied heavily against giving Thant the prize, which was, at the last minute, awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to Thant. The disagreement lasted three years, and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to Thant.[31] Outraged, Thant's undersecretary and Nobel Prize laureate Ralph Bunche called Gunnar Jahn's decision "gross injustice to U Thant."[2]

In April 1964, Thant accepted the Holy See's designation of itself as a UN permanent observer.[32] There appeared to be no involvement of the General Assembly or the UN Security Council in the decision.[33]

Prime Minister of Singapore Visits UN Headquarters on 21 October 1967: Seen here, from left: Inche Rahim Ishak (Abdul Rahim Ishak), Minister of State for Education of Singapore; Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew; Secretary-General U Thant; S. Rajaratnam, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Singapore; and Ambassador Wong Lin Ken, Permanent Representative of Singapore to the United Nations.[34]

Second term: Arab–Israeli conflict and Vietnam War

[edit]

After the Six-Day War, [Thant] allowed himself to become a convenient scapegoat for international inaction, accepting this unenviable role with as much Buddhist detachment as could be summoned.

Thant announced in 1966 that he would not stand for a second term,[28] but he accepted a draft when the Security Council assured him that he would not be a "glorified clerk."[36] On 2 December 1966, the General Assembly re-appointed Thant to a term ending on 31 December 1971, on the unanimous recommendation of the Security Council.[37] During his second term, he oversaw the entry into the UN of dozens of new Asian and African states, and was a firm opponent of apartheid in South Africa. He also established many of the UN's development and environmental agencies, funds and programmes, including the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the UN University, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), and the UN Environmental Programme. The Six-Day War between Arab countries and Israel, the Prague Spring and subsequent Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Indo–Pakistani War of 1971 leading to the birth of Bangladesh all took place during his tenure as secretary-general.[15]

Thant meeting with U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson in the Cabinet Room of the White House on 21 February 1968

He was criticized in the US and Israel for agreeing to pull UNEF troops out of the Sinai in 1967 in response to a request from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser.[38] The Permanent Representative of Egypt had informed Thant that the Egyptian government had decided to terminate UNEF's presence in the Sinai and the Gaza Strip, and requested steps that would withdraw the force as soon as possible, which Thant was obligated to accept[citation needed]. The UN afterwards stated, "Because Israel refused to accept UNEF on its territory, the Force had to be deployed only on the Egyptian side of the border, and thus its functioning was entirely contingent upon the consent of Egypt as the host country. Once that consent was withdrawn, its operation could no longer be maintained."[39] Thant, by flying to Cairo in a last-minute peace effort, tried to persuade Nasser not to go to war with Israel.[citation needed]

In Israel, his abrupt unilateral withdrawal of UNEF without any diplomatic process or wider consultation was regarded as a violation of United Nations assurances and commitments given to Israel in 1957, on the basis of which Israel had withdrawn from Sinai and Gaza at that time,[40] and it "thereafter inspired Israel's refusal to place her vital interests again in United Nations hands".[41]

Thant's once good relationship with the US government deteriorated rapidly when he publicly criticized American conduct of the Vietnam War.[42] His secret attempts at direct peace talks between Washington and Hanoi were eventually rejected by the Johnson administration.[citation needed]

In 1971, the participation of the People's Republic of China in the United Nations, which was a long-standing problem, was realized. Thant sent a message to the Chinese government asking China to send a delegation.[43]

Retirement

[edit]

On 23 January 1971, Thant announced that he would "under no circumstances" be available for a third term as secretary-general. The 1971 United Nations Secretary-General selection was delayed by the anticipated arrival of the People's Republic of China, and the Security Council did not begin voting until two weeks before the end of Thant's term. After every candidate was vetoed in the second round, Kurt Waldheim accidentally won in the third round when the United States, United Kingdom, and China failed to coordinate their vetoes and all abstained.[44]

Unlike his two predecessors, Thant retired after ten years on speaking terms with all the big powers. In 1961, when he was first appointed, the Soviet Union tried to insist on a troika formula of three secretaries-general, one representing each Cold War bloc, to maintain equality in the United Nations between the superpowers. By 1966, when Thant was reappointed, all the big powers, in a unanimous vote of the Security Council, affirmed the importance of the secretary-generalship and his good offices, a clear tribute to Thant's work.[15]

In his farewell address to the United Nations General Assembly, Secretary-General Thant stated that he felt a "great sense of relief bordering on liberation" on relinquishing the "burdens of office".[45][46] In an editorial published around 27 December 1971, praising Thant, The New York Times stated that "the wise counsel of this dedicated man of peace will still be needed after his retirement". The editorial was titled "The Liberation of U Thant".[47]

After his retirement, Thant was appointed a senior fellow of the Adlai Stevenson Institute of International Affairs. He spent the last years of his life writing and advocating the development of a true global community and other general themes he had tried to promote while he was secretary-general.[15] While serving as secretary-general, Thant lived in Riverdale, Bronx, on a 4.75-acre (1.92 ha) estate near 232nd Street, between Palisade and Douglas Avenues.[48]

Death and legacy

[edit]
See also: U Thant funeral crisis

U Thant has put the world deeply in his debt.

—John F. Kennedy, October 1962[49]

Thant died of lung cancer at the NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital in New York on 25 November 1974.[45] By then, Burma was ruled by a military junta, which refused him any honours. Burmese president Ne Win was supposedly envious of Thant's international stature and the respect that was accorded him by the Burmese populace.

However, Thant's grandson, Thant Myint-U, wrote in the book The River of Lost Footsteps: Histories of Burma that intense animosity between Thant and Ne Win went back only to 1969, when Ne Win believed Thant was conniving with Nu after Nu denounced Ne Win at a press corps meeting at the UN headquarters. Ne Win told his men to consider Thant as an enemy of the state, despite Thant denouncing Nu's action as inappropriate.[50]

Ne Win ordered for Thant to be buried without any official involvement or ceremony.

