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Chloephaga
Chloephaga
Chloephaga
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Sheldgoose
Ruddy-headed goose, Chloephaga rubidiceps
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Subfamily: Tadorninae
Genus: Chloephaga
Eyton, 1838
Type species
Anas magellanica[1] = Anas leucoptera
Species

Chloephaga is a genus of sheldgeese in the family Anatidae. Other sheldgeese are found in the genera Alopochen and Neochen.

Taxonomy

[edit]

The genus Chloephaga was introduced in 1838 by the English naturalist Thomas Campbell Eyton in his A Monograph on the Anatidae, or Duck Tribe.[2] He designated the type species as Chloephaga magellanica. This is Anas magellanica Gmelin, JF 1789, which is a synonym of Anas leucoptera Gmelin, JF 1789. Anas leucoptera is now considered as a subspecies of the upland goose Chloephaga picta leucoptera.[3] The genus name comes from the combination of the Ancient Greek khloē meaning "grass" with -phagos meaning "-eating".[4]

A molecular phylogenetic study by Mariana Bulgarella and collaborators published in 2014 found that the Orinoco goose in the monotypic genus Neochen, was embedded in the genus Chloephaga:[5]

Orinoco goose (Neochen jubata)

Andean goose (Chloephaga melanoptera)

Ashy-headed goose (Chloephaga poliocephala)

Ruddy-headed goose (Chloephaga rubidiceps)

Upland goose (Chloephaga picta)

Kelp goose (Chloephaga hybrida)

Based on this result, some authorities place the Orinoco goose together with the Andean goose in the resurrected genus Oressochen.[6][7][8]

A fossilized partial coracoid (CTES-PZ 7797) of an indeterminate Chloephaga species sharing some characters with the extant upland goose is known from the upper Pleistocene Toropí Formation (also called the Yupoí Formation) in Corrientes Province, Argentina, 700 kilometers further north than the northernmost present-day record of the genus.[9]

Species

[edit]

The genus contains five species.[10]

Genus Chloephaga – Eyton, 1838 – five species
Common name Scientific name and subspecies Range Size and ecology IUCN status and estimated population
Andean goose

 Chloephaga melanoptera
(Eyton, 1838) 		Peru to south Chile and Argentina
Map of range 		Size:

Habitat:

Diet: 		 LC 


Upland goose or Magellan goose


Male

{{{image2-alt}}}
Female

Chloephaga picta
(Gmelin,, 1789)

two subspecies
  • C. p. picta (Gmelin, 1789),
  • C. p. leucoptera (Gmelin, 1789),
southernmost South America
Map of range 		Size:

Habitat:

Diet: 		 LC 


Kelp goose


Male

{{{image2-alt}}}
Female

Chloephaga hybrida
(Molina, 1782)

two subspecies
  • C. h. hybrida (Molina, 1782)
  • C. h. malvinarum (Phillips, 1916)
Chile's southern half to the eastern tip of Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands
Map of range 		Size:

Habitat:

Diet: 		 LC 


Ashy-headed goose

 Chloephaga poliocephala
P.L. Sclater, 1857 		southernmost South America
Map of range 		Size:

Habitat:

Diet: 		 LC 


Ruddy-headed goose

 Chloephaga rubidiceps
Sclater, PL, 1861 		Tierra del Fuego, Chile and the Falkland Islands and southern Argentina
Map of range 		Size:

Habitat:

