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The Cloaca Maxima (Latin: Cloāca Maxima [kɫɔˈaːka ˈmaksɪma], lit. 'Greatest Drainage') as it was originally built to drain the rain water from the city, or, less often, Maxima Cloaca, is one of the world's earliest drainage systems. Its name is related to that of Cloacina, a Roman goddess.[1] Built during either the Roman Kingdom or early Roman Republic, it was constructed in Ancient Rome in order to drain local marshes and remove waste from the city. It carried effluent to the River Tiber, which ran beside the city. The sewer started at the Forum Augustum and ended at the Ponte Rotto and Ponte Palatino. It began as an open air canal, but it developed into a much larger sewer over the course of time. Agrippa renovated and reconstructed much of the sewer. This would not be the only development in the sewers, by the first century AD all eleven Roman aqueducts were connected to the sewer. After the Roman Empire fell the sewer still was used. By the 19th century, it had become a tourist attraction. Some parts of the sewer are still used today. During its heyday, it was highly valued as a sacred symbol of Roman culture and Roman engineering.

Key Information

Construction and history

[edit]
The outfall of the Cloaca Maxima as it appeared in January 2019
A view of the Cloaca Maxima as it appeared in 1814. Oil on canvas by Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg.

According to tradition, it may have initially been constructed around 600 BC under the orders of the king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus.[2][3] He ordered Etruscan workers and the plebeians to construct the drainage.[4] Before constructing the Cloaca Maxima, Priscus, and his son Tarquinius Superbus, worked to transform the land by the Roman forum from a swamp into a solid building ground, thus reclaiming the Velabrum.[5][6][7] In order to achieve this, they filled it up with 10-20,000 cubic meters of soil, gravel, and debris.[8][9][10]

At the beginning of the drainage's life it consisted of open-air channels lined up with bricks centered around a main pipe.[11][12] At this stage it might have had no roof. However, wooden holes spread throughout the sewer indicate that wooden bridges may have been built over it, which possibly functioned as a roof. Alternatively, the holes could have functioned as a support for the scaffolding needed to construct the drainage.[13] The Cloaca Maxima may also have originally been an open drain, formed from streams originating from three of the neighboring hills, that were channeled through the main Forum and then on to the Tiber.[3] As building space within the city became more valuable, the drain was gradually built over.[citation needed]

By the time of the late Roman Republic this drainage became the city's main storm drain.[14] It developed into a system 1,600 meters long.[15] By the second century BC, it had a 101 meter long canal which was covered up and expanded into also function as the main urban sewer system.[16][17][18] Pliny the Elder, writing in the late 1st century, describes the early Cloaca Maxima as "large enough to allow the passage of a wagon loaded with hay."[19] Eventually, the drainage could not continue growing to keep up with the expanding city. Romans would discard waste through other openings rather than the sewers.[12] From 31 BC to 192 AD manholes could be used to access the drainage, which could be traversed by canal at this point. Manholes were decorated with marble reliefs, and canals were made of Roman concrete and flint.[20]

The eleven aqueducts which supplied water to Rome by the 1st century AD were finally channeled into this drainage system after having supplied many of the public baths such as the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Trajan, as well as the public fountains, imperial palaces and private houses.[21][22] The continuous supply of running water helped to remove wastes and keep the drainage system clear of obstructions. The best waters were reserved for potable drinking supplies, and the second quality waters would be used by the baths, the outfalls of which connected to the sewer network under the streets of the city.[23][24] The Cloaca Maxima drainage system was well maintained throughout the life of the Roman Empire and even today drains rainwater and debris from the center of town, below the ancient Forum, Velabrum, and the Forum Boarium. In more recent times, the remaining passages have been connected to the modern-day urban drainage system, mainly to cope with problems of backwash from the river.[citation needed]

After the fall of the Roman empire the Cloaca Maxima continued to be used. In the 1600s the Cardinal Chamberlain imposed a tax on residents of Rome in order to pay for the upkeep of the drainage.[13] By the time of the 1800s the Cloaca Maxima became popular as a tourist attraction. From 1842 to 1852 sections of the drainage system were drained. Pietro Narducci, an Italian engineer was hired by the city of Rome to survey and restore the parts of the drainage by the Forum and the Torre dei Conti in 1862. In 1890 Otto Ludwig Richter, a German archaeologist created a map of the drainage.[25] These efforts renewed public interest in sanitation.[13]

Route

[edit]

The Cloaca Maxima started at the Forum Augustum and followed the natural course of the suburbs of ancient Rome, which led between the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquilline Hills. It also passed by the Forum of Nerva, the Arch of Janus, the Forum Boarium, the Basilica Aemilia, and the Forum Romanum, ending at the Velabrum.[26] The drainage's outfall was by the Ponte Rotto and Ponte Palatino. Some of this is still visible today.[20][27] The branches of the main drainage all appear to be 'official' drains that would have served public toilets, bathhouses and other public buildings.[citation needed]

Significance and effects

[edit]

The extraordinary greatness of the Roman Empire manifests itself above all in three things: the aqueducts, the paved roads, and the construction of the drains.