Thant's tomb, Shwedagon Pagoda Road, Rangoon

From the United Nations headquarters in New York where he was laid in state, Thant's body was flown back to Rangoon, but no guard of honour or high-ranking officials were at hand at the airport when the coffin arrived except for U Aung Tun, deputy minister of education, who was subsequently dismissed from office.[51] On the day of Thant's funeral on 5 December 1974, tens of thousands of people lined the streets of Rangoon to pay their last respects. Thant's coffin was displayed at Rangoon's Kyaikkasan Race Course for a few hours before the scheduled burial. The coffin of Thant was then snatched by a group of students just before it was scheduled to leave for burial in an ordinary Rangoon cemetery at Kyandaw. The student demonstrators buried Thant on the former grounds of the Rangoon University Students Union (RUSU), which Ne Win had dynamited and destroyed on 8 July 1962.[52]

During the period of 5–11 December, the student demonstrators also built a temporary mausoleum for Thant on the grounds of the RUSU and gave anti-government speeches. In early morning on 12 December 1974, government troops stormed the campus, killed some of the students guarding the makeshift mausoleum, removed Thant's coffin, and reburied it in Kandawmin Garden Mausolea near the Shwedagon Pagoda, where it has continued to lie.[53] Upon hearing of the storming of the Rangoon University campus and the forcible removal of Thant's coffin, many people rioted in the streets of Rangoon. Martial law was declared in Rangoon and the surrounding metropolitan areas. What has come to be known as the U Thant crisis, the student-led protests over the shabby treatment of Thant by the Ne Win government, was crushed by the Burmese government.[53]

In April 2012, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon paid his respects at U Thant's mausoleum during a visit to Yangon.[54]

U Thant is held in esteem in Malaysia, as he helped to endorse the formation of the country in 1963.[55] A niche, prime neighbourhood in Kuala Lumpur, Taman U-Thant is developed in 1960s is named after him.[56]

Personal life

[edit]
Thant and his family, including brothers Khant Thaung and Tin Maung, his mother Nan Thaung, and his daughter Aye Aye Thant and her husband, Tin Myint-U, in 1964

Thant had three brothers: Khant, Thaung, and Tin Maung.[57] He was married to Daw Thein Tin. They had two sons and a daughter, but lost both sons; Maung Bo died in infancy, and Tin Maung Thant fell from a bus during a visit to Yangon. Tin Maung Thant's funeral procession, which was attended by dignitaries, was grander than that of the state funeral of Commodore Than Pe, a member of the 17-man Revolutionary Council and minister of health and education. Thant was survived by a daughter, an adopted son, five grandchildren, and five great-grandchildren (three girls and two boys). His only grandson, Thant Myint-U, is a historian and a former senior official in the UN's Department of Political Affairs and the author of The River of Lost Footsteps, in part a biography of Thant.[citation needed]

Awards, honors, and memorials

[edit]

Thant was generally reluctant to receive prizes and honors due to his own humility as well as publicity associated with them. He declined Burma's second highest honor awarded to him by U Nu's government in 1961. When he was informed that the 1965 Nobel Prize would instead go to UNICEF due to Chairman Gunnar Jahn's veto, Thant, according to Walter Dorn, "recorded his pleasure".[2] However, he did accept the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in 1965[58] and the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights in 1973.[59]

Thant received honorary degrees (LL.D) from Carleton University, Williams College, Princeton University, Mount Holyoke College, Harvard University, Dartmouth College, University of California at Berkeley, University of Denver, Swarthmore College, New York University, Moscow University, Queen's University, Colby College, Yale University, University of Windsor, Hamilton College, Fordham University, Manhattan College, University of Michigan, Delhi University, University of Leeds, Louvain University, University of Alberta, Boston University, Rutgers University, University of Dublin (Trinity College), Laval University, Columbia University, the University of the Philippines Diliman, and Syracuse University. He also received the Doctor of Divinity from The First Universal Church; Doctor of International Law from Florida International University; Doctor of Laws from University of Hartford; Doctor of Civil Laws degree, honoris causa from Colgate University; Doctor of Humane Letters from Duke University.[60]

In his memory, Sri Chinmoy, the leader of the UN Meditation Group founded by Thant, established the U Thant Peace Award which acknowledges and honors individuals or organizations for distinguished accomplishments toward the attainment of world peace. The meditation team also named a tiny island in the East River opposite the headquarters of the United Nations U Thant Island.[61] The road Jalan U-Thant (U-Thant Road) and the township Taman U-Thant in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia are also named in his honor.[62]

In October 2013, the building of an U Thant library near his Pantanaw house halted for lack of funds.[63] In December 2013, under an effort spearheaded by his daughter Aye Aye Thant and his grandson Thant Myint-U, Thant's house in Yangon was being converted into a museum which would feature his photos, works and personal belongings.[64]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

Citations

[edit]

Endnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ "U Thant | United Nations Secretary-General". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d Dorn 2007, p. 147.
  3. ^ a b Bingham 1966, p. 29.
  4. ^ a b Robert H. Taylor, ed. (2008). Dr. Maung Maung: Gentleman, Scholar, Patriot. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 211–212. ISBN 978-981-230-409-4.
  5. ^ Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroad of Asia. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-374-98408-3.
  6. ^ Bingham 1966, p. 32.
  7. ^ a b Dorn 2007, p. 144.
  8. ^ Bingham 1966, p. 33.
  9. ^ Franda, Marcus F. (2006). The United Nations in the 21st century: management and reform processes in a troubled organization. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7425-5334-7.
  10. ^ Bingham 1966, p. 88.
  11. ^ Bingham 1966, p. 89.
  12. ^ Bingham 1966, p. 93.
  13. ^ Bingham 1966, p. 94.
  14. ^ Bingham 1966, p. 97.
  15. ^ a b c d e f Lewis 2012.
  16. ^ Naing, Saw Yan (22 January 2009). Remembering U Thant and His Achievements Archived 28 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. The Irrawaddy.
  17. ^ a b Dorn 2007, p. 145.
  18. ^ H.W. Wilson Company (1962). Current biography, Volume 23. H. W. Wilson Co.
  19. ^ Brewer, Sam Pope (4 November 1961). "Thant Is Elected Interim U.N. Head". The New York Times. p. 1.
  20. ^ "1962 In Review Archived 21 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine. United Press International.
  21. ^ Dorn & Pauk 2009, p. 265.
  22. ^ Dorn & Pauk 2012, p. 80.
  23. ^ "Kennedy Agrees to Talks on Thant Plan, Khrushchev Accepts It; Blockade Goes On; Russian Tanker Intercepted and Cleared". The New York Times. 26 October 1962. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
  24. ^ Dorn & Pauk 2009, p. 273.
  25. ^ Dorn & Pauk 2009, p. 292.
  26. ^ a b Brewer, Sam Pope (29 November 1962). "Russians Agree to Naming Thant for a Full Term". The New York Times. p. 1.
  27. ^ Burnham, Alexander (1 December 1962). "U.N. Names Thant for 4-Year Term". The New York Times.
  28. ^ a b Middleton, Drew (2 September 1966). "Thant Declares He Will Not Seek Second U.N. Term". The New York Times. p. 1.
  29. ^ Dorn 2007, p. 161.
  30. ^ Tomanović, M. (1965). Hronika međunarodnih događaja 1964. Belgrade. Institute of International Politics and Economics Archived 16 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine, p.223. (in Serbo-Croatian)
  31. ^ Lundestad, Geir. "The Nobel Peace Prize, 1901–2000". nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on 18 June 2018. Retrieved 7 April 2018. In 1965 and 1966 a majority of the committee clearly favoured giving the prize to the third Secretary General, U Thant, and even to the first, Norway's Trygve Lie, but chairman Jahn more or less vetoed this.
  32. ^ McCann, Eamonn (23 January 2014). "How did the Holy See get recognition as a state? It just did". The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 30 November 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2018. In March 1964 pope Paul VI wrote to UN secretary general U Thant saying he was minded to appoint a permanent observer. In April, U Thant wrote back saying, in effect, fair enough, come ahead.
  33. ^ Kissling, F.; Shannon, D. (1996). "Church and state at the United Nations. A case of the emperor's new clothes". Conscience (Washington, D.C.). 16 (4): 11–2. PMID 12178922.
  34. ^ "Prime Minister of Singapore Visits UN Headquarters". United Nations. 21 October 1967. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
  35. ^ Dorn 2007, p. 177.
  36. ^ Middleton, Drew (20 September 1966). "Election of Thant with Wider Role in U.N. Due Today". The New York Times. p. 1.
  37. ^ Middleton, Drew (3 December 1966). "Thant, Renamed, Vows New Effort to End Asian War". The New York Times. p. 1.
  38. ^ Rikhye, Indar Jit (1980). The Sinai Blunder: Withdrawal of the United Nations Emergency Force leading to the Six-Day War of June 1967. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-3136-3.
  39. ^ "Middle East UNEF: Background". United Nations. Archived from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
  40. ^ Abba Eban: An Autobiography by Abba Eban (Random House, 1977), pp. 321–322
  41. ^ Abba Eban: An Autobiography by Abba Eban (Random House, 1977), p. 323
  42. ^ Dennen, Leon (12 August 1968). U Thant Speaks No Evil on Czech Crisis Archived 16 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Daily News.
  43. ^ Szulc (28 October 1971). "Thant Asks China to Name Delegate to Council Soon". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  44. ^ FRUS 1969–1976 V, Document 247: Telegram From the Mission to the United Nations to the Department of State, 22 December 1971, 0356Z.
  45. ^ a b Whitman, Alden (26 November 1974). "U Thant Is Dead of Cancer at 65". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 April 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2018.
  46. ^ Popham, Peter (2011). The Lady and the Peacock: The Life of Aung San Suu Kyi. Rider Books. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-61519-064-5. Retrieved 6 April 2018. Already unwell, he told the General Assembly that he felt "a great sense of relief, bordering on liberation" at relinquishing "the burdens of office"...
  47. ^ "The Liberation of U Thant". The New York Times. 29 December 1971. Archived from the original on 7 April 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2018.
  48. ^ Dunlap, David W. "Bronx Residents Fighting Plans Of a Developer" Archived 4 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 16 November 1987. Accessed 4 May 2008. "A battle has broken out in the Bronx over the future of the peaceful acreage where U Thant lived when he headed the United Nations. A group of neighbours from Riverdale and Spuyten Duyvil has demanded that the city acquire as a public park the 4.75-acre (19,200 m2) parcel known as the Douglas-U Thant estate, north of 232d Street, between Palisade and Douglas Avenues."
  49. ^ Dorn & Pauk 2009, p. 261.
  50. ^ Thant Myint-U (2006). The River of Lost Footsteps: Histories of Burma. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 311.
  51. ^ Asian almanac, Volume 13. (1975). s.n. p. 6809.
  52. ^ Smith, Martin (6 December 2002). "General Ne Win". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
  53. ^ a b Soe-win, Henry (17 June 2008). Peace Eludes U Thant Archived 18 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Asian Tribune.
  54. ^ "SG Travel". 29 April 2012.
  55. ^ Kyle Iman (16 September 2022). "Malaysia Day was supposed to be the same day as Merdeka. But the UN delayed it. Why?". Cili Sos. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
  56. ^ Chung Ying Yi (19 July 2021). "Streetscapes: Niche, prime neighbourhood of Taman U-Thant". The Edge Malaysia. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
  57. ^ Bingham, June (1966). U Thant: The Search For Peace. Victor Gollancz. p. 43.
  58. ^ "List of the recipients of the Jawaharlal Nehru Award". ICCR India. Archived from the original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
  59. ^ "HR Prize – List of previous recipients". Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights. 2013. Archived from the original on 19 November 2019. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  60. ^ "Former United Nations Secretary-General U Thant". 27 July 2016. Archived from the original on 27 July 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  61. ^ Schneider, Daniel B. (6 October 1996). "F.Y.I." The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
  62. ^ List of roads in Kuala Lumpur
  63. ^ Simon Roughneen (3 October 2013). "U Thant Library Project Stalling Due to Lack of Funds". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 23 May 2014. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
  64. ^ Kyaw Phyo Tha (23 December 2013). "At U Thant's Rangoon Home, an Exhibit to Inspire". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 9 June 2014. Retrieved 9 June 2014.

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U Thant

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U Thant (22 January 1909 – 25 November 1974) was a Burmese diplomat and the third Secretary-General of the United Nations, serving from 3 November 1961 to 31 December 1971 as the first non-European and first Asian in the role. Born in Pantanaw, Burma (now Myanmar), to a family of mixed Karen and Burmese heritage, he pursued education at the National High School in Pantanaw and University College in Rangoon, later becoming a teacher and headmaster while engaging in journalism and writing on Burmese culture. Thant's diplomatic career advanced through Burma's independence struggle, where he served as secretary to Prime Minister and contributed to educational reforms, before being appointed Burma's permanent representative to the in 1957. Following the death of predecessor in a plane crash, Thant acted as interim Secretary-General and was unanimously elected to the position, navigating tensions by mediating in crises such as the Cuban Missile Crisis—where his calls for negotiation helped avert nuclear escalation—and the , facilitating the withdrawal of UN forces amid civil war. Under his leadership, the UN admitted numerous newly independent nations, expanding membership significantly, and advanced economic and social development programs for poorer countries while establishing new funds and initiatives for global cooperation. A practicing Buddhist, Thant integrated principles of non-violence and into his diplomacy, though he faced criticism from Western powers for perceived overly conciliatory stances toward Soviet positions and reluctance to intervene forcefully in conflicts like and . He declined a third term amid health issues and political pressures, retiring to New York where he died of .

Early Life

Childhood and Family Background

U Thant was born Maha Thray Sithu on January 22, 1909, in the town of Pantanaw in the Delta region of British Burma, then part of . He was the eldest of four sons in a moderately prosperous family of merchants and landowners. His , known as U Po Hnit or U Bo Nyi, was an English-educated who had graduated from Rangoon University, contributed to the founding of the Thuriya newspaper, and served as a teacher at the local YMBA Middle School, the first in Pantanaw to offer English instruction. His mother was Daw Nan Thaung. Thant's three younger brothers were U Khant, U Thaung, and U Tin Maung. The family maintained Buddhist traditions, with Thant later reflecting on early influences from teachings and local monastic education. In 1923, when Thant was 14, his father died unexpectedly, plunging the family into financial difficulties and inheritance disputes that reduced their circumstances and compelled Thant, as the eldest son, to assume responsibilities supporting his mother and siblings. This event curtailed his formal education plans and shaped his early commitment to self-reliance and family duty.

