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The "braggart soldier" Pyrgopolynices in a 2012 production of the play Miles Gloriosus

Alazṓn (Ancient Greek: ἀλαζών) is one of three stock characters in comedy of the theatre of ancient Greece.[1] He is the opponent of the eirôn. The alazṓn is an impostor that sees himself as greater than he actually is. The senex iratus (the angry old man) and the miles gloriosus (the braggart soldier) are two types of alazṓn.[2]

Miles Gloriosus

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Look up miles gloriosus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Miles Gloriosus (literally, "braggart-soldier", in Latin) is a stock character of a boastful soldier from the comic theatre of ancient Rome, and variations on this character have appeared in drama and fiction ever since.[3] The character derives from the alazṓn or "braggart" of the Greek Old Comedy (e.g. Aristophanes). The term "Miles Gloriosus" is occasionally applied in a contemporary context to refer to a posturing and self-deceiving boaster or bully.

Literary instances

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In the play Miles Gloriosus ("Boastful Soldier") by Plautus, the term applies to the main character Pyrgopolynices. This foolish Miles Gloriosus brags openly and often about his supposed greatness, while the rest of the characters feign their admiration and secretly plot against him. Heavily borrowing from Plautus, the Stephen Sondheim-Burt Shevelove-Larry Gelbart musical A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum features a warrior named Miles Gloriosus.

An example in Terence of the alazon character is Thraso in the Eunuchus. Like Pyrgopolinices in the Miles Gloriosus, Thraso is attended by a flatterer or parasite who follows him round and attends to his wishes. Like Pyrgopolinices, Thraso is wealthy and is a rival of the young man in the story for the love of a courtesan.

Shakespeare uses the type most notably with the bombastic and self-glorifying ensign Ancient Pistol in Henry IV, Part 2, The Merry Wives of Windsor and Henry V.[4] Other examples are "fashion's own knight", the Spaniard Armardo, in Love's Labour's Lost, the worthless Captain Parolles in All's Well That Ends Well, and Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 1 and Part 2, and The Merry Wives of Windsor. Sir Tophas of John Lyly's Endymion also fits the mold.

Baron Munchausen is a braggart soldier.

In Commedia dell'arte, the figure of Il Capitano is a miles gloriosus.[5]

In Dr Strangelove, Gen. Jack Ripper reveals himself as a boastful soldier when we discover that his tough talk about torture is to cover up his own fear of it; whereas Capt. Mandrake - the eirôn - actually was tortured, and seems to have dealt with it.

Other media

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In music, the title role of Háry János by Kodály is an example of the character.

In the PC game The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, there is a non-playable character named Miles Gloriosus, willing to brag about his accomplishments as soldier.

Senex iratus

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The senex iratus or heavy father figure is a comic archetype character who belongs to the alazon or impostor group in theater, manifesting himself through his rages and threats, his obsessions and his gullibility.

His usual function is to impede the love of the hero and heroine, and his power to do so stems from his greater social position and his increased control of cash. In the New Comedy, he was often the father of the hero and so his rival. More frequently since, he has been the father of the heroine who insists on her union with the bad fiancé; as such, he appears in both A Midsummer Night's Dream, where he fails and so the play is a comedy, and Romeo and Juliet, where his acts are successful enough to render the play a tragedy.

Pantalone in Commedia dell'arte acts as a senex iratus.

In his Anatomy of Criticism, Northrop Frye considered all blocking humors in comedy to be variations on the basic function of the senex iratus.[citation needed]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Alazon

