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Altamura Man
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Altamura Man
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Altamura Man
Altamura Man, surrounded by limestone deposits
Common nameAltamura Man
SpeciesNeanderthal
Age157,500 years (aged c. 35)
Place discoveredAltamura, Apulia, Italy
Date discoveredOctober 1993
Map
Map

The Altamura Man is a fossil of the genus Homo discovered in 1993 in a karst sinkhole in the Lamalunga Cave near the city of Altamura, Italy. Remarkably well preserved but covered in a thick layer of calcite, taking the shape of cave popcorn, the find was left in situ in order to avoid damage. Research during the following twenty years was based mainly on the documented on-site observations. Consequently, experts remained reluctant to agree on a conclusive age nor was there consensus on the species it belonged to.[citation needed]

Only after a fragment of the right scapula (shoulder blade) was retrieved was it possible to produce an accurate dating of the individual, an analysis and diagnostic of its morphological features, and a preliminary paleogenetic characterization. In a 2015 paper published in the Journal of Human Evolution, it was announced that the fossil was a Neanderthal, and dating of the calcite has revealed that the bones are between 128,000 and 187,000 years old.[1]

Altamura Man is one of the most complete Paleolithic skeletons ever to be discovered in Europe as "even the bones inside the nose are still there"; as of 2016, it represents the oldest sample of Neanderthal DNA to have been sequenced successfully.[2][3]

Discovery

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The skull was discovered in October 1993 by speleologists of CARS (Centro Altamurano Ricerche Speleologiche) in the cave of Lamalunga in Altamura, Italy. While exploring the cave, the researchers stumbled upon a 10 m (33 ft) deep karst sinkhole, formed by the action of running water on limestone. The sinkhole merges into a tunnel about 60 m (200 ft) long in which they found the Altamura Man incorporated into the calcium carbonate concretions that had formed by water dribbling down the cave walls. The finding was reported to researchers at the University of Bari.[4]

Fossil morphology and left in place

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The fossilized skull of an adult male displays the anthropological features of the hypodigm of Homo neanderthalensis who lived during the Middle-Upper Pleistocene between 170,000 and 130,000 BP. Yet a number of phenetic peculiarities exist, such as the shape of the brow ridges, the relative dimension of the mastoids and the general architecture of the cranial vault, which according to the research team of the Sapienza University of Rome support accepted speciation chronology. "It shows archaic traits, making the Altamura Man a sort of morphological bridge between the previous human species such as Homo heidelbergensis and the Neanderthals".[5]

Chronological studies on twenty faunal remains retrieved from the Cave of Lamalunga based on Uranium-thorium dating by Maria Elisabetta Branca and Mario Voltaggio of IGAG (Institute of Environmental Geology and Geoengineering) and CNR (Italian National Research Council) in Rome and published in 2010 show a deposition age varying between 45,000 and 17,000 BP, with the majority of remains varying between 45,000 and 30,000 years ago. Accumulation of cave deposits were found to begin around 170,000 years ago and ended 17,000 years ago.[6]

Research into the remains

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Researchers associated with the University of Bari have carried out laser scans of the find, obtaining numerical maps, models and three-dimensional videos of the fossil. Results of a study of the DNA sample taken from the scapula determined that it belongs to the genetic variability of the "Neanderthal of Southern Europe".

Between 1998 and 2000, the "Sarastro" project was carried out by Digamma Research Consortium, using integrated tele-operated systems that allowed remote access and observation of the site.[7]

More recent research analysis that began in 2009 and based on uranium-thorium dating revealed that the calcite was formed 172,000 to 130,000 years ago during the penultimate quaternary glaciation period.[8]

Remains left in place

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The Altamura man remains embedded in a matrix of limestone to this day. As such, a running challenge exists among experts to devise a way to remove the fossil intact. The remaining skeleton is in an excellent state of preservation and is unaffected by weather and disarticulation (dispersion of skeletal structure by scavengers); the calcite preserved the bones, but it also covered them to a great extent. It was thought that excavating the remains would cause irreparable damage and thus the bones have remained in situ for decades since their modern discovery.[9][10]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Altamura Man

