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Rosa hypanthium encircling separate achene fruits

An achene (/əˈkiːn/;[1] from Ancient Greek ἀ (a) 'privative' and χαίνειν (khaínein) 'to gape'),[2] also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not open at maturity). Achenes contain a single seed that nearly fills the pericarp, but does not adhere to it. In many species, what is called the "seed" is an achene, a fruit containing the seed. The seed-like appearance is owed to the hardening of the fruit wall (pericarp), which encloses the solitary seed so closely as to seem like a seed coat.[2]

Examples

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The fruits of buttercup, buckwheat, caraway, quinoa, amaranth, and cannabis are typical achenes.

The achenes of the strawberry are sometimes mistaken for seeds. The strawberry is an accessory fruit with an aggregate of achenes on its outer surface, and what is eaten is accessory tissue.

A rose produces an aggregate of achene fruits that are encompassed within an expanded hypanthium, which is a structure where basal portions of the calyx, the corolla, and the stamens unite with the receptacle to form a cup-shaped tube.

Variations

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A winged achene, as in maple, is called a samara.

Some achenes have accessory hair-like structures that cause them to tumble in the wind in a manner similar to a tumbleweed. This type sometimes is called a tumble fruit or diaspore. An example is Anemone virginiana.

A caryopsis or grain is a type of fruit that closely resembles an achene, but differs in that the pericarp is fused to the thin seed coat in the grain.

An utricle is like an achene, but the fruit is bladder-like or inflated.[3]

Fruits of sedges are sometimes considered achenes although their one-locule ovary is a compound ovary.

Cypsela of Cynara

The fruit of the family Asteraceae is also so similar to an achene that it is often considered to be one, although it derives from a compound inferior ovary (with one locule). A special term for the Asteraceae fruit is cypsela (plural cypselae or cypselas). For example, the white-gray husks of a sunflower "seed" are the walls of the cypsela fruit.[clarification needed] Many cypselas (e.g. dandelion) have modified calyx tissue called pappi attached that functions in biological dispersal of the seed.

[edit]
  • Cypselae on a dandelion "clock" (the matured capitulum) can disperse in the wind due to the hair-like calyx tissue above each ovary.
    Cypselae on a dandelion "clock" (the matured capitulum) can disperse in the wind due to the hair-like calyx tissue above each ovary.
  • A microscopic view of a dandelion "clock" showing the receptacle and the cypselas.
    A microscopic view of a dandelion "clock" showing the receptacle and the cypselas.
  • Samaras of Acer buergerianum are achenes with large wing-like structures.
    Samaras of Acer buergerianum are achenes with large wing-like structures.
  • The diaspore of Pulsatilla (family Ranunculaceae) disperses in the wind, either as single achenes or as the entire aggregate of achenes. The achenes have long hairy appendages that developed from the style of the flower.
    The diaspore of Pulsatilla (family Ranunculaceae) disperses in the wind, either as single achenes or as the entire aggregate of achenes. The achenes have long hairy appendages that developed from the style of the flower.
  • Coreopsis tinctoria showing 4 stages of inflorescence, with two reddish-brown flower heads containing cypselas
    Coreopsis tinctoria showing 4 stages of inflorescence, with two reddish-brown flower heads containing cypselas
  • Coreopsis tinctoria flower head containing cypselas forming as florets finish blooming
    Coreopsis tinctoria flower head containing cypselas forming as florets finish blooming