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The alazon (: ἀλαζών) is a in , defined as a boastful pretender or impostor who exaggerates personal qualities, skills, or achievements that they either lack entirely or possess only to a lesser degree, often leading to their comic humiliation by more perceptive figures. This , rooted in the performative traditions of during the 5th century BCE, typically manifests as a bombastic individual—such as a , philosopher, doctor, or traveler—whose overconfident and self-deception provide central opportunities for and laughter. Philosophically, formalized the alazon in his as a vice of excess in truthfulness about oneself, contrasting it with the ironic eiron (who understates) and the truthful mean; the alazon's pretense is driven by motives like gain, honor, or mere amusement, rendering it more contemptible than understatement. In comedic practice, the character evolved from ' plays, where figures like the general Lamachus in Acharnians (embodying the miles gloriosus or braggart soldier) or the fraudulent astronomer Meton in Birds (lines 992–1020) exemplify the alazon's incompetence masked by grandiosity. Similarly, in Clouds (lines 143–152) appears as an alazon through absurd claims like measuring flea jumps, parodying intellectual pretension. The alazon persisted into Middle and New Comedy, influencing later Roman adaptations like ' Miles Gloriosus, with examples including the pseudo-expert doctor in Menander's or the mercenary soldiers in Antiphanes' Stratiōtēs. Its linguistic hallmarks—deviant speech patterns, such as epic diction, tall tales, or exhaustive lists—underscore the character's role in highlighting social vices like arrogance (alazoneia) and the folly of unchecked ambition. Through deflation by the clever eiron or chorus, the alazon serves as a and humorous foil, critiquing pretense in Athenian while entertaining audiences at festivals like the City Dionysia.

Origins and Definition

Etymology

The term alazon derives from the noun ἀλαζών (alazṓn), denoting a "braggart," "impostor," or "vagabond." This word captures a figure characterized by empty boasts and false pretensions, rooted in the linguistic tradition of classical Greek. Closely related is the verb ἀλαζονεύομαι (alazoneúomai), which means "to play the braggart" or "to boast vainly," emphasizing performative exaggeration and deceit. The root reflects broader Indo-European patterns of terms for wandering deceivers, potentially influenced by earlier Near Eastern linguistic borrowings, though the primary sense solidified in Greek comedic contexts around 500 BCE. Historical usage of alazṓn appears in key Greek philosophical works, such as Aristotle's (1108a; 1127a), where it describes the boaster as a of excess in self-presentation, contrasting with the ironic eiron who understates. This application in Aristotle's ethical analysis underscores the term's role in delineating pretentious figures. In Roman literature, the concept evolved into the Latin phrase miles gloriosus ("boastful soldier"), a direct adaptation of the Greek alazṓn archetype, as evidenced in Plautus's comedy Miles Gloriosus, drawn from a lost Greek original titled Alazon. The term's influence extended into Renaissance scholarship, where revived studies of Aristotle's works and Roman adaptations preserved and integrated alazṓn into emerging English discussions of dramatic types. The alazṓn often pairs conceptually with the eirôn, the understated ironist who exposes the braggart's folly.

Definition in Ancient Greek Comedy

In , from in the BCE through the framework of New Comedy developed by playwrights like in the BCE, the alazon is one of three primary stock characters, alongside the eirôn (the ironist or dissembler) and the bomolochos (the buffoon or ). discusses the alazon and eirôn as excesses in social behavior in his (1108a), with the alazon as the boaster who claims more than deserved and the eirôn as the self-deprecator who understates virtues. The full tripartite classification of these as fundamental comic types, including the bomolochos as the shameless entertainer, appears in the Tractatus Coislinianus, a later Hellenistic or Byzantine treatise summarizing 's lost second book of the (Chapter 12). The alazon is fundamentally defined as an impostor or boaster who overestimates personal abilities, status, or knowledge, presenting a false that invites comedic deflation. In the dynamics of Greek , the alazon functions as the primary foil to the eirôn, whose ironic exposes the boaster's pretensions, leading to the alazon's humiliation and the plot's resolution through ridicule rather than . This opposition drives the comedic action, as the alazon's inflated claims create conflicts resolved by clever reversal, aligning with Aristotle's broader view in the (1449a32–35) that imitates inferior actions evoking laughter through non-destructive flaws. Within the comedic structure, the alazon occupies the role of or duped fool, whose exposure propels the narrative toward amusement, distinguishing Greek comedy's emphasis on social correction through mockery from the destructive deceptions in . Unlike tragic figures who may employ deception for noble ends, such as in epic narratives analyzed in Aristotle's (1454a25–32), the comedic alazon's boasts lack self-awareness and serve solely to highlight human folly without moral elevation or peril. This theoretical foundation, rooted in and poetics, underscores the alazon's integral place in Greek comedy's plot mechanics, where the character's downfall reinforces communal harmony.

