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January 29: The Beggar's Opera premieres in London (1731 painting by William Hogarth).
1728 by topic
Arts and science
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1728 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar1728
MDCCXXVIII
Ab urbe condita2481
Armenian calendar1177
ԹՎ ՌՃՀԷ
Assyrian calendar6478
Balinese saka calendar1649–1650
Bengali calendar1134–1135
Berber calendar2678
British Regnal year1 Geo. 2 – 2 Geo. 2
Buddhist calendar2272
Burmese calendar1090
Byzantine calendar7236–7237
Chinese calendar丁未年 (Fire Goat)
4425 or 4218
    — to —
戊申年 (Earth Monkey)
4426 or 4219
Coptic calendar1444–1445
Discordian calendar2894
Ethiopian calendar1720–1721
Hebrew calendar5488–5489
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat1784–1785
 - Shaka Samvat1649–1650
 - Kali Yuga4828–4829
Holocene calendar11728
Igbo calendar728–729
Iranian calendar1106–1107
Islamic calendar1140–1141
Japanese calendarKyōhō 13
(享保１３年)
Javanese calendar1652–1653
Julian calendarGregorian minus 11 days
Korean calendar4061
Minguo calendar184 before ROC
民前184年
Nanakshahi calendar260
Thai solar calendar2270–2271
Tibetan calendarམེ་མོ་ལུག་ལོ་
(female Fire-Sheep)
1854 or 1473 or 701
    — to —
ས་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་
(male Earth-Monkey)
1855 or 1474 or 702
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1728.
James Bradley calculates the speed of light using stellar aberration.

1728 (MDCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1728th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 728th year of the 2nd millennium, the 28th year of the 18th century, and the 9th year of the 1720s decade. As of the start of 1728, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Events

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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Date unknown

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Births

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James Cook

Deaths

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Cotton Mather

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

1728

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1728 (MDCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar, notable for key developments in astronomy and exploration. English astronomer James Bradley announced the discovery of stellar aberration, the apparent shift in star positions due to the finite speed of light and Earth's orbital velocity around the Sun, providing empirical confirmation of heliocentrism independent of parallax.[1][2] Danish navigator Vitus Bering, commanding the Russian First Kamchatka Expedition, traversed the narrow waterway separating Siberia from North America—later designated the Bering Strait—establishing that no land bridge connected the continents at that latitude.[3][4] The year also saw the birth of James Cook on 27 October in Marton-in-Cleveland, Yorkshire, England, who would later become a pivotal figure in Pacific exploration and cartography through his voyages charting Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii.[5][6] In colonial America, Puritan minister and author Cotton Mather died on 13 February in Boston at age 65, leaving a legacy of prolific writings on theology, science, and the Salem witch trials despite ongoing controversies over his role in promoting spectral evidence.[7][8] Additional events included the premiere of John Gay's satirical The Beggar's Opera in London, which critiqued corruption and influenced musical theater, and William Byrd II's survey delineating the Virginia-North Carolina border, aiding colonial expansion.[9] These occurrences underscored 1728's contributions to empirical observation, geographic knowledge, and cultural critique amid the Enlightenment's rise.