Diet: 		 LC 



References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Chloephaga

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Chloephaga is a of sheldgeese belonging to the family , comprising five extant species endemic to southern : the (C. picta), Andean goose (C. melanoptera), ash-headed goose (C. poliocephala), ruddy-headed goose (C. rubidiceps), and kelp goose (C. hybrida). These birds are part of the Tadornini and are distinguished by their attractive, often sexually dimorphic , with males typically showing brighter or more contrasting colors than females. They inhabit diverse environments across , , and the , ranging from open grasslands and steppes to rocky coastal shores. The in this genus exhibit varied habits adapted to their habitats; for instance, the upland and ruddy-headed geese primarily graze on grasses, roots, leaves, stems, and seeds in terrestrial settings, while the goose specializes in feeding on marine algae along intertidal zones. Most Chloephaga are partially migratory, with northern populations wintering farther north in and , and they often form large flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes mixing with other waterfowl. Breeding occurs in spring to summer, with nests typically placed in burrows, rock crevices, or on the ground, and clutch sizes ranging from 4 to 8 eggs. Conservation status varies across the genus; the is abundant and of least concern, while the ruddy-headed goose faces significant threats on the mainland due to historical persecution as an agricultural pest, leading to a drastic to a few hundred individuals, though it remains more secure on the with tens of thousands of pairs. The ash-headed goose, Andean goose, and kelp goose are also considered of least concern, benefiting from their adaptability to human-modified landscapes. Fossil records indicate the genus has a long history in the region, with Pleistocene remains suggesting past diversity, including now-extinct taxa.

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Chloephaga was introduced in 1838 by English naturalist Thomas Campbell Eyton in his A Monograph on the Anatidae, or Duck Tribe. This name derives from khloē (χλοή), meaning "young green grass," combined with -phagos (-φάγος), meaning "eating" or "eater," from the verb phagein (φάγειν), "to eat"—a reference to the herbivorous, grass-feeding habits of the birds in this genus. The type species designated by Eyton is Chloephaga magellanica Eyton, 1838, which is a junior synonym of Anas leucoptera J. F. Gmelin, 1789; the latter is currently treated as the Chloephaga picta leucoptera of the .

Classification

Chloephaga is a of sheldgeese placed within the family , the ducks, geese, and swans, in the order . It belongs to the subfamily Tadorninae and the tribe Tadornini, which encompasses the sheldgeese and shelducks characterized by their intermediate morphology between ducks and geese. This placement reflects molecular and morphological evidence supporting the monophyly of Tadornini within Anatidae, with sheldgeese diverging early from other anatid lineages. The sheldgeese are primarily South American, with Chloephaga and Oressochen representing the key Neotropical genera, while includes the African , often grouped broadly with sheldgeese despite its distribution. Molecular phylogenetic analyses have highlighted ongoing taxonomic revisions within Tadornini, particularly concerning the goose (Oressochen jubatus, formerly Neochen jubata) and Andean goose (O. melanopterus, formerly Chloephaga melanoptera). Studies based on sequences indicate that these two species form a sister to other Chloephaga species, warranting their placement together in the distinct Oressochen, as adopted by the South American Classification Committee in 2014 (SACC Proposal 637). The record of underscores its historical presence in , with indeterminate remains documented from the Upper Pleistocene Toropí/Yupoí Formation in , . A partial specimen from this site, dated to (approximately 71–130 thousand years ago), represents the northernmost known occurrence of the , extending over 700 km beyond its modern southern distribution and suggesting a broader Pleistocene range influenced by climatic shifts. Additionally, Middle Pleistocene s from the San José Sequence in the Argentine include specimens referred to a new extinct , Chloephaga dabbenei, confirming greater past diversity within the .

Description

Morphology

Chloephaga species are medium to large sheldgeese, with body lengths ranging from 45–76 cm and weights from 1.2–3.6 kg across the genus. They exhibit a robust body build with a relatively short neck and strong, sturdy legs positioned for efficient terrestrial walking and grazing. Although equipped with webbed feet characteristic of the family, swimming proficiency varies among species and is generally poor, as seen in the Andean goose which largely avoids water except during threats or with young. The bill is broad and spatulate in shape, well-suited for grazing on grasses and aquatic plants, correlating with their herbivorous diet. Leg coloration is typically pink, orange, or yellow, aiding in species identification. Skeletal features align with other sheldgeese, displaying goose-like proportions in overall body form while retaining duck-like affinities in cranial and limb structure, underscoring their intermediate position between true geese and ducks within the Tadornini tribe. Males exhibit slight sexual dimorphism, being marginally larger than females in body size.