Characteristics and Role

Key Traits and Behavior

The alazon embodies exaggerated self-importance and boastfulness, frequently asserting unearned prowess in domains such as military exploits, intellectual acumen, or romantic successes, while remaining profoundly oblivious to the ridicule this invites. This core stems from a self-delusive overconfidence, positioning the alazon as an impostor who inflates their stature beyond reality, a trait rooted in the concept of ἀλαζών as a to greater qualities. Such manifests as comic arrogance and blustering buffoonery, rendering the character a perpetual source of absurdity through their unyielding pretense. Behaviorally, the alazon delivers monologues brimming with , indulging in verbal excess that underscores their grandiose claims and incessant self-aggrandizement. These patterns expose the alazon's vulnerability to ironic deflation, particularly when confronted by the eirôn as a foil, resulting in ritualistic humiliation that the character endures without gaining insight or . Physical manifestations, such as pompous entrances or over-the-top gestures, further amplify this oblivious persistence, blending performative excess with inherent . The alazon's comic function arises from the jarring contrast between their inflated and empirical , fueling humor via exposure of falsehoods and the inherent ridiculousness of unchecked pretension. This dynamic often incorporates elements of alongside verbal bombast, heightening the audience's delight in the character's inevitable downfall. Variations in the alazon's portrayal reflect shifts in comedic evolution, from the overt bombast and satirical excess of to the more nuanced and character-integrated pretensions in New Comedy, adapting to subtler plot-driven narratives.

Interactions with Other Stock Characters

In , the alazon primarily serves as the foil to the eirôn, the ironic self-deprecator who employs and clever to expose the alazon's pretensions and lies. This oppositional dynamic forms of the comic conflict, where the eirôn—often portrayed as a sly servant or resourceful youth—feigns deference to the alazon's boasts before subverting them through schemes that reveal the impostor's true incompetence. describes this contest as the foundational basis of comic action, with the eirôn's irony directly undermining the alazon's self-aggrandizing facade to drive the plot toward resolution. The alazon also interacts with the bomolochos, the buffoon or , who targets the alazon's pomposity with crude, jesting that amplifies the humor through contrast. While the eirôn's approach is subtle and plot-advancing, the bomolochos contributes to the comedic mood by indulging in shameless buffoonery that ridicules the alazon's inflated ego, often in incidental scenes that heighten the audience's delight in the impostor's . Frye that the bomolochos polarizes the festive atmosphere of , providing levity that underscores the alazon's ridiculousness without necessarily altering the main intrigue. These interactions propel the plot through the alazon's boasts, which provoke alliances among other characters against the impostor, culminating in comic reversals where apparent gives way to . The alazon's overconfidence typically invites such unified opposition, transforming initial into exposure and defeat. In the broader ensemble, the alazon functions as a blocking figure who obstructs romantic or social harmonies, only to be outwitted by the group's ingenuity, thereby facilitating the festive resolution central to the .

Subtypes

Miles Gloriosus

The miles gloriosus, Latin for "boastful soldier," represents a prominent subtype of the alazon in ancient , depicted as a warrior who inflates his tales of battlefield conquests and heroic exploits only to expose his underlying and incompetence. This character, distinct from the citizen-soldier, embodies a stark contrast between grandiose self-presentation and feeble reality, often appearing as an alien outsider in the comedic world. The originates in the Greek New Comedy of the Hellenistic , evolving from earlier satirical traditions in archaic lyric and , where boastful warriors were mocked for their pretensions. It gained prominence through Roman playwright , whose Miles Gloriosus (c. 200 BCE) not only exemplifies but also names the type after its bombastic protagonist, Pyrgopolynices ("capturer of many cities"). adapted and amplified the figure from Greek models, such as those in Menander's works, to suit Roman audiences while retaining its core Hellenistic roots. Central to the miles gloriosus are traits of exaggerated military bluster—through epic-style and threats of —and romantic pretensions, such as claiming unattainable lovers, which invariably lead to his outwitting and by sly parasites, slaves, or young rivals. These elements highlight the character's obsession with glory, wealth, and sexual dominance, yet underscore his ineptitude in achieving them, often marked by terms like latro (bandit) or mercenarius (hireling) that emphasize his disreputable profession. As an alazon variant, this imposture of prowess serves comedic deflation, revealing the soldier's true frailty. Culturally, the miles gloriosus critiques the rise of professional mercenaries in Hellenistic society, portraying them as untrustworthy threats to civic order and , a view echoed in contemporary sources like and Cato. In Roman adaptations, this satire reinforced aristocratic disdain for such figures as greedy, violent outsiders, distinct from honorable citizen militias, thereby commenting on the social disruptions caused by Hellenistic warfare and foreign hires.