Education and Early Influences

U Thant was born on January 22, 1909, in Pantanaw, a town in British Burma, to a family where his father worked as a , instilling an early emphasis on . He attended the National High School in Pantanaw, completing his there before moving to Rangoon for higher studies. In 1926, at age 17, Thant obtained a teaching certificate from Rangoon University, excelling in his examinations. He enrolled at the University of Rangoon to pursue a degree, where he studied English and history amid the tense political climate of colonial Burma, but financial hardships following his father's death forced him to leave just short of completing an honors degree in order to support his widowed mother and siblings. During this period, he formed a close friendship with Thakin Nu, a fellow student who later became Burma's prime minister and influenced Thant's entry into public service. Thant's early influences were profoundly shaped by , prevalent in his upbringing, which emphasized ethical principles, tolerance, and —values that guided his personal conduct and later diplomatic approach. His father's role as an educator fostered a commitment to learning and teaching, leading Thant to return to his high school as an instructor of English and modern history shortly after university. The nationalist fervor in interwar , including exposure to anti-colonial sentiments at university, further oriented him toward public affairs, though he initially focused on education rather than direct activism.

Pre-UN Career in Burma

Entry into Civil Service

U Thant, previously a headmaster and educator in Pantanaw, entered Burmese government service in 1947 as Press Director for the provisional Government of Burma, recruited by his close friend amid preparations for national independence from British rule. This appointment aligned with the transitional administration under the (AFPFL), where Thant handled publicity efforts during the final push for sovereignty. Following Burma's independence on January 4, 1948, Thant advanced quickly, assuming the role of Director of Broadcasting in 1948 and Secretary to the Government in the Ministry of Information that same year. These positions capitalized on his prior experience in reorganization, including his 1942 role as secretary to Burma's Reorganization Committee, and established him as a trusted administrative figure in U Nu's cabinet. His entry reflected the post-colonial reliance on educated civilians with personal ties to independence leaders rather than traditional bureaucratic paths, enabling a trajectory from provincial teaching to national governance.

Role in Independence Movement and Early Government

U Thant contributed to Burma's independence efforts primarily through administrative and publicity roles in the post-World War II period. During the Japanese occupation from 1942 to 1945, he served on the Pantanaw Administrative Council, a local body amid the wartime disruption, though his activities focused more on local governance than active resistance. Following the war, he aligned with the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL), the dominant nationalist organization led by figures like U Aung San and U Nu, which negotiated independence from Britain. In 1947, Thant was appointed publicity director for the AFPFL during its final push for sovereignty, helping to shape public messaging ahead of the January 4, 1948, declaration of independence. After independence, Thant transitioned into key positions in the new republican government under , a longtime friend from his school days in Pantanaw. He served as director of broadcasting starting in 1948, managing state media to support the fledgling administration's communication needs. By 1949, he became secretary of the Ministry of Information, overseeing information policy during Burma's early challenges, including insurgencies and integration efforts. Thant acted as a close adviser to , providing counsel on domestic and while rising through ranks, including roles in external affairs by the mid-1950s. His pragmatic, non-radical approach, rooted in opposition to both fascist and communist ideologies prevalent in Burma, informed his steadying influence in government.

Appointment to United Nations Leadership

Succession After Hammarskjöld

, the second , died on September 18, 1961, when his plane crashed near in (now ) during a mediation mission in the . The crash, which killed Hammarskjöld and 15 others aboard, immediately triggered a leadership vacuum at the UN, as the provided no explicit line of succession for the Secretary-General position. This situation exacerbated tensions, with the advocating for a troika system of three secretaries representing major power blocs to replace the single-officeholder model, while Western powers sought continuity under a similar independent figure. In the interim, U Thant, Burma's to the UN since 1957 and a close associate of Hammarskjöld who had served as chairman of the UN's Administrative Committee on Coordination, effectively managed the Secretariat's operations. On October 7, 1961, the Security Council recommended Thant to fill the role temporarily, leading to the General Assembly's unanimous appointment of him as Acting Secretary-General on November 3, 1961, via Resolution 1640 (XVI), for the remainder of Hammarskjöld's term ending April 10, 1963. Thant's selection as a neutral Asian from a non-aligned nation resolved the deadlock, bridging divides between the U.S., USSR, and emerging postcolonial states amid suspicions. Thant's acting tenure began amid ongoing investigations into Hammarskjöld's death, which revealed no conclusive evidence of despite persistent theories of foul play linked to interests in Congo. His prompt assumption of duties stabilized the organization, allowing continuity in operations such as the UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC), while debates over reforming the Secretary-General's powers subsided without major changes. This succession marked the first time the General Assembly directly appointed an acting holder of , setting a for future transitions.

Acting and Permanent Secretary-General Roles

Following the death of in a plane crash on September 18, 1961, U Thant, then Burma's to the , was recommended by the Security Council and unanimously appointed Acting Secretary-General by the General Assembly on November 3, 1961, via Resolution 1640 (XVI). His initial term as Acting Secretary-General was intended to bridge the leadership vacuum until a permanent appointment could be made, amid geopolitical tensions including Soviet calls for a troika system of secretaries-general representing major blocs, which Thant opposed to preserve the office's independence. In his acting capacity, Thant assumed full executive responsibilities of the Secretariat, directing UN operations in active conflicts such as the and maintaining diplomatic engagements, while negotiating internally to retain authority over staff appointments without mandatory consultation binding his decisions. This period tested the Secretariat's continuity, with Thant emphasizing impartiality and the UN Charter's principles despite pressures from major powers seeking to redefine the role. On November 30, 1962, following Security Council recommendation in resolution S/5200, the General Assembly unanimously appointed Thant as permanent Secretary-General through Resolution 1771 (XVII), confirming him for a four-year term ending November 3, 1966, thereby dropping the "acting" designation and solidifying his leadership. This transition marked the first time an Asian national held the position on a full-term basis, reflecting broad consensus on his performance amid the organization's expansion during .

First Term as Secretary-General (1961-1965)

Cuban Missile Crisis Mediation

As Acting Secretary-General of the United Nations following Dag Hammarskjöld's death, U Thant assumed a pivotal mediatory role during the in October 1962. On October 22, 1962, after President announced the U.S. naval quarantine of in response to Soviet missile deployments, Thant immediately appealed to both the and the to exercise restraint and pursue negotiations to avert nuclear war. He emphasized the UN's responsibility to facilitate dialogue, warning that military confrontation risked catastrophic consequences for humanity. On October 24, 1962, with Soviet ships approaching the U.S. line, Thant proposed a temporary moratorium: voluntary suspension of arms shipments to by the and a pause in the U.S. for two to three weeks to enable substantive talks. This initiative provided Soviet Premier a to redirect his vessels without immediate loss of face, thereby defusing the imminent risk of naval clash between superpowers. Khrushchev endorsed the proposal in correspondence with Thant, agreeing it met the interests of peace, while the U.S. leadership, including Kennedy, viewed it as a constructive step despite initial reservations about its implications for the quarantine's enforcement. Thant continued active , relaying messages between Washington, , and , and advancing a framework linking Soviet missile withdrawal to a U.S. pledge of non-invasion against . On October 25, U.S. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson conveyed suggestions to Thant for refining this approach, incorporating potential UN inspections to verify compliance. Although Cuban leader resisted verification mechanisms, Thant's persistent appeals and reassurances to all parties helped sustain negotiations amid heightened tensions. By October 28, 1962, Khrushchev's decision to dismantle the missiles aligned substantially with Thant's proposed noninvasion-for-missiles formula, marking the crisis's de-escalation. Kennedy later credited Thant's interventions publicly, stating they contributed to averting disaster, while declassified records reveal private U.S. encouragement for his mediatory efforts. Thant's actions demonstrated the UN Secretary-General's potential as an impartial broker in superpower disputes, though his role has been overshadowed in some historical narratives favoring bilateral U.S.-Soviet channels.