Events

January–March

On January 29, The Beggar's Opera, a satirical ballad opera written by John Gay with music arranged by Johann Christoph Pepusch, premiered at the Theatre Royal in Lincoln's Inn Fields, London.[10] The work lampooned corruption among thieves, politicians, and the upper classes, drawing parallels between highwaymen and government figures, and critiqued the extravagance of Italian opera through its use of popular English tunes and spoken dialogue.[11] Its immediate success was evidenced by 62 consecutive performances in its initial run, an unprecedented run for the time that generated substantial profits for the theater and elevated Gay's fortunes, reflecting public appetite for anti-establishment satire amid perceptions of ministerial venality under Robert Walpole.[12] On February 17, George Frideric Handel's opera seria Siroe, re di Persia (HWV 24), with a libretto adapted from Pietro Metastasio's text, premiered at the King's Theatre in the Haymarket, London.[13] Featuring castrato Francesco Bernardi (Senesino) in the title role, the opera explored themes of royal intrigue and filial loyalty in ancient Persia through elaborate da capo arias and complex ensembles, showcasing Handel's skill in blending dramatic tension with vocal display.[14] Contemporary accounts noted a respectable reception with 17 performances, though its Italian style faced competition from the rising popularity of English ballad operas like Gay's work, contributing to declining audiences for opera seria in London.[15] On March 6, Britain and Spain signed the first Convention of Pardo (also known as the Treaty of El Pardo) at El Pardo Palace near Madrid, aiming to resolve lingering disputes from the War of the Quadruple Alliance and the Treaty of Utrecht.[16] The agreement stipulated British recognition of Spanish sovereignty claims in Italy, limitations on British privateering in Spanish waters, and concessions for the South Sea Company's slave trade under the asiento contract, while affirming British possession of Gibraltar and Minorca; in return, Spain granted trade access but retained rights to search vessels for contraband.[17] This pact temporarily eased colonial tensions in the Americas by reducing incidents of Spanish guarda costas seizures, fostering short-term stability in transatlantic commerce, though underlying resentments over trade imbalances and territorial enforcement persisted, foreshadowing renewed hostilities within a decade.[16]

April–June

In April 1728, construction commenced on the sloop St. Gabriel at the Lower Kamchatka Post as a critical phase of Vitus Bering's First Kamchatka Expedition, aimed at determining whether Asia and North America were connected by land.[18] Work began on April 4 (Old Style), utilizing timber transported by dogsled from nearby forests and incorporating designs adapted from European models to suit local conditions.[18] This effort, spanning into May, addressed the expedition's need for a seaworthy vessel after the limitations of existing boats like the Fortuna and Vostok became evident during overland transit from Okhotsk.[19] On April 30, 82 survivors of the Dutch East India Company ship Zeewijk—which had run aground on the Houtman Abrolhos reefs off Western Australia on June 9, 1727—reached Batavia (modern Jakarta) aboard a yawl they constructed from salvaged materials.[20] Of the original complement of approximately 208, the group had endured months on Gun Island, relying on bird eggs, seals, and rudimentary freshwater distillation before departing the Abrolhos on April 21.[20] Their arrival highlighted persistent navigational hazards in the Indian Ocean trade routes, including uncharted reefs and monsoon delays, though VOC records emphasized the success of improvised shipbuilding in mitigating total loss.[20]

July–September

In July 1728, French naval forces under Admiral Jean-Claude de la Haye conducted a bombardment of Tripoli from July 20 to 27, targeting the Barbary Regency's corsair activities that threatened Mediterranean commerce.[21] The operation involved multiple warships delivering sustained artillery fire but avoided amphibious assault due to the city's robust fortifications and the logistical difficulties of sustaining ground troops in hostile terrain, ultimately compelling temporary concessions from Tripoli without territorial gains.[21] In the Great Lakes region of North America, French colonial authorities initiated a major expedition in 1728 against the Meskwaki (Fox) nation as part of the Second Fox War, deploying approximately 400 soldiers from Michilimackinac alongside allied Indigenous forces from the Odawa, Ojibwe, and others to neutralize threats to fur trade routes.[22] The campaign aimed to dismantle Meskwaki villages in present-day Wisconsin but encountered evasion tactics by the Meskwaki, who relied on mobility and alliances to avoid decisive engagement, prolonging the conflict through supply line vulnerabilities and seasonal constraints on French logistics.[22][23] By September 1728, colonial authorities in British Jamaica escalated military efforts against maroon communities—descendants of escaped enslaved Africans—triggering the First Maroon War through reinforced troop deployments to counter raids on plantations.[24] British forces, numbering in the hundreds, faced persistent guerrilla resistance in Jamaica's mountainous interior, where maroons exploited terrain for ambushes and resupply, underscoring the causal limits of conventional European tactics against decentralized, adaptive fighters.[24]