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Altamura Man is a nearly complete (Homo neanderthalensis) skeleton discovered in 1993 within the Lamalunga karst cave system near in . The remains, found in the " of the Man" chamber, consist of a disarticulated but exceptionally preserved individual embedded in calcareous concretions and coated with , including the cranium cemented upside down to the cave floor. Uranium-thorium dating places the specimen between 172 ± 15 ka and 130.1 ± 1.9 ka, corresponding to Marine Isotope Stage 6, making it one of the oldest dated Neanderthals in Europe. Morphological analysis reveals a cranium with an estimated endocranial volume of 1190 cc, fitting within variability while retaining archaic features such as an angled coronal profile, protruding mastoid processes, and resemblances to earlier specimens like those from Sima de los Huesos. The postcranial skeleton, including a right showing a mix of derived traits and unique archaic elements, underscores its significance for understanding evolution and potential geographic isolation in . The is approximately 80% complete, with marked wear indicating a fully individual, ante-mortem (e.g., upper right P3 and left M1), a periapical on the upper right I2, and rare features like a well-developed palatine torus. Paleogenetic studies have successfully extracted endogenous mitochondrial DNA from the remains, confirming Neanderthal affiliation and marking Altamura Man as the most ancient Neanderthal from which such DNA has been obtained. Due to the inaccessibility of the site, analyses have relied on non-invasive methods like videoscope imaging, X-rays, and virtual reconstructions, highlighting challenges in environments while providing unprecedented data on early Neanderthal biology. The specimen's completeness and age offer critical insights into Neanderthal adaptations, diet, and dispersal patterns during the Middle Pleistocene.

Discovery

Initial Finding

The Altamura Man was accidentally discovered in October 1993 by a group of local speleologists from the Centro Altamurano Ricerche Speleologiche (C.A.R.S.) exploring the Lamalunga Cave system near the town of Altamura in Puglia, southern Italy. The find occurred during routine investigation of the karstic cave's underground passages, where the explorers spotted a partially visible human-like skull protruding from the rock. This initial sighting took place within a karst sinkhole approximately 10 meters deep, highlighting the cave's complex network of vertical shafts and horizontal galleries formed by limestone dissolution. Upon closer inspection, the speleologists observed that the skull was embedded in , with additional bones visible but heavily encrusted in concretions and coralloid formations, suggesting long-term fossilization in place. The dark, humid conditions of the —characterized by high , limited , and a prone to infiltration—made immediate detailed examination challenging, as the encrustations prevented easy extraction or manipulation of the remains. The site's inaccessibility, combined with the fossil's integration into the cave's mineral deposits, underscored the accidental nature of the discovery and the need for intervention. Local archaeologists, including anthropologists Eligio Vacca and Vittorio Pesce Delfino from the , were promptly notified and conducted the first on-site assessments the following evening. They confirmed the remains as fossilized human bones, preliminarily identifying them as belonging to an archaic Homo specimen based on the skull's prominent brow ridges and overall morphology, marking it as one of the most extraordinary paleontological finds in and at the time. This rapid verification emphasized the specimen's potential significance while highlighting the logistical difficulties posed by the cave's environment for further immediate study.

Site Exploration

Following the initial sighting in October 1993, organized expeditions were launched in late 1993 and throughout 1994 to access and document the fossil skeleton within the Lamalunga Cave system. These efforts involved descents using ropes and basic lighting equipment to navigate the karst sinkhole, coordinated by the local speleological group Centro Altamurano Ricerche Speleologiche (C.A.R.S.) in collaboration with archaeologists from the Superintendence for Archaeological Heritage of Puglia and academic experts from the . Documentation during these expeditions focused on non-invasive methods, including on-site photographs, hand-drawn sketches, and direct measurements to record the skeleton's precise position approximately 10 meters below the surface. Researchers noted the fossil's tight integration with surrounding formations, such as stalactites and stalagmites, which had encrusted the bones over time. No attempts were made to excavate or remove the remains, as their fragility—due to extensive mineralization and structural embedding—posed significant risks to preservation. Access to the site proved challenging, with narrow, twisting passages, steep vertical drops of about 10 meters, and seasonal accumulation in the lower chambers complicating safe entry and prolonged stays. These environmental obstacles limited the duration and scope of each descent, emphasizing the need for cautious, repeated visits rather than comprehensive excavation. The collaborative framework established during this period laid the groundwork for subsequent studies, ensuring the site's protection under Italian archaeological oversight.