Congo Crisis and ONUC Intervention

Upon assuming the role of Acting Secretary-General on November 3, 1961, U Thant inherited the escalating Congo Crisis, characterized by the secession of mineral-rich Katanga province under Moïse Tshombe, supported by Belgian interests and mercenaries, amid broader civil strife following the Democratic Republic of the Congo's independence from Belgium on June 30, 1960. The United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC), established by Security Council Resolution 143 on July 14, 1960, had initially focused on technical assistance and preventing foreign intervention but faced obstructions, including blockades by Katangese forces against UN personnel and supplies. Thant, prioritizing the restoration of central government authority under Prime Minister Cyrille Adoula while adhering to UN mandates against enforcement beyond self-defense, navigated pressures from Cold War powers: the United States and Western allies urged decisive action against secession to counter Soviet influence, while the Soviet Union demanded expulsion of all Belgian personnel and more aggressive intervention. In response to Katangese attacks on UN positions, including the December 1961 siege of UN headquarters in Elisabethville, Thant invoked Security Council Resolution 169 of November 24, 1961, which authorized "all necessary measures" to prevent , including the in and to ensure . On December 5, 1961, he approved Operation Unokat, a UN offensive involving ground troops and air support from Ethiopian, Indian, and Irish contingents to break the blockade, resulting in clashes that killed over 30 UN personnel and prompted Tshombe's temporary concessions but failed to resolve the . Thant's directives emphasized proportionality, rejecting broader Soviet calls for UN takeover of Congolese administration, as such steps exceeded the Charter's limits on intervention and risked entanglement; this stance drew criticism from African states and the USSR for perceived timidity, though it preserved ONUC's mandate as rather than . Thant's policy shifted toward firmer enforcement in 1962, culminating in Operation Grandslam, authorized on December 28, 1962, under UN commander Lieutenant General Dewan Prem Chand, which deployed approximately 13,000 troops, fighter aircraft, and reconnaissance assets to dismantle Katangese resistance. The operation, involving advances on key mining centers like Jadotville and , overcame mercenary-led defenses through coordinated assaults, leading to Tshombe's agreement on January 14, 1963, to reintegrate Katanga into the central government and dissolve its . This marked the effective end of the , stabilizing the country temporarily, though at the cost of over 250 UN fatalities during ONUC's tenure and financial strain exceeding $400 million by 1964, largely borne by member states via assessments. By mid-1963, with Katanga subdued, Thant focused on political reconciliation via the "U Thant Plan" for national unity, though persistent rebel threats and Congolese government weaknesses prompted gradual ONUC drawdown. He oversaw the complete withdrawal of the 20,000-strong force by June 30, 1964, amid Adoula's resignation and emerging instability, expressing concerns over the government's capacity to maintain order without UN presence. Thant's handling, diverging from Hammarskjöld's caution by employing force decisively yet within mandate bounds, resolved the immediate crisis but highlighted ONUC's limitations in fostering lasting institutions, as causal factors like ethnic divisions and resource rivalries persisted unchecked by external intervention.

Other Decolonization and Peace Efforts

In 1962, U Thant mediated the West New Guinea (West Irian) dispute between and the , facilitating a cease-fire agreement on August 15 that halted Indonesian infiltrations and Dutch reinforcements. Under his oversight, U.S. diplomat proposed a settlement leading to the on August 15, 1962, which established the (UNTEA) to administer the territory from October 1, 1962, to May 1, 1963, before transferring control to . This arrangement included a United Nations Security Force of about 1,600 personnel to maintain order during the transition, though it deferred for Papuans via an "Act of Free Choice" until 1969, drawing later criticism for lacking genuine plebiscite mechanisms. Thant's approach emphasized diplomatic pressure and UN administrative involvement to avert escalation into broader conflict amid tensions. Thant also contributed to resolving lingering aspects of the Algerian independence struggle, which concluded with the Accords on March 18, 1962, by supporting UN recognition of the new state and aiding refugee repatriation efforts through discreet diplomacy in the early months of his tenure. His initiatives aligned with broader UN momentum, as membership grew from 99 states in to 114 by 1965, reflecting pressures for sovereignty in territories like Portuguese colonies, though Thant avoided direct confrontation with to preserve organizational consensus. In March 1964, Thant orchestrated the deployment of the (UNFICYP), authorized by Security Council Resolution 186 on , to stabilize intercommunal violence between Greek and following clashes that killed hundreds since December 1963. Comprising around 6,500 troops from countries including the , , and , funded initially at $8.2 million monthly with voluntary contributions, UNFICYP aimed to prevent full-scale Greek-Turkish war by buffering contested areas like and . Thant secured consents from , , , and the , though financing disputes—exacerbated by non-payment from involved parties—strained UN resources, prompting his repeated appeals for extensions amid ongoing tensions. These efforts underscored Thant's preference for preventive peacekeeping over coercive intervention, prioritizing de-escalation in post-colonial ethnic flashpoints.

Second Term as Secretary-General (1966-1971)