References

[edit]
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Achene

View on Grokipedia
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An achene is a type of simple, dry that develops from a superior, single-carpel and remains indehiscent at maturity, enclosing a single that is free from the thin pericarp (fruit wall) without adhering to it. This fruit type is distinguished by its small size, hard or thin texture, and lack of splitting to release the seed, often appearing seed-like itself. Achenes are widespread in angiosperms, particularly in families such as , , and , serving as a key reproductive structure for . Key characteristics of achenes include their monocarpellary origin, one-seeded nature, and dry pericarp that does not fuse with the coat, allowing the to separate easily upon dispersal. Unlike dehiscent fruits that open to release , achenes protect the until external forces—such as , water, or animal activity—aid in distribution. Some achenes feature adaptations like wings or pappi (tufts of bristles) for dispersal, as seen in species of the sunflower family. Notable examples illustrate the diversity of achenes. In strawberries (Fragaria spp.), the "seeds" embedded on the receptacle surface are true achenes, forming an aggregate fruit where multiple achenes develop from a single flower. Sunflower "seeds" (Helianthus annuus) are cypselas, a specialized achene subtype unique to Asteraceae, with a hardened pericarp often striped and edible. Other instances include the small, triangular achenes of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) and the fluffy-pappused achenes of dandelions (Taraxacum officinale), both facilitating effective dispersal. In sedges (Carex spp.), achenes are enclosed within a perigynium, a sac-like structure that aids protection. Achenes play a crucial role in and , contributing to the propagation of crops like sunflowers and . Sunflower achenes are economically valuable due to their high content. Their structural simplicity contrasts with more complex fruits, highlighting evolutionary adaptations in seed protection and across diverse habitats.

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

An achene is a small, dry, indehiscent fruit containing a single , derived from a superior simple , in which the seed coat remains free from the mature wall (pericarp) except at the point of attachment via the funiculus. This structure develops from the mature of a following fertilization, with the pericarp forming a thin, hardened layer that does not split open at maturity to release the . As a subcategory of simple dry fruits, the achene is distinguished from dehiscent types such as capsules or , which split along defined lines to disperse , whereas the achene remains closed and relies on external agents like or animals for dispersal. Unlike derived forms such as the , where the pericarp fuses tightly to the coat, the achene maintains separation, allowing the to be easily removed from the wall. The term "achene" was coined in 1808 by French botanist Louis Claude Marie Richard, derived from the prefix a- (meaning "not" or "without") and khaínein (meaning "to gape" or "to open"), reflecting its non-opening nature.

Key Structural Features

The pericarp of an achene is a thin, dry, indehiscent layer derived from the wall, which fuses with the only at its base via the funiculus, allowing the seed to separate easily without damaging the . This structure is typically hard or papery in texture, providing minimal protection while remaining unilocular and enclosing the tightly. The within an achene attaches to the through a short funiculus, with the coat (testa) remaining distinct and unfused from the pericarp, distinguishing it from fruits like the where the two layers adhere completely. This basal attachment point, known as the hilum, marks the scar of placental connection in the mature form. Achenes generally exhibit small dimensions, often 1–5 mm in length, with shapes ranging from oval and lens-like to angular or flattened, and may feature apical remnants such as persistent styles or pappus structures in certain taxa. At the microscopic level, an achene arises from a single that develops into one , with the mature form often featuring a thin or single-layer , though nutrients are primarily stored in the embryo's cotyledons. The pericarp may include specialized layers like sclerenchymatous cells or vascular bundles for , though these vary by lineage.

Development and Formation

Ontogenetic Process

The ontogenetic process of achene formation begins with in angiosperms, a hallmark event where one nucleus from the fuses with the to form a diploid that develops into the , while the second nucleus fuses with the central cell to produce a triploid that provides initial nourishment, though it is often minimal or absent in mature achenes. This process occurs in the within the shortly after successful , ensuring the genetic contribution from both parents to the seed's core structures. In achene-producing , such as those in the or families, this fertilization event triggers the coordinated development of the and surrounding tissues without significant persistence in many species. Following fertilization, the ovary walls undergo transformation into the pericarp, the protective outer layer of the achene, where cells differentiate and lignify to form a dry, indehiscent structure that adheres to the seed at a single point via the funiculus. The pericarp arises from either superior or inferior ovaries depending on the species—for instance, superior in Ranunculus and inferior in Helianthus—without fusion to the seed coat, maintaining the achene's characteristic independence. Lignification typically involves sclerification of sclerenchyma layers in the pericarp, starting soon after fertilization and contributing to the fruit's hardness while preventing dehiscence. In the early stages post-fertilization, the undergoes mitotic divisions to form a proembryo, which organizes into the proper with structures like the , , and ; simultaneously, the ovule's integuments differentiate and harden into the seed coat (testa), providing mechanical protection, while the funiculus elongates to anchor the developing to the . These events occur rapidly, with initial divisions evident within hours to days, as seen in Cichorium intybus where cellularization happens 15–17 hours after and cotyledon initiation by 72 hours. In sunflower (Helianthus annuus), the reaches the heart stage shortly after fertilization at full , with active growth observed by 3 days after mid-anthesis; fruit dimensions stabilize around 5 days after full . The timeline for these initial ontogenetic phases typically spans 2–4 weeks post-pollination in annual species, varying by environmental conditions and ; for example, in ( × ananassa), early fruit set reaches the large green stage by 15–20 days, marking the transition to further maturation. In contrast, rapid developers like show substantial progress within the first week. This period establishes the foundational architecture of the achene before later maturation processes.