Plumage

The plumage of geese in the genus Chloephaga is characterized by predominantly barred or pied patterns featuring contrasts of , black, and shades of brown or gray, which provide a distinctive appearance across the group. These patterns are typical of sheldgeese, with upperwing coverts and secondaries forming bold elements in flight. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in several species, such as the kelp goose (C. hybrida) and (C. picta), where males exhibit predominantly white plumage while females display browner or darker barred patterns on the body and underparts. In contrast, species like the Andean goose (C. melanoptera) and ashy-headed goose (C. poliocephala) show minimal dimorphism, with both sexes sharing similar black-and-white contrasts. This variation highlights the genus's diversity in ornamental traits, often linked to ecological roles. Like other , Chloephaga species undergo two annual molts, producing an alternate (nuptial) for breeding and a basic (eclipse) that is drabber overall, aiding during vulnerable periods such as incubation. The eclipse phase typically follows breeding and involves flightless molting in secure habitats, rendering the birds less conspicuous with subdued tones. Juvenile plumage closely resembles that of adult females but is duller, with more pronounced barring on and breast and reduced contrast in colors; fledglings transition gradually to adult patterns over the first year, achieving full coloration by the second year. young exhibit dark-and-white markings typical of sheldgeese, often with species-specific facial accents like yellow in the Andean and upland geese. A shared feature across the is the wing speculum, an iridescent metallic green patch on the secondary coverts, which is prominent in flight and homologous to similar structures in other . These traits, including the barred patterns, contribute to in and coastal environments.

Distribution and Habitat

Range

The genus Chloephaga is endemic to southern , with species distributed across mainland regions and offshore islands. The overall range spans from the Andean highlands of and southward through and to , extending to the . This distribution covers a latitudinal extent from approximately 15°S to 55°S, with some species reaching altitudes up to 5,000 m in the . Overlap occurs among multiple species in Patagonia, the southern continental region shared by and , while the support year-round populations of the , ruddy-headed goose, and kelp goose, with occasional records of the ashy-headed goose. The historical ranges of Chloephaga species have shown stability, with no major extinctions documented across the genus. Some Chloephaga species display migratory behavior, shifting northward during the austral winter.

Habitat Types

Species of the genus Chloephaga exhibit a strong preference for open, grassy habitats across their range, including high-altitude puna grasslands, vast Patagonian steppes, and coastal rocky shores. These environments provide the short vegetation and expansive terrain essential for their terrestrial lifestyle, with and grasslands being particularly favored for their abundance of low-lying grasses under 40 cm in height. Such habitats support the sheldgeese's foraging needs while offering visibility against predators in wind-exposed landscapes. Although predominantly terrestrial, Chloephaga species maintain an association with nearby bodies, including lakes, marshes, and estuaries, particularly during breeding seasons when in proximity to these features for access to freshwater and edges. This linkage enhances their in semi-arid to subpolar regions without relying heavily on aquatic environments for daily activities. preferences within the genus vary notably by , from alpine puna to lowland coastal zones, reflecting adaptations to diverse topographic conditions. Chloephaga geese demonstrate remarkable tolerance for harsh weather, thriving in wind-swept grasslands and exposed coastal beds characterized by cold temperatures, high winds, and variable . Their resilience to these conditions is evident in the Magellanic , where they select sites with low vegetation cover to withstand extreme subpolar climates. This adaptability has facilitated their increasing utilization of human-modified habitats, such as livestock-grazed pastures and arable farmlands, where early successional vegetation and proximity to agricultural fields provide supplementary resources amid ongoing landscape alterations.