Senex Iratus

The senex iratus, Latin for "angry old man," represents a subtype of the alazon in ancient , characterized as a grumpy elder who asserts wisdom and patriarchal authority but is ultimately revealed as foolish, hypocritical, or impotent. This figure embodies the obstructive heavy father, whose self-importance and moral posturing serve as a comic foil, often impeding the romantic or social aspirations of younger characters. In Northrop Frye's archetypal analysis, the senex iratus exemplifies the blocking humor central to comedy's structure, where such pretenders to authority are exposed through their own gullibility and rages, contrasting sharply with the clever eirôn's understated wit. Rooted in the blocking father figures of Greek New Comedy, particularly the works of , the senex iratus was refined in Roman adaptations by playwrights such as and , where it adapted to emphasize Roman familial hierarchies like patria potestas. Unlike the more bombastic alazon variants, this subtype focuses on domestic obstruction, portraying the elder as a rigid guardian whose interference stems from generational entitlement rather than martial bravado. Scholarly examinations highlight its evolution from Greek prototypes of authoritative elders into a distinctly Roman caricature, underscoring tensions between old moralism and youthful vitality. Key features of the senex iratus include persistent meddling in lovers' affairs, delivering self-righteous tirades on and propriety, and suffering comedic downfall via that unmasks underlying greed or frailty. This thrives on the irony of its overestimation, as the elder's boasts of sagacity crumble under trickery orchestrated by slaves or , revealing a hypocritical core. In comedic plots, such exposure not only resolves conflicts but also critiques the pretensions of age-bound power. Symbolically, the senex iratus satirizes entrenched generational and patriarchal dominance, lampooning the aging elite's resistance to societal renewal and their inflated sense of control. By embodying the "demonic" forces of obstruction in Frye's mythic framework, this figure underscores comedy's restorative function, where the humbling of such pretenders affirms the triumph of communal harmony over rigid traditions. This role persists as a of hypocritical guardianship across dramatic traditions.

Historical Development and Examples

In Classical and Roman Literature

In , the alazon manifested as boastful and pretentious figures who exaggerated their abilities or status, often serving as targets for satirical exposure. frequently employed such characters to mock contemporary figures and societal pretensions; for instance, in (424 BCE), the slave Paphlagon— a of the politician —boasts extravagantly about his influence and cunning, only to be outwitted and humiliated by the Sausage-Seller, highlighting the dangers of demagogic . Similarly, in (423 BCE), is depicted as a mock-alazon, pompously claiming intellectual superiority through his "Thinkery," which leads to his comic downfall when the school burns, critiquing sophistic pretensions in Athenian society. The alazon became more standardized in Menander's New Comedy (c. 316–c. 250 BCE), where it evolved into a recurring type of impostor or braggart, often a or suitor whose inflated self-image drives the plot's complications and resolutions. Surviving fragments of Menander's plays, such as Misoumenos (The Hated Man), portray the alazon as a miles gloriosus figure whose boasts about military exploits are deflated through romantic entanglements and clever slaves' schemes, emphasizing domestic intrigue over . This shift reflected New Comedy's focus on and character-driven humor, laying groundwork for Roman adaptations. Roman playwrights like and adapted and amplified the Greek alazon, broadening its appeal to critique social climbers and authority figures in a more expansive theatrical context. In ' Miles Gloriosus (c. 200 BCE), the Pyrgopolynices exemplifies the braggart subtype, vaunting his supposed conquests and allure while being duped by slaves in a farcical plot involving mistaken identities and a , which entertains through the alazon's gullibility and eventual exposure. , in (161 BCE), features Thraso as a rival whose boastful rivalry over the Thais leads to his humiliation by the Chaerea and the parasite Gnatho, using the alazon to explore themes of and with subtler psychological depth. The senex iratus variant of the alazon appears in Terence's (The Self-Tormentor, 163 BCE), where Demeas, the father of Clitipho, erupts in irate assumptions that his son has seduced the neighbor's , leading to self-inflicted torment and comic misunderstandings resolved through revelations. By heightening the Greek models' elements of deception and comeuppance, Roman authors like and transformed the alazon into a versatile tool for lampooning pretensions among soldiers, fathers, and parasites, appealing to diverse audiences while preserving the core dynamic of exposure for moral and .