Maturation Stages

The maturation of achenes involves a series of physiological and structural transformations following fruit set, culminating in a dry, indehiscent structure ready for dispersal. During the phases, the pericarp undergoes thickening, particularly in the sclerenchymatic layer, where secondary walls form and lignify to promote dryness and rigidity; in sunflower (Helianthus annuus) achenes, this layer thickens to 23.9–62.3 μm by 40–45 days after (daa), decreasing in high-oil cultivars as growth ceases around 13.7–18.6 daa. Simultaneously, the accumulates reserves essential for post-dispersal viability, including oils and proteins; oil bodies emerge at 6–7 daa and peak at 25–30 daa, reaching up to 52.0 mg per in high-oil varieties, while proteins occupy 24.9–35.8% of cell area by maturity. The indehiscence mechanism ensures the achene remains intact, preventing seed release through pericarp hardening without splitting; this is achieved via formation and lignification in the endocarp and pericarp layers, reinforcing the structure against mechanical stress. In achenes like those of sunflower, the pericarp sclerenchyma lacks oil bodies and develops thick-walled cells, maintaining closure throughout maturation. Environmental cues regulate these processes, with signaling playing a key role in inducing during late maturation to inhibit premature ; ABA levels rise autocatalytically in the achene, promoting adaptive responses to stress. Achene development is also sensitive to , as optimal oil deposition occurs around 22.5°C during the filling phase, while influences pericarp drying but is less directly documented. Post-maturation, achene viability persists in soil seed banks for varying durations depending on species and conditions, often 1–5 years for many ; for example, buried achenes retain 30–40% viability after 24 months at depths of at least 3 cm. This persistence supports population maintenance through transient to short-term seed banks.

Variations and Derived Types

Simple Achenes

Simple achenes represent the basic, unmodified form of this dry, indehiscent fruit type, characterized by a thin, plain pericarp that lacks specialized structures such as wings, hairs, or fusions with other floral parts. The pericarp forms a tightly adherent but separable layer around a single , which nearly fills the fruit cavity, resulting in a small, structure typically measuring 1-5 mm in length. This uncomplicated design distinguishes simple achenes from derived variants, emphasizing their role as a primitive morphology in angiosperms. These fruits commonly occur in herbaceous plants and shrubs across several families, including , where they exhibit a generic form as seen in buttercups ( spp.), and in early-developing stages of before potential aggregation. In , simple achenes without prominent appendages are prevalent in certain genera, contributing to the family's diverse but fundamentally similar fruit production. Their presence in both temperate and habitats underscores their adaptability in non-specialized ecological niches. Functionally, simple achenes rely on passive dispersal mechanisms due to the absence of adaptations for or long-distance , primarily dispersing via to nearby or through limited animal-mediated epizoochory where the fruit's smooth surface or subtle beaks may adhere briefly to or feathers. This short-range strategy supports localized establishment in stable environments. In the fossil record, achene-like structures first appear in deposits, such as those from the Baisa locality in the region, indicating their early evolution within basal angiosperm lineages around 130-125 million years ago.