Physical Description

Skeletal Morphology

The Altamura Man represents one of the most complete skeletons discovered to date, comprising the cranium, , and extensive postcranial elements including , vertebrae, humeri, radii, femora, tibiae, fibulae, and portions of the . This nearly intact assemblage, attributed to an adult male, yields an estimated stature of approximately 165 cm based on femoral length measurements. Cranial morphology displays characteristic Neanderthal features, such as robust supraorbital tori forming prominent brow ridges, a well-developed occipital bun with a convex planum occipitale and bipartite torus, a large nasal aperture, and mid-facial prognathism that projects the face anteriorly. A 2025 analysis revealed the first preserved nasal cavity in a human fossil, showing a configuration without specialized elongations for cold-air warming, challenging prior hypotheses on Neanderthal facial projection. These traits align with derived Neanderthal architecture, including torsion in the supraciliary arches and archaic elements like a suprainiac fossa, positioning the specimen as intermediate between early and classic Neanderthals. Postcranial elements exhibit a robust build typical of Neanderthals, with a broad featuring a high, narrow , thick cortical bone in the limb shafts, and pronounced rugosities for muscular attachments that suggest a stocky physique adapted to environments. The right , for instance, shows a bisulcate ventral axillary border and robust , falling within Neanderthal variability while displaying some plesiomorphic traits. Preservation is exceptional due to extensive encrustation from formations, which has coated the bones in millimeter- to centimeter-thick layers, maintaining much of the in approximate anatomical position within the niche despite of the cranium (positioned upside down) and some fragmentation from post-depositional geological processes.

Pathologies and Anomalies

The Altamura Man exhibits several dental pathologies indicative of chronic oral health issues common in Neanderthals. Non-invasive analyses, including X-rays and endoscopic examinations, revealed ante-mortem loss of two teeth—the upper right (RP³) and upper left first molar (LM¹)—with associated alveolar resorption and migration of adjacent teeth, suggesting prolonged and possible chronic infections. A periapical on the right upper lateral (RI2) was identified, likely resulting from advanced dental wear exposing the pulp and leading to formation. Marked occlusal wear on the posterior teeth, including inversion of the Wilson's in the first and second molars but not the third, points to heavy use of the , consistent with a diet involving tough foods and possibly the teeth functioning as a "third hand" for gripping materials like meat or hides, inferred from the projecting incisors. Anomalous features include a well-developed palatine (grade 3) on the , the first documented case in a , which may represent a non-pathological bony but could relate to masticatory stress. Weakly expressed was observed in the right lower first molar, a trait within Neanderthal variation but potentially linked to developmental anomalies. No evidence of was found, ruling out significant episodes of childhood nutritional stress or illness. Regarding traumatic injuries, available in situ analyses have not identified healed fractures in the arms or rib damage indicative of pre-mortem accidents, though the skeleton's encasement limits comprehensive assessment. Potential markers of nutritional stress, such as porotic hyperostosis on the , have not been reported in studies to date. Dental wear patterns and complete eruption of the third molars estimate the individual as a fully adult , likely in his 20s to 40s at , reflecting a laborious lifestyle with advanced skeletal maturity but not .

Geological Context

Cave Formation and Location

The Lamalunga Cave is situated on the High Murge karstic plateau in the region of , near the city of , at coordinates 40°52′18″N, 16°35′15″E and an elevation of 454 meters above . The Murge Plateau forms part of a broader landscape characterized by the dissolution of rocks by acidic rainwater, resulting in features such as caves, dolines, and poljes over geological timescales. This process has created a rugged, barren terrain with minimal soil cover, typical of the region's endorheic drainage system. The cave is excavated within the Upper Cretaceous Calcare di Altamura limestone formation, composed of well-bedded, whitish wackestones and packstones deposited in a shallow-marine environment. These processes produced a trap-like environment, where vertical shafts and chambers could inadvertently capture and preserve organic remains. forming a multi-phase underground system influenced by tectonic fractures and bedding planes. Access to the cave occurs through a narrow vertical shaft approximately 7 to 8 deep and 1 in diameter, artificially enlarged in , which descends into a main horizontal gallery measuring about 125 in length and 15 to 25 in width, with lateral branches extending the total explored length to 1247 . The interior features active speleothems, including stalactites, stalagmites, flowstones, and coralloid concretions, primarily in the northern sections, alongside seasonal dripping water flow from November to May that supports their growth. During the Middle Paleolithic period associated with Neanderthal occupation, the surrounding Murge Plateau landscape consisted of a mosaic of open Mediterranean woodlands, extensive grasslands, shrublands, and rocky outcrops, situated in proximity to coastal wetlands that are now submerged. This diverse paleoecological setting likely influenced patterns of human mobility and resource exploitation in the region.