October–December

The Copenhagen Fire, the largest urban conflagration in the city's history, erupted on the evening of 20 October 1728 and raged until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately one-third of Copenhagen including much of its medieval core.[25] The blaze, exacerbated by strong winds and inadequate firefighting resources such as empty water conduits, consumed around 28% of the urban area by surface measurement and rendered about 20% of the population homeless, though direct fatalities remained relatively low amid the scale of property and cultural losses, which included the University of Copenhagen's entire library collection.[26] Rebuilding efforts commenced promptly under royal oversight, incorporating improved fire-resistant designs and wider streets, which catalyzed urban modernization despite the immediate economic strain on Denmark's treasury.[27] In India, Maratha forces under Chimaji Appa, brother of Peshwa Baji Rao I, crossed the Narmada River on 25 November 1728, initiating an invasion of Mughal-held Malwa that culminated in the Battle of Amjhera on 29 November.[28] The Marathas decisively defeated a combined Mughal-Rajput army led by governors Girdhar Bahadur and Daya Ram, both of whom perished in the engagement, enabling Maratha cavalry to overrun key territories and secure tribute extraction rights from local Mughal officials.[28] This victory transferred effective control of Malwa to Maratha commanders, who partitioned the province among families like the Shindes, Holkars, and Pawars, marking a pivotal erosion of Mughal authority in central India and facilitating further Maratha expansions northward.[29] The territorial gains underscored the accelerating fragmentation of the Mughal Empire post-Aurangzeb, as Maratha raids systematically undermined revenue streams from fertile provinces like Malwa, compelling Delhi to concede de facto autonomy in exchange for nominal chauth tributes.[30]

Undated Events

In 1728, Colonel William Byrd II of Virginia co-led a joint expedition with commissioners from Virginia and North Carolina to survey and demarcate the southern boundary of Virginia, resolving ambiguities in royal charters that had fueled land disputes and hindered governance in the southern colonies.[31] [9] The team, comprising surveyors, markers, laborers, and packhorses, traversed approximately 240 miles westward from Currituck Inlet, employing compass bearings, Gunter's chains for distance measurement, and astronomical fixes via sextant to establish a straight-line demarcation amid dense forests, swamps, and rivers.[32] [33] This empirical approach yielded a legally binding line that clarified property rights, reduced inter-colonial encroachments, and supported expansion of tobacco plantations and settlements, though Native American paths and environmental obstacles complicated fieldwork and exposed differences in colonial provisioning and labor practices.[34] Byrd's detailed journal, later published as The History of the Dividing Line, documented these challenges and interactions with indigenous groups, providing causal insights into how imprecise prior boundaries had incentivized squatting and evasion of taxes or militia duties.[35] The survey's outcomes reinforced centralized colonial authority by enabling accurate taxation and defense planning, underscoring the role of geometric precision in stabilizing frontier administration.[36]

Scientific and Exploratory Achievements

Astronomical Discoveries

In 1728, English astronomer James Bradley announced his discovery of the aberration of starlight, an apparent annual displacement in the positions of stars observed from Earth.[37] Bradley had initiated observations of the star γ Draconis (Eltanin) in 1725 using a zenith sector telescope, expecting to detect stellar parallax as evidence of Earth's orbital motion around the Sun. Instead, he recorded a systematic shift in the star's position amounting to approximately 40 arcseconds over the year, with a semi-annual amplitude of 20 arcseconds, which did not conform to the expected parallax ellipse or seasonal patterns.[38] This motion's direction and magnitude varied in a manner inconsistent with geocentric models or instrumental errors, as verified through repeated measurements at multiple observatories.[39] Bradley attributed the phenomenon to the finite speed of light combined with Earth's orbital velocity of about 30 kilometers per second, causing light from stars to arrive at an angle relative to the moving observer, analogous to the apparent slant of raindrops when viewed from a moving vehicle.[37] The aberration angle θ satisfies tan θ ≈ v/c, where v is Earth's tangential velocity and c is the speed of light; for stars near the ecliptic plane opposite Earth's motion direction, the maximum displacement reaches roughly 20.5 arcseconds, precisely matching Bradley's observations.[40] This causal mechanism rejected alternative explanations, such as atmospheric refraction or planetary motion effects, which failed to produce the observed annual periodicity aligned with Earth's heliocentric orbit.[39] The discovery provided direct empirical confirmation of Earth's annual revolution around the Sun, independent of parallax searches, as the aberration's vector followed the ecliptic and reversed semiannually, incompatible with fixed stellar positions in geocentric frameworks.[37] Mathematical validation using the known orbital parameters yielded θ values within observational error of Bradley's data, reinforcing heliocentrism by demonstrating that the effect's scale—far larger than anticipated parallax for even the nearest stars (less than 1 arcsecond)—arose solely from relative velocity, not distance-based parallax.[40] Bradley's announcement to the Royal Society in late 1728 underscored this as a verifiable consequence of causal light propagation in a moving frame, debunking claims of negligible Earth motion.[38]