Vietnam War Policies and Criticisms

During his second term as Secretary-General, U Thant pursued multiple diplomatic initiatives to address the escalating , emphasizing de-escalation through unconditional cessation of U.S. bombing of as a prerequisite for negotiations. In December 1964, he collaborated with U.S. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson on proposals urging an immediate halt to hostilities and the convening of talks involving the U.S., , , and possibly the National Liberation Front, though these efforts were deferred at Washington's request to avoid undermining U.S. leverage. Thant viewed the conflict through a moral lens, decrying the disproportionate human cost to Vietnamese civilians and combatants as well as American troops, and framing U.S. military escalation—particularly aerial —as exacerbating rather than resolving the underlying political divisions. Thant's public advocacy intensified in , when he reiterated calls for bombing suspension to enable substantive discussions, a position he maintained despite rejections from and Washington. On March 28, 1967, he outlined a formal proposal urging reciprocal measures, including mutual troop withdrawals and international supervision of a , though it gained no traction amid ongoing U.S. operations like . By November 1965, in a direct appeal, Thant urged "major concessions" from all parties, including the U.S., , and , to facilitate compromise and avert further escalation, positioning the UN as a neutral forum for despite lacking . His secret overtures for direct U.S.- talks were rebuffed by the Johnson administration, which prioritized military pressure over concessions perceived as signaling weakness. These policies drew sharp criticisms, particularly from U.S. officials who regarded Thant's insistence on bombing halts as naive or biased toward Hanoi's position, effectively rewarding North Vietnamese intransigence without reciprocal guarantees. Relations between Thant and the Johnson administration soured as his pronouncements—such as equating U.S. actions with aggression—were seen in Washington as undermining American resolve and bolstering anti-war sentiment domestically and internationally. Critics within the U.S. government argued that Thant's moralistic framing overlooked the strategic necessity of containing communist expansion, viewing his interventions as counterproductive to negotiated settlements on U.S. terms. Thant, in turn, rejected claims of anti-American bias, asserting his critiques stemmed from humanitarian imperatives rather than partisanship, though his refusal to endorse UN peacekeeping involvement in Vietnam—deeming it infeasible without consensus—highlighted the limits of his influence.

Middle East Conflicts, Including 1967 Six-Day War

In May 1967, escalating tensions between Israel and its Arab neighbors prompted Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser to demand the withdrawal of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) from the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip, territories under Egyptian control where UNEF had served as a buffer since the 1956 Suez Crisis. U Thant, adhering to the principle that UN peacekeeping forces required the consent of the host state, rejected Nasser's initial request for partial withdrawal from Sharm al-Shaykh—site of the Straits of Tiran—as he deemed it operationally unfeasible and likely to expose UN personnel to risks without full Egyptian agreement. On May 16, 1967, Thant informed the UN Security Council of his decision to comply fully with Egypt's demand for complete UNEF evacuation, citing the force's mandate under General Assembly Resolution 1001 (ES-I) which did not authorize compulsory presence against host opposition. The withdrawal process commenced immediately, with UNEF vacating positions along the Egypt-Israel border by May 19 and completing full departure from Sinai by June 17, 1967, though the erupted on June 5 before its conclusion. Israel's government viewed the rapid pullout—particularly from Sharm al-Shaykh—as removing a critical deterrent, enabling to impose a blockade on the Straits of Tiran, which regarded as a violating the 1956 and 1967 international assurances of free passage. Thant traveled to on May 28 in a personal diplomatic effort to urge Nasser to reverse troop mobilizations in Sinai and retract the UNEF demand, but Nasser refused, citing Egyptian sovereignty and Arab solidarity against perceived Israeli threats. Critics, including Israeli officials and some Western analysts, faulted Thant for not convening the Security Council prior to the withdrawal decision or delaying implementation to allow multilateral , arguing that his acquiescence emboldened Nasser's aggressive posture and precipitated the by dismantling the without alternatives. Thant's rationale, as articulated in his reports, emphasized legal constraints: UNEF lacked powers and could not remain amid host without risking or ineffectiveness, a position echoed in UN legal precedents but contested as overly rigid given the geopolitical stakes. Supporters countered that partial retention would have isolated UN forces, potentially leading to casualties or forcible expulsion, and that Thant's prompt action preserved UN credibility by avoiding entanglement in bilateral disputes. Following Israel's swift military victories in the war—capturing Sinai, Gaza, the , , and —Thant advocated for immediate ceasefires, which the Security Council endorsed via resolutions on June 6-7, 1967, halting hostilities by June 10. In the aftermath, under Thant's oversight, the UN facilitated Jarring's special mission starting November 1967 to mediate implementation of Security Council Resolution 242, which called for Israeli withdrawal from "territories occupied" in exchange for peace and secure borders, though ambiguities in phrasing fueled ongoing disputes. Thant's broader engagements during his second term included monitoring Yemen's via UN observers from 1963-1964 (extended into his tenure) and Yemen Arab Republic truce efforts, but these yielded limited success amid superpower proxy dynamics. His approach prioritized through quiet channels, reflecting a non-interventionist stance, yet drew accusations of imbalance from Israel over perceived leniency toward Arab states' rejectionism.

Indo-Pakistani Wars and Regional Interventions

In response to escalating hostilities in , U Thant issued a public appeal on September 1, 1965, to Pakistani President Ayub Khan and Indian Prime Minister , urging an immediate end to fighting and withdrawal of forces to pre-conflict positions. On September 2, he released a report confirming Pakistani infiltration across the , prompting Security Council deliberations. The Council adopted Resolution 211 on September 20, 1965, demanding a , which took effect on after Thant's diplomatic shuttle between and beginning September 7; however, full implementation required subsequent Soviet-mediated talks leading to the on January 10, 1966. The 1971 crisis in , triggered by Pakistan's on March 25, drew Thant's condemnation the following day, describing the events as a "colossal tragedy" and calling for an immediate halt to violence against civilians. On April 7, he appealed internationally for to address the exodus into , followed by a proposal on April 10 for a force to stabilize the region, though vetoes by and the in the Security Council blocked substantive action. Thant launched a global emergency appeal on May 19 for assistance to over 2 million , securing approximately $17 million in pledges within weeks, and issued another appeal on June 17 for aid inside . As tensions mounted toward full-scale war, Thant offered mediation in September 1971 between India and Pakistan, an initiative rejected by India in favor of a political resolution to the East Pakistan crisis. On August 3, he sent a personal message to Pakistani President Yahya Khan advising against the trial of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman to prevent further escalation. When India-Pakistan hostilities erupted on December 3, the Security Council passed multiple ceasefire resolutions (on December 4, 5, 6, 13, 15, and 16), which Thant urged both parties to implement, though Pakistani forces surrendered on December 16 amid limited UN enforcement due to superpower divisions. Thant briefed the General Assembly on December 21 regarding the ceasefire, troop withdrawals, refugee repatriation, and ongoing humanitarian needs. Thant's interventions extended to sustaining the United Nations Military Observer Group in and (UNMOGIP), established in to monitor the ceasefire line in , which continued operations through his second term despite the and conflicts rendering parts of its mandate obsolete without formal revision. These efforts highlighted the limitations of UN in , constrained by great-power vetoes and regional intransigence, yet underscored Thant's emphasis on humanitarian relief amid political stalemates.

Resignation and Immediate Aftermath

Decision to Step Down

On January 19, 1971, during a news conference, U Thant declared that he had no intention of seeking a third term as Secretary-General upon the expiration of his second term on December 31, 1971. He reiterated this stance more emphatically on January 23, 1971, stating that he would serve "under no circumstances whatsoever" beyond his current mandate, marking the first time a Secretary-General had been offered but declined a third term. This decision followed a decade of service characterized by intense diplomatic pressures, including mediation in flashpoints and peacekeeping operations where the ' influence was often constrained by veto powers in the Security Council and superpower rivalries. Thant's choice reflected the cumulative toll of the office, which he later described as demanding impartiality amid conflicting national interests that frequently undermined UN initiatives. In his farewell address to the General Assembly on December 23, 1971, he articulated a profound personal sentiment, noting that his retirement brought "a sense of great relief bordering on liberation" after bearing the burdens of the role. This relief stemmed from the position's inherent limitations, as evidenced by stalled efforts on issues like the and conflicts, where Thant had advocated for ceasefires and withdrawals but encountered resistance from major powers such as the and . Despite these challenges, his announcement facilitated a smooth transition, with the General Assembly electing as his successor later that year.