Age and Stratigraphy

The age of the Altamura Man was determined through uranium-thorium (U/Th) dating applied to encrusting calcite layers, including stalactites, flowstones, and coralloid formations directly associated with the skeletal remains. This radiometric method measures the decay of uranium to thorium in carbonate deposits, providing minimum ages for the deposition of these layers post-mortem. Analyses yielded ages ranging from 172 ± 15 ka to 130.1 ± 1.9 ka for the primary encrustations coating the bones, corresponding to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6 during the late Middle Pleistocene. Earlier speleothem phases were dated to 189 ± 29 ka, while later flowstones formed between 45.9 ± 1.7 ka and 34.4 ± 1.5 ka, indicating ongoing deposition after the initial encasement. Stratigraphically, the is embedded within a complex of concretions and in the , where the bones appear to have collapsed post-decay into a narrow before being cemented by subsequent . The lies within layers overlying older, unsampled sediments, with no associated faunal remains recovered from the immediate context. This positioning correlates the site with broader Italian stratigraphic sequences, characterized by similar karstic deposits and Neanderthal-bearing levels. These chronological data position the Altamura Man in the late Middle Pleistocene, contemporaneous with classic sites in such as Saccopastore. However, uncertainties persist due to the site's inaccessibility, which has prevented direct sampling of underlying layers and full excavation; the U/Th ages thus represent minimum constraints, as the individual could predate the calcite formation by an undetermined interval.

Research Developments

Early Studies

Following its discovery in 1993, early investigations of the Altamura Man in the 1990s focused on non-invasive techniques to evaluate the skeleton's preservation and taxonomic affinity without disturbing its position. Italian research teams, primarily from the , employed endoscopic inspections and basic radiography to examine accessible portions of the cranium and postcranial elements embedded in calcite concretions. These methods revealed key traits, including a continuous supraorbital torus, projecting occiput, and robust mandibular structure, with cranial metrics aligning closely with those of other European Neanderthals such as La Ferrassie 1. In the early 2000s, paleoanthropologist Giorgio Manzi and collaborators from La Sapienza University in expanded these efforts through detailed photographic documentation and comparative morphological assessments. Their work underscored the specimen's near-complete state, with over 30 articulated bones visible, and tentatively classified it within the lineage based on shared derived features like mid-facial . A seminal 2015 publication in the Journal of Human Evolution provided the first comprehensive description, highlighting morphological parallels to other Italian s, including the Saccopastore and Circeo specimens, particularly in the vault thickness and alveolar architecture that suggested regional continuity in southern European populations. These initial studies were constrained by the inability to extract or manipulate the remains, relying instead on visual observations, limited radiographs, and proxy measurements from images. This approach yielded provisional identifications, as obscured portions of the —such as the full pelvic and lower limbs—prevented exhaustive metric comparisons and raised uncertainties about potential archaic or pathological variants.