Expeditions and Surveys

In 1728, Danish navigator Vitus Bering, commanding the Russian ship Gabriel as part of the First Kamchatka Expedition initiated by Peter the Great in 1725, departed from the Kamchatka Peninsula on July 13 to map northeastern Siberia's coast and ascertain whether Asia connected to North America.[19] Navigating through fog and ice, Bering entered the strait—later named after him—on August 16, sighting the Alaskan coast near Mount St. Elias but unable to land due to deteriorating weather and strong currents that forced a return southward without confirming a continuous land bridge.[3] The voyage empirically demonstrated the separation of the continents by a narrow waterway, approximately 53 miles wide at its narrowest, countering prior uncertainties and laying groundwork for Russian Pacific claims through documented coordinates and observations of indigenous Chukchi signals, though logistical strains like scurvy and vessel leaks limited deeper surveys.[41] Concurrently in British North America, a joint Virginia-North Carolina commission under William Byrd II of Westover conducted the Dividing Line survey to demarcate their shared border as stipulated by the 1710 Treaty of the Middle Temple, commencing on March 5 at Currituck Inlet and extending roughly 240 miles westward into the interior.[31] Surveyors, including Byrd, Christopher Gale, and William Dandridge from Virginia alongside North Carolinian counterparts, employed compass bearings, chain measurements, and marked trees to trace a line from sea level through Dismal Swamp's dense marshes—where progress slowed to mere miles per day amid flooding and insect plagues—and into the Appalachian foothills, resolving prior encroachments by establishing verifiable latitudes and longitudes despite interpersonal frictions and terrain-induced delays that halted work by late summer.[42] Byrd's subsequent account detailed empirical findings on local ecology, such as pine-savanna transitions and Tuscarora settlements, underscoring the survey's role in clarifying colonial jurisdictions based on geometric precision rather than vague precedents.[43]

Cultural and Artistic Milestones

Theater and Music

The premiere of John Gay's The Beggar's Opera on 29 January 1728 at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre in London marked a pivotal innovation in English theater, introducing the ballad opera genre that combined spoken dialogue with songs set to familiar popular melodies rather than newly composed operatic arias.[44] Arranged musically by Johann Christoph Pepusch, the work drew from over 60 existing ballads and folk tunes, adapting them with lyrics that satirized societal corruption by equating highwaymen and politicians in their moral equivalence, reflecting observable patterns of elite graft under Prime Minister Robert Walpole's administration.[10] This format democratized musical theater by leveraging tunes audiences already knew, bypassing the esoteric Italian opera conventions dominant in London, and critiqued the extravagance of foreign imports like Handel's productions through parody.[45] The opera's empirical success underscored its cultural impact, achieving 62 consecutive performances in its initial run—a record for the era that generated substantial box-office revenue and prompted swift sequels, demonstrating market validation of its accessible satire over highbrow alternatives.[10] Technically, the arrangement emphasized rhythmic adaptability of vernacular tunes to dramatic pacing, enhancing narrative flow without virtuosic demands, which contrasted with the vocal acrobatics of Italian opera and appealed to broader audiences amid economic strains post-South Sea Bubble.[46] Its critique of corruption gained traction through direct parallels, such as portraying government figures as thieves, aligning with contemporary accounts of patronage and bribery, though Walpole's regime suppressed a planned sequel to curb its political sting.[47] In the same year, George Frideric Handel premiered his opera Siroe, re di Persia (HWV 24) on 17 February 1728 at the King's Theatre in Haymarket, staging 17 performances amid competition from the ballad opera's rise, which lampooned the elaborate seria style Handel championed.[48] Handel's work featured intricate da capo arias and recitatives showcasing castrati virtuosity, with overtures blending French and Italian influences for dramatic tension, but its shorter run highlighted shifting preferences toward native, satirical forms over imported grandeur.[49] Later in 1728, Handel produced Tolomeo, re d'Egitto (HWV 25) at Covent Garden, incorporating pastoral elements and flute obbligatos for expressive depth, yet these efforts reflected a defensive adaptation to the ballad opera's commercial disruption of London's operatic monopoly.[48]