Specialized Forms

Specialized forms of achenes exhibit structural modifications that enhance dispersal, protection, or adaptation to specific ecological niches, while retaining the core characteristics of a dry, indehiscent, single-seeded fruit. These variants arise from alterations in the pericarp's development, such as fusion, hardening, or extension, distinguishing them from the basic achene prototype. The represents a highly specialized achene variant in which the pericarp fuses tightly with the seed coat, forming a unified structure that appears seamless. This fusion occurs in the family (grasses), where the fruit, often called a , protects the embryo and facilitates efficient storage and dispersal in wind-pollinated or agricultural contexts. Nuts constitute another protective adaptation, featuring a larger, woody or bony pericarp that encases the single , providing robust defense against predators and environmental stress. Unlike simple achenes, the pericarp in nuts hardens significantly during maturation, as seen in the (Corylus avellana), where this sclerified layer ensures longevity until germination conditions are met. Samaras are winged achenes adapted for anemochory (wind dispersal), with the pericarp extending into a thin, papery that acts as an . This modification allows the fruit to spin or glide away from the parent plant, increasing potential; examples include the (Ulmus spp.), though classifications sometimes debate its achene status due to the degree of wing integration with the wall. Schizocarps, while compound in origin, split at maturity into multiple mericarps, each functioning as an individual achene with its own single enclosed in an indehiscent pericarp. This borderline form is prevalent in the (umbellifers), such as carrots (), where the splitting mechanism aids targeted dispersal while maintaining achene-like integrity in the subunits.

Examples and Distribution

Common Plant Examples

Achenes are prominently featured in the family, where they serve as the characteristic dry, single-seeded fruits. In sunflowers ( spp.), these achenes are elongated and often equipped with a pappus of fine bristles at the apex, aiding in their role as dispersal units commonly referred to as seeds. These achenes hold significant economic value, as sunflower seeds are a major global crop for oil production and human consumption. In the family, achenes appear in species like the ( spp.), where the edible "fruit" is actually an enlarged receptacle forming a pseudocarp, with numerous true achenes embedded on its outer surface. Each of these small, dry achenes contains a single and contributes to the plant's reproductive , though the aggregate structure of these achenes is explored further in discussions of compound forms. The family also produces achenes, notably in buttercups ( spp.), where they are small, smooth, and typically form tight clusters in rounded heads following . These achenes are indehiscent and aid in the ' propagation across various habitats. Achenes are widespread among flowering plants, particularly in temperate zones, with over 20,000 in families like alone producing them as primary fruits. For identification, achenes can be recognized by their dry, indehiscent texture and the presence of exactly one per fruitlet, distinguishing them from multi-seeded or splitting fruits.

Aggregate and Multiple Achenes

Aggregate achenes arise from flowers with an apocarpous , where multiple separate carpels develop independently into individual dry, one-seeded fruits clustered together on a common receptacle. In species like the ( spp.), the enlarged fleshy receptacle forms the bulk of the edible structure, while numerous tiny achenes are embedded on its surface, each containing a single protected by a thin pericarp. This arrangement results in an that appears as a single unit but comprises many distinct achenes derived from the multiple ovaries of one flower. Multiple achenes, in contrast, occur in syncarpous flowers organized into compact inflorescences, such as the capitula (heads) of the family, where fused carpels from numerous florets produce a cluster of modified achenes known as cypselae. For instance, in the sunflower (Helianthus annuus), the central disc florets yield a dense array of cypselae—achene-like fruits with an inferior —that fill the concave receptacle, forming what is commonly called a seed head. Each cypsela develops from a single floret's bicarpellate , with the pericarp free from the coat, and the collective structure enhances mass dispersal. Following , the formation of both aggregate and multiple achenes involves the independent maturation of multiple carpels, triggered by fertilization signals that promote pericarp development around each without dehiscence. In aggregates, post-pollination from the developing seeds drives receptacle expansion, while in multiples like sunflower heads, hormonal coordination ensures synchronized ripening across florets. Ecologically, these compound structures improve dispersal efficiency by attracting animals to consume or transport the clustered units, thereby scattering achenes over wider areas; such forms are prevalent in about 10% of angiosperm families, including and , which together encompass diverse habitats.