Recent Analyses

Since the early 2010s, researchers have employed non-invasive digital technologies to study the Altamura Man skeleton without physical extraction, addressing the challenges posed by its encrustation in formations. Italian teams from institutions such as and the , in collaboration with international partners, have utilized 3D and to create high-resolution models. For instance, with a Range7 device (40 μm resolution) captured the frontal and facial portions of the cranium, while via cameras processed basal and posterior elements, enabling virtual reassembly. These efforts extended to models, facilitating remote analysis of the skeleton's topographic distribution and morphological features between 2015 and 2024. A pivotal 2024 study in virtual integrated these methods with in situ imaging to confirm the individual's fully adult status, based on moderate dental wear patterns. The analysis also documented common dental pathologies, including a on the right upper from advanced wear and premortem loss of the right and left first molar. Due to heavy contamination and the risk of further degradation, no additional from the bones has been feasible, shifting focus to environmental sediments for potential genetic insights. This approach highlights the limitations of direct sampling in settings, where low bone mineralization and ongoing deposition threaten structural integrity. Key publications from this period include a 2019 analysis in Science Reviews examining the right scapula, which revealed postcranial robustness comparable to Middle Pleistocene hominins from Atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos, with a bisulcate axillary border and enhanced robusticity underscoring variability in shoulder morphology. The same 2024 Science Reviews paper addressed karst-specific preservation challenges, noting how encrustation has both protected and obscured the , complicating traditional excavation. Collaborative initiatives, such as the Italian PRIN-funded KARST project (2017–2020), have coordinated multidisciplinary efforts across Italian and South Tyrolean institutions to advance virtual documentation and conservation planning. The contributed to endoscopic updates, using videoscope and radiographic tools in 2020 to assess hidden oral structures, revealing near-complete dentition with antemortem modifications linked to dietary stress. In November 2025, a study published in PNAS presented the first detailed analysis of the preserved internal , offering new insights into nasal anatomy using endoscopic methods. These endeavors emphasize innovative, minimally invasive strategies to unlock data from this uniquely preserved specimen.

Preservation Status

In Situ Decision

The decision to preserve the in situ was made shortly after its discovery on October 7, 1993, by the Soprintendenza Archeologica della Puglia, the regional Italian authority, following initial assessments of the site's conditions. This choice was formalized to prevent any excavation that could compromise the specimen's integrity, reflecting broader Italian legal frameworks that designate paleontological finds as state property and emphasize on-site conservation since the 1939 law on protection. The primary rationale centered on the skeleton's extensive encrustation with calcite concretions, which have fused the bones to the cave's stalactites, stalagmites, and walls, creating a natural integration with the geological context. Risk evaluations conducted by speleological and archaeological experts determined that extraction would likely result in severe fragmentation of the fragile remains, destroying their anatomical completeness and the surrounding stratigraphic layers essential for understanding depositional history. Such damage would be irreversible, given the specimen's exposure to air and mechanical stress outside its stable karst environment. Ethical considerations played a pivotal role, prioritizing the long-term safeguarding of this exceptionally complete individual as a unique cultural asset for generations of researchers. Italian heritage regulations underscore the principle of site wholeness, viewing the fossil's in-place position as integral to its scientific and cultural value, and advocating restraint to await advancements in non-invasive technologies like advanced imaging. This approach balances immediate scientific curiosity against the moral imperative to avoid of a rare paleoanthropological landmark. Proposals for alternatives, including partial sampling for analyses such as , were initially dismissed due to heightened contamination risks from handling in the confined cave setting, which could compromise molecular evidence. Although a small fragment from the right was ultimately permitted and removed in July 2009 under controlled conditions by the same authority, full excavation remains prohibited to uphold these preservation priorities. The Lamalunga Cave's karstic formations provide an ideal, stable that further justifies this strategy.

Ongoing Conservation

Since its discovery, access to the Lamalunga Cave has been restricted to authorized researchers only, with the site closed to the public to safeguard the fossil and surrounding environment from human-induced damage. Virtual tours and exhibits at the nearby Lamalunga Visitor Centre serve as alternatives for public engagement, allowing remote viewing of the Altamura Man without physical intrusion. Ongoing monitoring programs track environmental conditions to ensure the stability of the calcite encrustations enveloping the skeleton, utilizing sensors for temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 levels installed in the cave. These efforts, which began around 2017 and continued through at least 2020, employ data loggers such as TinyTag TGP-4500 for hourly measurements of humidity (accuracy ±2.0% RH) and temperature (±0.5°C), alongside Vaisala probes for CO2 (accuracy ±3.5%), to detect fluctuations that could affect speleothem growth and fossil integrity. Restoration initiatives in the 2020s have focused on non-invasive digital methods through projects like KARST (2016–2020), which enhanced preservation by creating virtual models to minimize physical interventions while addressing surface encrustations and karst vulnerabilities. These efforts include high-resolution to document and reinforce the site's structural stability against potential collapses. As of November 2025, the preservation has enabled continued non-invasive research, including a study published in PNAS analyzing the exceptionally preserved , providing new insights into and adaptations. Future conservation strategies emphasize international collaboration for expanded digital archiving, including (XR) platforms and comprehensive to enable global access and long-term monitoring without on-site risks. Proposals also include developing a climate-controlled micro-environment within the to mitigate ongoing encrustation risks from humidity variations.