Religious and Architectural Developments

In 1728, Congregation Shearith Israel, the oldest Jewish congregation in North America, purchased a lot on Mill Street (now South William Street) in New York City for the construction of the first purpose-built synagogue in the British American colonies.[50] [51] The initiative stemmed from a small Sephardic community of Portuguese-origin Jews, numbering around 50 households, who had migrated from Dutch Brazil after its Portuguese reconquest in 1654 and integrated into colonial trade networks despite legal disabilities under English rule, which permitted private worship but barred public proselytism or office-holding.[52] Funding was secured via subscriptions at a congregational meeting on October 28, 1728, reflecting economic self-sufficiency from mercantile activities in a population comprising less than 1% of New York's roughly 10,000 residents.[52] Construction of the modest wooden structure began that year, accommodating Sephardic rites with features like a central bimah, and was completed in 1730, when it was consecrated on the seventh day of Passover.[53] This development institutionalized Jewish religious practice beyond rented spaces or homes, aligning with broader colonial patterns of minority faith communities seeking permanence amid Anglican dominance and Quaker tolerance elsewhere, though it faced no recorded opposition from provincial authorities focused on economic contributions over doctrinal enforcement. In Europe, the deposition of Scottish Presbyterian minister John Glas by the Church of Scotland's general assembly in 1728 advanced debates on ecclesiastical independence, as Glas rejected national church establishments and civil magistracy in spiritual affairs, prompting formation of autonomous Glasite congregations that prioritized biblical covenants over state alliances.[54] This schism, rooted in Glas's critique of the 1712 Oath of Abjuration tying clergy to monarchical oaths, eroded presbytery cohesion and fostered nonconformist pluralism in a kirk claiming near-universal adherence, influencing later evangelical separations without immediate architectural manifestations but through decentralized house meetings. Meanwhile, in the Saxon estate of Herrnhut, the Moravian Brethren under Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf instituted the Losungen—daily scriptural watchwords—on May 3, 1728, as a tool for communal piety amid the renewal of the ancient Unitas Fratrum tradition following exiles' arrival in 1722.[55] This practice, drawn from lot-casting and Bible verses, reinforced pietist discipline in a refugee settlement of about 300, causal to sustained missionary outreach and internal cohesion against Lutheran state pressures, though Herrnhut's modest chapel predated formalized builds.

Notable Individuals

Births

February 13 – John Hunter, Scottish surgeon and anatomist born in Long Calderwood, Lanarkshire, whose empirical studies in pathology and comparative anatomy laid foundations for modern surgery.[56] February 21 – Peter III, Emperor of Russia (as Karl Peter Ulrich), born in Kiel to Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and Anna Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great, positioning him for imperial succession through Romanov lineage.[57] August 26 – Johann Heinrich Lambert, Swiss polymath born in Mulhouse, whose work in mathematics, including proofs of irrationality of π and development of hyperbolic functions, advanced non-Euclidean geometry and astronomy.[58] October 7 – Caesar Rodney, American statesman born on the Byfield plantation near Dover, Delaware, whose later roles in colonial governance foreshadowed contributions to independence.[59] October 27 – James Cook, British naval officer and explorer born in Marton-in-Cleveland, Yorkshire, to a farm laborer father, displaying early aptitude in seamanship that led to Pacific voyages.[60]