Behavior and Ecology

Foraging and Diet

Most species of the genus Chloephaga (upland, ash-headed, and ruddy-headed geese) are primarily herbivorous, with diets dominated by plant material including leaves, stems, seed heads, grasses such as Poa annua and P. pratensis, and sedges. The kelp goose specializes in feeding on marine and seaweeds. Berries and grass seeds supplement the diet of the terrestrial species seasonally, particularly outside the breeding period. Small may be ingested incidentally, though they form a negligible portion of the overall intake. Foraging for the upland, ash-headed, and ruddy-headed geese occurs mainly on through , with individuals often feeding in pairs or small flocks on pastures and grasslands. The kelp goose forages primarily in intertidal coastal zones. Birds arrive at feeding sites shortly and depart shortly after sunset, maintaining relatively daily numbers and activity budgets. This behavior supports a high-volume to compensate for the low digestive efficiency of fibrous vegetation, typically around 25–34% for . During the non-breeding season, intensifies with increased time spent compared to summer months, reflecting adaptations to varying food availability in their southern South American habitats.

Reproduction

Chloephaga geese form socially monogamous pairs that typically maintain long-term bonds, returning to the same territories annually during the breeding season. The breeding period occurs from to , aligning with the austral spring and summer, when pairs engage in territorial displays to defend nesting areas. Nests are constructed as simple ground scrapes, often lined with down feathers and plant material, situated near water bodies or in dense vegetation for concealment. Females lay clutches averaging 5-6 eggs, ranging from 4 to 8 in most species and 2 to 7 in the kelp goose, with incubation lasting 30-35 days, primarily performed by the female while the male stands guard nearby. success is influenced by high predation risks from introduced foxes and native skuas, which can reduce fledging rates to around 3-4 young per brood. The young are precocial, covered in down upon , and brooded by the for while both parents lead them to sites. Fledging occurs after 10-12 weeks, after which the family unit remains intact through the post-breeding period.

Social Structure

Species of the genus Chloephaga exhibit a characterized by strong pair bonds and territorial behavior during the breeding season, transitioning to more gregarious outside of it. Pairs are typically monogamous, with bonds that often persist for life or multiple seasons, as both partners return to the same territories annually to defend feeding and nesting areas aggressively. This territoriality involves both sexes, with males and females engaging in displays such as wing-flapping, erect postures, and charging at intruders to protect their space, which can span several hundred meters depending on quality. Post-breeding, individuals form loose flocks that can number in the hundreds, particularly during molting periods when flightless, allowing for and . These flocks may include mixed- groups of Chloephaga, such as upland geese associating with ashy-headed or ruddy-headed geese, though pairs often remain cohesive within larger aggregations. Some undertake seasonal migrations in these flocks, facilitating movement between breeding and wintering grounds. Vocalizations play a key role in maintaining social cohesion and defense, with males producing repeated or ringing calls during territorial displays and interactions, while females emit cackles or rasping sounds in response. Mating displays reinforce pair bonds and include behaviors such as head-bobbing, neck stretching, and wing-spreading, often initiated by the female's inciting calls that prompt the male's aggressive or responses like puffing or bowing. These displays, combined with triumph ceremonies where pairs vocalize and preen together, strengthen lifelong in most . Interactions extend to aggressive nest defense, where pairs vigorously attack potential predators or conspecifics encroaching on nests, using hissing, trumpeting calls, and physical confrontations. Occasional hybridization occurs between closely related , such as ashy-headed and ruddy-headed geese, likely facilitated by overlapping ranges and similar social behaviors, though such events are rare and do not disrupt typical pair fidelity.