Scientific Importance

Role in Neanderthal Evolution

The Altamura Man offers key insights into Neanderthal evolution by representing an early Neanderthal (ERN) from an isolated population in southern Europe during Marine Isotope Stage 6 (MIS 6), dated to between 172,000 and 130,000 years ago. This geographic isolation in the Apulian region likely functioned as an ecological refugium, preserving a mosaic of archaic traits—such as angled parietals and prominent mastoids—alongside derived Neanderthal features like an , indicative of local adaptations to the challenging, rugged terrain. Such variability underscores regional evolutionary divergence rather than uniform progression across . Behavioral inferences drawn from the specimen suggest that Neanderthals navigated complex landscapes with inherent risks, as the individual's entrapment in a likely resulted from an accidental fall, leading to death by . Dental evidence further reveals an adult who endured moderate to heavy occlusal wear, non-masticatory use of , and antemortem loss of the upper right third (P3) and upper left first molar (M1)—a rarity among Neanderthals—indicating for an extended period despite compromised oral , which points to individual resilience and potentially supportive social structures within the group. The Altamura Man fills a significant chronological gap in the Italian Neanderthal record during MIS 6, a period of cold climate, bridging earlier populations and demonstrating lineage continuity in the peninsula. Its phenetic peculiarities, confirmed by the oldest extracted Neanderthal DNA, challenge models of accretive, pan-European Neanderthal morphology, instead supporting frameworks of and heterogeneous adaptation rates that contributed to Neanderthal variability before their extinction.

Comparisons to Other Specimens

The Altamura Man exhibits notable similarities to other Italian Neanderthal specimens, particularly in cranial robusticity. For instance, it shares high morphological affinity with Saccopastore 1 from , dated to approximately 120,000 years ago, including comparable endocranial volumes (1190 cc for Altamura versus 1174 cc for Saccopastore 1) and elongated mastoids. However, the Altamura skeleton demonstrates greater postcranial preservation, with articulated elements such as the and bones intact, unlike the more fragmentary remains at Saccopastore. This enhanced completeness allows for better assessment of bodily proportions in southern Italian Neanderthals. In comparisons to broader European Neanderthal fossils, the Altamura Man stands out for its overall integrity, surpassing the fragmented skeletons from La Ferrassie in , where multiple individuals are represented but lack the near-complete articulation seen in Altamura. Principal component analyses place Altamura within early Western groups alongside La Ferrassie specimens. The is distinguished from pre-Neanderthal archaic humans, such as exemplified by the Arago 21 specimen from , by advanced Neanderthal-derived traits. While sharing some plesiomorphic features like supraorbital torus torsion with Arago, Altamura possesses a pronounced and other classic cranial architecture, confirming its affiliation with neanderthalensis rather than earlier forms. A 2025 study published in PNAS analyzed the first preserved in the record from the Altamura Man, revealing no inner nasal autapomorphies unique to Neanderthals (such as vertical medial projection or medial swelling) and indicating that midfacial is not directly linked to respiratory adaptations. These findings challenge prior assumptions about Neanderthal-specific craniofacial adaptations to and enhance understanding of respiratory in early Neanderthals. A key unique aspect of the Altamura Man is its status as the only known , non-excavated skeleton, preserving original taphonomic context within the cave environment. This contrasts sharply with sites like in , where remains are highly fragmented across multiple individuals and lack positional integrity due to extensive excavation and post-depositional disturbance. The calcite encrustation at Altamura has maintained even fragile structures, offering unparalleled potential for future non-invasive studies of depositional history absent in such disrupted assemblages.

References

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