Deaths

On January 24, Johann Philipp Käfer, a German Baroque composer and organist born in 1672, died at age 55 in Pforzheim.[61] As Kapellmeister at the court of Baden-Durlach from 1718 until his dismissal in 1722, Käfer produced orchestral suites including Musicalische Battaille and sacred vocal works, though much of his output remains lost, limiting assessment of his full influence on regional music.[62] His death contributed to the transition in court musical leadership, paving the way for successors like Johann Melchior Molter.[62] February 12 saw the death of Agostino Steffani, an Italian composer, bishop, and diplomat born in 1654, at age 73 in Frankfurt am Main while engaged in negotiations.[63] Steffani's operas and chamber duets influenced contemporaries like George Frideric Handel, and his late sacred works, such as the 1728 Stabat Mater, demonstrated innovations in polyphony for voices and instruments; his diplomatic career in service to Bavarian and Hanoverian courts intertwined music with politics, creating a model for composer-diplomats that waned after his passing.[64][63] The following day, February 13, Cotton Mather, a New England Puritan minister and author born in 1663, died at age 65 in Boston.[65] Mather authored over 400 works, including the ecclesiastical history Magnalia Christi Americana (1702), and advocated for smallpox inoculation based on empirical observations from enslaved African Onesimus, contributing to early public health efforts despite opposition; his death ended a prolific intellectual output that bridged theology, natural philosophy, and colonial historiography.[65][65] John Woodward, an English physician, geologist, and naturalist born on May 1, 1665, died on April 25, 1728, at age 62 in London.[66] Woodward advanced natural history through his 1695 theory positing deposition of Earth strata from aqueous solutions, amassed one of the earliest systematic fossil and mineral collections (later bequeathed to Cambridge University), and promoted empirical classification in geology, though his diluvial framework limited broader acceptance; his passing halted further refinements to these foundational collections and ideas amid emerging Newtonian challenges.[67][68]

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  2. On the Definition of Aberration - NASA ADS
  3. Origin - Beringia (U.S. National Park Service)
  4. Scientist of the Day - Vitus Bering, Danish Explorer, Bering Streit
  5. James Cook - Ages of Exploration
  6. Captain Cook Society > Cook's Life > Overview
  7. Cotton Mather - Salem Witch Trials Documentary Archive
  8. Remembering Cotton Mather - American Heritage Partners
  9. Analysis: History of the Dividing Line: Run in the Year 1728 - EBSCO
  10. The first jukebox musical | OUPblog
  11. First Ballad Opera | Research Starters - EBSCO
  12. John Gay's The Beggar's Opera - The Devon and Exeter Institution
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  17. Treaty of Seville | Research Starters - EBSCO
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  24. Slavery Timeline 1701-1800 - Brycchan Carey
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  26. University of Copenhagen history: The fire of 1728 - Uniavisen
  27. Copenhagen burnt down 3 times in 80 years. It was not all bad
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  29. Amjhera – NDHistories - WordPress.com
  30. How Marathas contributed to the Decline of the Mughal Empire ...
  31. William Byrd II and the 1728 NC/VA Survey - NC DNCR
  32. Col. William Byrd's Observations 1728-33 - VictorianVilla.com
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  36. William Byrd Was a Colonial-era Surveyor and Satirist
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  38. Bradley's Discovery of Stellar Aberration
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  42. History of the Dividing Line - NCpedia
  43. Dividing Line (A-15) A-15 - NC DNCR
  44. The Beggar's Opera | Comic Opera, Ballad Opera, John Gay
  45. 'Flora' — An 18th-Century British Invasion - NPR
  46. The Beggar's Opera: a guide to why and when it was composed and ...
  47. The Beggar's Opera: The Music
  48. Chronology of George Frideric Handel's Life, Compositions, and his ...
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  51. Manhattan's Mill Street Synagogue: A Short History
  52. Shearith Israel, Oldest Synagogue Here, Rich with Hoary Memories
  53. This Day in Jewish History The First Synagogue in the U.S. Is ...
  54. John Glas and the Development of Religious Pluralism in ...
  55. A Brief History of the Moravian Daily Texts
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  57. Assassination of Peter III, Emperor of All Russia (1762)
  58. Johann Heinrich Lambert | Mathematician, Astronomer, Physicist
  59. Caesar Rodney | Revolutionary War, Signer of Declaration & Patriot
  60. https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Cook
  61. Musicians Who Died in 1728 - On This Day
  62. Carlsruhe Cares CHRISTOPHORUS CHR77391 [JV] Classical ...
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  64. Steffani: Psalmodia Vespertina, Stabat Mater (Arcantus)
  65. Cotton Mather, Puritan Clergyman and Early American Scientist
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  67. Woodward, John - The Galileo Project
  68. John Woodward (1665-1728) - Document - Gale Academic OneFile
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