Transition and Final UN Contributions

In the period leading to the end of his second term on December 31, 1971, U Thant emphasized the ' ongoing responsibilities amid escalating global crises, including conflicts in the and . On December 23, 1971, he delivered an address to the General Assembly alongside incoming Secretary-General , underscoring the organization's precarious financial position and the need for member states to address immediate threats to international peace. This speech highlighted Thant's persistent advocacy for multilateral cooperation despite the UN's diminished prestige and budgetary strains during his tenure. Thant's final annual report, covering the 1970-1971 period and introduced in the UN Monthly Chronicle of October 1971, reviewed achievements in economic and social development while proposing continued emphasis on disarmament and international cooperation to mitigate Cold War tensions' social costs. Under his leadership, the UN had expanded initiatives in development assistance for poorer nations, including the establishment of specialized funds and programs that laid groundwork for the Second United Nations Development Decade proclaimed in 1970. These efforts reflected Thant's prioritization of redirecting resources from military expenditures toward global equity, though implementation depended on member state commitments. The transition to Waldheim proceeded smoothly, with Thant maintaining operational continuity until his departure. On December 30, 1971—his last working day—he held official meetings, hosted a small farewell gathering, and quietly left UN headquarters, appearing relieved after a marked by both successes and institutional challenges. Waldheim, elected by the General Assembly on December 21, 1971, after a protracted Security Council process involving multiple vetoes, assumed office on , , inheriting Thant's framework for addressing , , and development amid unresolved crises.

Later Life, Death, and Burial

Return to Burma/Myanmar

Following U Thant's death from cancer on November 25, 1974, in at age 65, his remains lay in state at headquarters before being repatriated to for burial. The body was flown from New York and arrived at Rangoon's airport on December 1, 1974, accompanied by family members, three Buddhist monks, and a student representative. The Burmese military government under General provided no official reception, guard of honor, or state ceremony upon arrival, despite Thant's prominence as a and former UN leader. Initial plans called for entombment in a simple grave at Kyandaw Cemetery, a public site, rather than a or site of national significance. This reflected the regime's cautious approach toward Thant, whom they viewed with suspicion for his neutralist and perceived ties to opposition figures like , though no formal honors were denied in advance by Rangoon authorities. The return thus marked Thant's physical reconnection to his birthplace after decades abroad, amid a homeland governed by isolationist socialism since the 1962 coup.

Illness, Death, and Funeral Controversies

U Thant developed in the years following his resignation from the , succumbing to the disease on November 25, 1974, at the age of 65 while receiving treatment at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in . He had been admitted to the hospital on November 22 for ongoing cancer therapy, during which he contracted that contributed to his decline. His body lay in state at Headquarters in on November 27 and 28, drawing mourners before repatriation to (now ). Upon arrival in Rangoon (Yangon), the military government under General refused to accord U Thant a , opting instead for a modest private burial on December 5, 1974, at the Kyandaw public cemetery—a site perceived by many as insufficient for a national figure of his stature. This decision ignited widespread public anger, particularly among students who viewed it as a deliberate slight by the regime, which had long harbored suspicions toward U Thant for his perceived opposition to its policies during his UN tenure. As the family procession approached the cemetery, approximately 20,000 students, , and supporters seized the coffin, diverting it to the Rangoon University Student Union building, where they hastily interred it in a symbolic act of defiance to honor him as a hero of Burmese independence. U Thant's brother, U Khant, publicly condemned the seizure, urging compliance with the government's plans and later accusing protesters of unauthorized actions in a news conference. The government's response escalated the crisis: troops raided the Student Union on , exhumed and removed the coffin under cover of darkness, and reburied it at the original cemetery site, destroying the student-constructed in the process. This forceful intervention sparked further unrest, including protests by Buddhist monks—one of the few overt political involvements by the under the junta—leading to arrests and heightened tensions that foreshadowed broader dissent against Ne Win's rule. The episode underscored the regime's control over public mourning and its friction with intellectual and religious elements, ultimately resulting in U Thant's tomb being maintained at a location tied to the university site amid ongoing symbolic reverence by opponents of the government.

Personal Philosophy and Beliefs

Influence of Buddhism on Diplomacy

U Thant, raised in a devout Buddhist family in , integrated core tenets of his faith into his tenure as Secretary-General from November 3, 1961, to December 31, 1971, viewing them as complementary to the UN Charter's emphasis on peaceful . His adherence to provided a moral compass that prioritized non-violence (), universal compassion (karuna), and emotional detachment, fostering an impartial and resilient diplomatic style amid tensions. This influence manifested in his preference for and restraint, even when authorizing force as a reluctant last resort, as he believed violence eroded the "spirit of law, order and international morality." Non-violence shaped Thant's crisis management, notably during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, where he issued identical appeals to Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and U.S. President John F. Kennedy for a voluntary missile standstill and negotiations, averting escalation through compassionate dialogue rather than confrontation. In the Congo Crisis (1961–1964), he authorized Operation Grand Slam on December 5, 1961, deploying up to 20,000 peacekeepers—the largest UN force until the Cold War's end—and reluctantly endorsing targeted force against secessionist threats, but only after exhausting diplomatic options, aligning with Buddhist aversion to harm while fulfilling his duty to protect civilians amid 250 UN fatalities. His criticism of U.S. escalation in the Vietnam War similarly reflected this principle, as he publicly advocated non-violent paths, stating that Buddhism taught "a universal compassion to be extended to all living beings" during a 1960s teach-in. Compassion and enabled Thant's hallmark self-discipline and , concealing personal frustrations—such as the December 1962 death of his son—and maintaining tolerance "of everything except intolerance," as he described in his memoirs, allowing steady in conflicts like the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War. Detachment from ego and political expediency underpinned decisions like refusing a second term in 1966 to preserve UN integrity, prioritizing ethical consistency over personal acclaim. He explicitly linked these traits to his faith, cherishing "modesty, humility, compassion, and emotional equilibrium" in guiding global order. During a 1967 pilgrimage to , Buddha's birthplace, Thant promoted UNESCO's development project there, illustrating how Buddhist harmony informed his peace initiatives.