In Renaissance and Modern Adaptations

In the Renaissance, the alazon archetype persisted in English drama, particularly through William Shakespeare's adaptations of classical stock characters. In Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2, Sir John Falstaff embodies the miles gloriosus, a boastful soldier whose exaggerated tales of valor and cowardice in battle serve as comic relief while highlighting themes of deception and honor. Similarly, Ancient Pistol, Falstaff's companion, exemplifies the swaggering braggart soldier with his grandiose oaths and empty threats, drawing from Plautine traditions to satirize military pretension. Don Adriano de Armado in Love's Labour's Lost represents a pedantic variant of the alazon, a fantastical Spaniard whose ornate, invented language and self-aggrandizing pursuits of love expose his pretensions to courtly sophistication. For the senex iratus subtype, Egeus in A Midsummer Night's Dream appears as the irascible father who demands obedience from his daughter Hermia, invoking Athenian law to thwart her desires and embodying patriarchal overreach. During the same period, Italian adapted the alazon into masked stock roles that influenced European theater. , the greedy Venetian merchant, functions as a senex iratus variant, often outwitted by younger lovers and servants in his futile attempts to control wealth and romance through miserly schemes and angry outbursts. In modern adaptations, the alazon evolved into more psychologically complex figures critiquing authority. Kodály's 1926 H features the titular character as a folk braggart soldier whose tall tales of heroic exploits parody nationalistic myths, blending humor with cultural nostalgia. In Stanley Kubrick's 1964 film , General Jack D. Ripper serves as a paranoid military alazon, issuing unauthorized nuclear orders based on delusional fears of bodily fluid contamination, satirizing and command . In video games, the NPC Miles Gloriosus in (2002) directly nods to the archetype as a boastful Imperial warrior whose rumored feats prove illusory, adding ironic depth to the game's exploration of deception in a . Over time, the alazon shifted from straightforward comic foils in plays to nuanced critiques in 20th- and 21st-century works, where characters like Ripper expose and unchecked authority, while figures like reflect on and folk exaggeration, transforming ancient pretension into commentary on power structures.

References

  1. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D7
  2. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/20.500.12657/92159/1/9783111295282.pdf
  3. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=alazwn&la=greek
  4. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D7
  5. https://wp.stolaf.edu/classics/st-olaf-ancient-plays/miles-gloriosus1999/
  6. https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/schironi/wp-content/uploads/sites/259/2020/08/05_Theophrastus.pdf
  7. http://personal.unizar.es/garciala/hypercritica/01.Classical/Classical.1.3/Classical.1.3.6.html
  8. https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/522/1/heathm17.pdf
  9. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-greek-comedy/character-types/D429C5B6428CF5BA328D4858850AC2CD
  10. https://www.headroyce.org/uploaded/faculty/denelow/Shakespeare/Twelfth_Night/frye.html
  11. https://camws.org/sites/default/files/meeting2016/110.PlautusMercenaries_0.pdf
  12. https://logeion.upatras.gr/sites/logeion.upatras.gr/files/pdffiles/02%20KONSTANTAKOS%20Logeion%205%202015.pdf
  13. https://monoskop.org/images/5/59/Frye_Northrop_Anatomy_of_Criticism_Four_Essays_2000.pdf
  14. https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstreams/4342a231-8762-4280-8d57-5608f8a57b7f/download
  15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4351674
  16. https://www.loebclassics.com/view/menander_comic_poet-misoumenos_hated_man/1997/pb_LCL459.377.xml
  17. https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674574373
  18. https://www.loebclassics.com/view/terence-self_tormentor/2001/pb_LCL022.179.xml
  19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/433203.pdf
  20. https://www.playshakespeare.com/henry-v/characters/2511-pistol
  21. https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01176976/file/shakespeare-2891.pdf
  22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/449671
  23. https://gredos.usal.es/bitstream/handle/10366/140460/DLE_MeleroVentolaBE_TragicalComedyorComicalTragedyofMr.Punch.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  24. https://en.uesp.net/wiki/Morrowind:Miles_Gloriosus
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318836576_Irony_called_into_question_Don_Quixote%27s_alazon_and_eiron
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