Species

Andean Goose

The Andean goose (Chloephaga melanoptera; sometimes placed in its own genus Oressochen due to phylogenetic differences) is a resident adapted to high-altitude environments in the , where it exhibits distinctive white plumage with blackish primaries, tertials, and tail, accented by iridescent purple greater secondary coverts; both sexes share this coloration, though females are slightly smaller, with a coral-red bill and orange legs and feet. Juveniles display duller, grayish upperparts with less extensive white. Like other Chloephaga , it practices herbivory and ground-nesting, reflecting the genus's overall . Its distribution spans the high from southern and western southward to in and Ñuble Region in , occupying an estimated range of 2,550,000 km² primarily above 3,000 m , though it occasionally reaches up to 6,000 m during flight. The species is largely sedentary, with some altitudinal movements, and favors puna grasslands, Andean lakes, marshes, and well-watered valleys, where it remains terrestrial and rarely swims despite proximity to water bodies. Behaviorally, Andean geese form loose flocks outside the breeding season, maintaining strong pair bonds and displaying pugnacious interactions, with males performing calls and aggressive postures during territorial defense. They are primarily herbivorous, foraging on fresh green grasses, sedges, and fleshy aquatic plants in these highland habitats. Breeding occurs in loose colonies starting in in the southern portion of the range, with nests placed on bare ground or in sparse ; clutches consist of 5–10 eggs incubated solely by the female for about 30 days, after which goslings in approximately three months. Conservationally, the Andean goose is classified as Least Concern on the , with a stable population estimated at 16,700–66,700 mature individuals (as of 2023) and no significant threats identified, owing to its remote, high-elevation habitats that limit human disturbance.

Ashy-headed Goose

The ashy-headed goose (Chloephaga poliocephala) is a medium-sized sheldgoose measuring 50–55 cm in length, distinguished by its ashy-grey head and upper neck, chestnut nape and chest, white underparts with bold black barring on the flanks, pale brown upperparts, blackish wings featuring white leading and trailing edge patches, and a speculum. Both sexes exhibit similar plumage, though females tend to appear slightly duller with more pronounced barring. This species is distributed across southern and , primarily in the Andean foothills and , including and Santa Cruz provinces, with a range spanning approximately 922,000 km² that occasionally extends to the (Malvinas). It is a partial migrant, breeding in higher-elevation mountainous areas up to 2,500 m and wintering in lowland valleys and grasslands just north of the breeding range, with seasonal movements showing increased abundance in during autumn. Inhabiting grassy mountainsides, valleys, damp upland forest clearings, and ecotonal zones between forests and steppes, the ashy-headed goose favors temperate grasslands, and meadows, bogs, marshes, and areas near coastal freshwater lakes, often at elevations from sea level to 2,500 m. It is largely terrestrial and rarely swims, preferring to forage on the ground in open areas while avoiding dense forests. Behaviorally, it is gregarious during winter, forming flocks on lowland stubbles and pastures, but occurs in pairs or small groups during breeding. Its diet consists primarily of plant material, including leaves, stems, seed heads of grasses and sedges, and occasionally crops like and on wintering grounds, obtained through while walking. Breeding occurs in spring-summer in secluded, forested or ecotonal sites, with nests placed on the ground in tall grass; females lay clutches of 4–6 brown eggs (average 4.7), which are incubated for about 30 days while males guard the site. The global population is estimated at 25,000–100,000 individuals (16,700–66,700 mature), classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, though it is considered endangered at the national level in due to ongoing declines. Historical pressure has diminished following protections in and since the late , but current threats include illegal , by , degradation, and invasive predators, prompting recommendations for exclusion and predator control in breeding areas.

Kelp Goose

The kelp goose (Chloephaga hybrida) is a coastal endemic to southern , primarily distributed along the rocky shorelines of southern and , including , with a separate population on the . The species comprises two : the continental C. h. hybrida, which occurs on the mainland and may move northward along the Argentine coast during winter, and the insular C. h. malvinarum, restricted to the . This species displays extreme , a trait exemplified across the Chloephaga. Adult males exhibit pure white with a black bill tipped in and feet, providing stark contrast against their marine habitats. Females, in contrast, possess dark brown with white barring on the underparts and a pale face, also featuring feet; juveniles resemble females but with duller, less defined markings. Kelp geese favor habitats along rocky shores, kelp beds, and shingle beaches for most of the year, where they exploit intertidal zones for feeding, though they breed inland on coastal freshwater lakes and occasionally on offshore islands. Behaviorally, they are typically sedentary and form monogamous pairs that remain together year-round, foraging in pairs or small family groups rather than large flocks, though loose aggregations may occur during migration or non-breeding seasons. Their diet consists mainly of marine algae, particularly kelp species like Macrocystis pyrifera, supplemented by invertebrates such as snails, crabs, and small fish, which they obtain by grazing intertidal rocks or dipping their heads while swimming. As strong swimmers adapted to coastal waters, they often walk or swim among kelp fronds to access food, submerging their necks like dabbling ducks when necessary. The kelp goose is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, with a global population estimated at 40,000–116,000 mature individuals (approximately 25,000–50,000 pairs, as of 2023), considered stable across its range. While minor localized threats exist from predation by introduced mammals and , as well as potential oil spills, no major population-level threats have been identified.