Views on Neutrality, Power, and Global Order

U Thant distinguished between and neutrality in his diplomatic role, advocating the former as essential for the UN Secretary-General while rejecting the latter as implying indifference. He stated that the Secretary-General must be "impartial toward all people but not neutral about a that has been committed," likening the position to that of a who weighs evidence objectively but upholds principles of right and wrong. This stance guided his interventions, such as during the 1962 , where he proposed phased withdrawal of Soviet missiles and US inspections without equating the parties' actions. Regarding power, Thant viewed it through a lens of moral restraint, influenced by Buddhist principles that abhor yet permit as a last resort when authorized collectively and proportionally. He asserted that " erodes the spirit of law, order and international ," criticizing for exacerbating global tensions while recognizing underlying causes like ideological conflicts and resource disparities beyond mere state rivalries. In practice, he authorized UN military actions, such as in the from 1960 to 1964, where over 250 peacekeepers died, but only after exhausting diplomatic options and under strict just-war-like criteria to prevent . Thant's conception of global order emphasized a centered on the , promoting , , and tolerance as antidotes to great-power dominance. He described tolerance as "the principal foundation on which the rests," advocating for multilateral mechanisms to address not only conflicts but broader issues like economic disparities and spiritual malaise. Despite acknowledging the Security Council's veto limitations amid divisions, he pursued an activist UN role in fostering equitable , including the entry of new states and initiatives like the . This vision prioritized ethical over unilateral power assertions, reflecting his belief in parliamentary democracy and .

Legacy and Historical Assessments

Key Achievements and Empirical Impacts

![U Thant with John F. Kennedy][float-right] U Thant's mediation during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 contributed to de-escalation by proposing a temporary suspension of the U.S. naval quarantine to allow negotiations between the United States and Soviet Union, a suggestion that influenced subsequent diplomatic exchanges. His efforts included facilitating correspondence and appealing for restraint, earning public acknowledgment from President Kennedy that Thant had placed the world in his debt for averting potential nuclear conflict. Empirical outcomes included the Soviet withdrawal of missiles from Cuba by late October 1962 without direct military confrontation, though the extent of Thant's causal role remains debated among historians. In the Congo Crisis, Thant oversaw the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC) from 1961, directing in December 1962 that dismantled the Katanga secessionist regime and reintegrated the province by January 1963, stabilizing the central government under Prime Minister . The operation involved up to 20,000 UN troops at peak and marked one of the largest efforts to date, though at a cost exceeding $400 million by 1964; it empirically reduced active secessionist violence and facilitated national reconciliation plans. Thant's chairmanship of the UN Congo Conciliation Commission further supported post-conflict unity efforts. Thant initiated the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in (UNFICYP) on March 4, 1964, following Security Council Resolution 186, deploying approximately 6,500 troops initially to prevent escalation between Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities after intercommunal violence in December 1963. The force's presence empirically contained localized conflicts, averting a predicted full-scale and enabling the island's continued independence amid ethnic tensions, with UNFICYP maintaining a that persists today. He also mediated the , facilitating Indonesia's assumption of administration from the in 1963 via the , avoiding armed confrontation. Under Thant's leadership, the UN admitted 26 new member states between 1961 and 1971, primarily from decolonized and , expanding membership from 104 to 130 and enhancing representation of developing nations in global forums. He championed the First United Nations Development Decade (1961–1970), promoting targets for developing countries averaging 5% annual GDP increase, alongside establishing precursors to modern UN development agencies like the UN Capital Development Fund, whose committee he chaired. These initiatives empirically boosted UN technical assistance programs, disbursing aid to newly independent states and fostering processes, such as supporting Algeria's independence negotiations in 1962.

Major Criticisms and Failures

U Thant's decision to withdraw the (UNEF) from the and in May 1967, following Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser's demand on , has been widely criticized for its haste and lack of consultation with the Security Council or troop-contributing nations, contributing to the escalation that led to the on June 5. Critics, including Canadian Foreign Minister and Israeli officials, argued that Thant failed to assess alternative arrangements or delay the withdrawal to de-escalate tensions, instead acquiescing within 54 hours despite UNEF's role as a buffer since 1957. Thant defended the action as required by the 1956 mandate emphasizing host-state consent, but detractors contended this rigid interpretation overlooked the force's stabilizing function and the broader risk of regional conflict. In the Congo Crisis, Thant's oversight of the UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC) from 1961 onward drew criticism for prolonging an inconclusive and financially burdensome mission that failed to fully integrate until 1963, amid operational snags and allegations of overreach against secessionist leader . The operation, costing over $200 million by 1962 and involving combat against Katangese forces, resulted in hundreds of UN personnel deaths and divided member states on funding, exacerbating the UN's fiscal woes without achieving lasting national unity. Some analysts viewed Thant's persistence in coercive measures as a departure from impartial , prioritizing central government authority over negotiated , though the crisis's inheritance from mitigated direct blame. Thant's public criticisms of U.S. escalation in the , particularly after 1965, strained relations with Washington and were faulted for undermining his neutrality, as his calls for unconditional negotiations aligned more closely with than with U.S. conditions for talks. Secret attempts, such as the 1966 Rangoon initiative, collapsed without progress, with U.S. officials attributing failure partly to Thant's perceived and inflexibility in bridging North-South divides. Similarly, during the (1967–1970), Thant's reluctance to expand UN involvement beyond limited relief efforts—declaring no broader role amid famine claims—was criticized for enabling unchecked humanitarian suffering in , where up to 2 million deaths occurred, as he prioritized Nigerian over interventionist aid corridors. These episodes fueled perceptions of Thant as overly conciliatory toward authoritarian regimes, contributing to the UN's diminished credibility in resolving proxy conflicts or by 1971.

Honors, Memorials, and Recent Reappraisals

U Thant received the for International Understanding on November 14, 1965, from the Indian government in recognition of his contributions to global peace and efforts. In March 1965, awarded him its Gold Medal of Honor, the municipality's highest distinction, citing his role in advancing international stability amid tensions. Posthumously, the U Thant Peace Award was established in 1974 by Sri Chinmoy's Peace Meditation at the to honor Thant's diplomatic legacy, with recipients including figures such as in 1976 and in 1989 for their peace advocacy. Memorials include a unveiled on , 2019, at in , Thant's birthplace site linked to Buddhist heritage, commemorating his mediation in global conflicts. A tree-planting ceremony occurred on the grounds of the Palais des Nations in to perpetuate his memory following his death. The U Thant House in , , founded by his family, hosts annual memorial lectures, such as the 2020 event on the ' role in Asia delivered by . Recent reappraisals, particularly following the 2025 publication of Peacemaker: U Thant and the Forgotten Quest for a Just World by his grandson , emphasize Thant's underrecognized mediation during the 1962 , where his proposals for mutual Soviet-American withdrawal from missile sites contributed to and averted nuclear confrontation. These assessments highlight his advocacy for newly independent states in the Global South, contrasting with earlier critiques of perceived ineffectiveness, and argue his Buddhist-influenced neutrality enabled pragmatic resolutions in crises like the Congo intervention and Algerian . Such reevaluations position Thant as a pivotal figure in mid-20th-century , whose equitable approach to power imbalances remains relevant amid contemporary geopolitical shifts.

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