Comparisons and Distinctions

With Other Dry Fruits

Achenes are distinguished from caryopses, another type of indehiscent dry fruit, primarily by the relationship between the pericarp and the seed coat. In an achene, the pericarp remains separate from the seed coat, allowing the seed to be easily separated from the fruit wall upon threshing, as seen in sunflower seeds. In contrast, a caryopsis features a fused pericarp and seed coat, with the seed embedded and adnate to the pericarp at all points, a condition characteristic of grass grains such as those in the family. This fusion in caryopses provides enhanced protection and is an adaptation suited to wind dispersal in cereals. Nutlets represent another indehiscent dry fruit type that overlaps with achenes but differs in pericarp . A nutlet is essentially a small nut, defined as a thick-walled achene or the one-seeded portion of a in families like and , where the pericarp is hardened and bony. While achenes typically have a thin, papery pericarp enclosing a single , nutlets feature a tougher, more durable shell, as exemplified by the mericarps in fruits. This distinction highlights nutlets' role in providing greater mechanical protection against and predation in arid environments. In comparison to dehiscent dry fruits like follicles, achenes are fundamentally indehiscent, meaning they do not split open at maturity to release s. A follicle develops from a single carpel and dehisces along one suture, often containing multiple s, as in the milkweed pod of species. Achenes, however, remain closed with a single attached only at the base via the funicle, preventing any splitting and relying instead on external agents for dispersal. This indehiscent nature contrasts with the explosive or passive seed release in follicles, underscoring achenes' adaptation for unit dispersal of the entire fruit- complex. Borderline cases arise with cypselas in the family, which are often interchangeably termed achenes but warrant distinction based on anatomical origins. A cypsela is a unilocular, single-seeded derived from an inferior , incorporating extra-pericarpial tissues from the receptacle and lacking adnation between the and pericarp, frequently adorned with a pappus for wind dispersal. In contrast, true achenes originate from superior ovaries without such additional tissues, as in . Historical terminology has blurred these lines, but refined usage reserves "achene" for superior ovary fruits and "cypsela" for to reflect phylogenetic and developmental differences. Achenes exhibit evolutionary overlap with these dry fruits through shared ancestry in early , where indehiscent, one-seeded forms represent a primitive condition in basal lineages such as and . This common origin in early eudicot diversification facilitated adaptive radiations, balancing protection and dispersal strategies across angiosperm lineages.

With Fleshy Fruits

Achenes represent a type of dry, indehiscent fruit characterized by a single enclosed in a thin pericarp that does not split open at maturity, distinguishing them fundamentally from fleshy s such as berries and drupes. Berries feature a succulent pericarp derived from one or more fused carpels, typically containing multiple seeds embedded within the fleshy tissue, as seen in tomatoes and grapes. In contrast, drupes possess a fleshy mesocarp surrounding a stony endocarp that encases a single seed, exemplified by peaches and cherries. This structural divergence reflects divergent evolutionary strategies for seed protection and , with achenes prioritizing durability in arid or exposed environments over succulence. Dispersal mechanisms further underscore these adaptations: achenes often rely on passive methods like wind or external attachment to animal fur, leveraging lightweight structures or minimal pericarp for broad distribution without ingestion. Fleshy fruits, however, evolved primarily for endozoochory, where animals consume the pericarp and excrete viable seeds after gut passage, promoting targeted dispersal over longer distances via mobile vectors like birds and mammals. This contrast enhances achene survival in non-zoochorous niches while fleshy fruits capitalize on mutualistic interactions for nutritional rewards to dispersers. Nutritionally, achene seeds accumulate high levels of oils and starches to sustain prolonged and post- growth, as evidenced by sunflower achenes containing approximately 40-50% for energy reserves during environmental stress. These reserves support physiological common in achenes, delaying until favorable conditions arise. Fleshy fruits, conversely, allocate nutrients like sugars and phenolics to the pericarp to attract frugivores, facilitating immediate dispersal and that can break for quicker establishment. A notable source of confusion arises in aggregate accessory fruits like the ( × ananassa), where the enlarged, succulent receptacle mimics a fleshy , yet the true fruits are the numerous dry achenes embedded on its surface, each containing a single . This external positioning of achenes belies the overall fleshy appearance, leading to misclassification, but underscores how accessory tissues can enhance dispersal without altering the achene's dry nature.

References

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