Ruddy-headed Goose

The ruddy-headed goose (Chloephaga rubidiceps) is the smallest species in its , measuring 45–52 cm in length and weighing 1.2–2.0 kg, with males slightly larger than females. Its plumage features a distinctive bright head and neck with a white eye-ring, pale gray upperparts, buff underparts finely barred with black, a black rump and tail, and wings with white coverts contrasting against iridescent green secondaries and black primaries. The species occurs in two distinct populations: a sedentary one in the , numbering tens of thousands of pairs, and a migratory continental population breeding in northern and southern Santa Cruz province in southern and , then wintering in southern , with only a few hundred individuals (approximately 700 as of 2023) remaining on the mainland. This inhabits open grassy plains, coastal grasslands, meadows, wetlands, and vegas (tussock grasslands) with ponds across its range, often at elevations of 0–300 m, and it nests on islets or in hidden sites such as long grasses, under rock outcrops, or old penguin burrows. It typically lives in pairs or small family groups, occasionally forming mixed flocks with other sheldgeese, and forages on grasses, sedges, roots, leaves, stems, and seed-heads in pastures, ploughed fields, and natural grasslands. Breeding occurs from late September to early November in the Falklands and later on the mainland (up to ), with the female laying 5–8 eggs in a clutch and incubating them alone for 28–32 days. Although classified as Least Concern globally by the IUCN, the ruddy-headed goose has an estimated of 28,500–54,700 mature individuals (as of 2023), with the majority in the Falklands and the mainland subpopulation critically low and declining. Conservation challenges include historical persecution as an agricultural pest on the mainland, ongoing habitat loss to , and introduced predators such as the Patagonian grey fox (Lycalopex griseus) in , which preys on eggs and young. In the Falklands, the population faces declines from predation and disturbance by introduced cats and domestic dogs, which target ground nests and contribute to suppression despite overall stability in the archipelago.

Upland Goose

The upland goose (Chloephaga picta) is a sheldgoose endemic to southern and the , where it occupies a wide range across , southern to , and the Falklands . The species is partially migratory, with continental populations wintering northward to and southern in . It comprises two : the nominate C. p. picta on the mainland and C. p. leucoptera on the . Measuring 60–72 cm in length, the species exhibits marked in ; males feature predominantly white heads and breasts with black barring on the back and wings, while females display barred brown overall, including a head and darker underparts. This goose inhabits open temperate grasslands, steppes, pastures, and arable lands from to 2,250 m , often favoring areas with short green grasses and proximity to water bodies such as rivers, ponds, or coastal meadows for breeding. Gregarious by nature, it forms large flocks outside the breeding season and occasionally associates with other sheldgeese, engaging in terrestrial typical of the . Its diet consists almost entirely of matter, including leaves, stems, seeds, and seed heads of grasses such as Poa annua and P. pratensis, as well as sedges, which it grazes in open fields. Upland geese are monogamous, with pairs forming long-term bonds and breeding seasonally in grasslands near water, where the female lays a clutch of 6–8 eggs in a ground nest lined with down and vegetation. Classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, the maintains a large global estimated at 125,000–270,000 mature individuals (as of 2023), with insular subpopulations on the Falklands benefiting from expansive habitats, though continental numbers show a decreasing trend.

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