The Cloaca Maxima was large enough for "wagons loaded with hay to pass" according to Strabo. It could transport one million pounds of water, unwanted goods and waste, which were dumped into the streets, swamps, and rivers near Rome. They were all carried out to the Tiber River by this drain. It used gutters to collect rainwater, rubbish, and spillage, and conduits to dispense up to ten cubic meters of water per second.[13][29] Vaults were closed with flat panels or rocks were used in the construction. This drainage used a trench wall to hold back sediments.[9]

Some of its water was still polluted, contaminating water many depended on for irrigation, swimming, bathing, and drinking.[14][30] The drainage reduced the number of mosquitos, thereby limiting the spread of malaria by draining marshy areas.[31] Animals, including rats, could find their way into the drainage.[15]

The Cloaca Maxima was a highly valued feat of engineering. It may have even been sacrosanct. Since the Romans viewed the movement of water to be sacred, the Cloaca Maxima may have had a religious significance. Aside from religious significance, the Cloaca Maxima may have been praised due to its age and its demonstration of engineering prowess.[32][33] Livy describes the sewer as:

Works for which the new splendor of these days has scarcely been able to produce a match.— Titus Livius, Titus Livius, The History of Rome, Book 1[citation needed]

The writer Pliny the Elder describes the Cloaca Maxima as an engineering marvel due to its ability to withstand floods of filthy waters for centuries. Cassiodorus, a Roman senator and scholar, praised the sewage system in Variae. The Cloaca Maxima was a symbol of Roman civilization, and its superiority to others.[34][35] Roman authors were not the only people to praise the Cloaca Maxima. British writer Henry James stated that it gave him: "the deepest and grimmest impression of antiquity I have ever received."[citation needed]

Venus, goddess of love, was the protector of the Cloaca Maxima. There was a small sanctuary dedicated to Venus Cloacina (Venus of the Drain) in the Forum Romanum.[36]

The system of drainage and Roman sewers was much imitated throughout the Roman Empire, especially when combined with copious supplies of water from Roman aqueducts. The sewer system in Eboracum—the modern-day English city of York—was especially impressive and part of it still survives.[37]

See also

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References

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[edit]
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Cloaca Maxima

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The Cloaca Maxima, Latin for "Greatest Sewer," is an feat serving as the city's primary drainage and sewage system, originally constructed in the BCE to channel rainwater, , and floodwaters from low-lying areas like the into the River. Traditionally attributed to the Etruscan king Tarquinius Superbus, it transformed marshy terrain into habitable urban space by regulating natural streams and preventing inundation during heavy rains. This monumental underground conduit, spanning approximately 1,300 meters, exemplifies early hydraulic infrastructure and remains partially operational after over 2,500 years. Historical accounts, drawn from ancient authors like and , describe its initiation under Tarquinius Superbus around 509 BCE, though some traditions credit his predecessor Tarquinius Priscus with early planning circa 600 BCE. Initially an open canal lined with stone walls to contain a preexisting stream, it was later enclosed with vaulted arches during the Republican period to enhance durability and efficiency. Significant restorations occurred under Augustus's aide in 33 BCE, who inspected and repaired sections using advanced techniques, ensuring its role in urban amid Rome's population boom. Further maintenance by imperial curatores cloacarum sustained it through antiquity, with notable rebuilds in 34 CE and later eras. Engineered with precision for the era, the Cloaca Maxima features a semicircular vaulted cross-section, typically 3.2 to 4.2 meters wide and up to 4.2 meters high, constructed from volcanic blocks, peperino stone, and lava, with later additions of brick-faced . Its path originates near the Argiletum in the Subura district, winds through the Forum and Velabrum, and empties into the near the modern Ponte Rotto, descending gradually to facilitate gravity-fed flow without pumps. The system's , averaging 0.5%, and robust materials allowed it to handle substantial volumes, including from connected branch sewers, while minimizing collapses despite earthquakes and urban expansion. As a cornerstone of Roman , the Cloaca Maxima not only mitigated health risks from stagnant water but also symbolized imperial ambition, enabling the development of monumental on reclaimed land. Its enduring functionality—visible today in accessible sections near the Forum—highlights the longevity of Roman engineering principles, influencing subsequent sanitation systems worldwide and underscoring the city's transition from a marshy settlement to a metropolis.

History

Origins and Construction

The Cloaca Maxima, Rome's earliest major drainage system, was initiated by the Etruscan king Tarquinius Priscus (reigned c. 616–579 BC) around as a monumental open-air to drain the marshy lowlands of the Forum Romanum and surrounding valleys. This engineering feat transformed the flood-prone area into usable urban space, facilitating the expansion of early Roman settlement and public infrastructure. Literary traditions, including accounts by and , attribute the project's inception to Priscus's efforts to redirect natural streams and stormwater away from the emerging civic center. Archaeological investigations, including stratigraphic layers beneath the Forum, support this timeline, revealing early canal features consistent with 7th–6th century BC construction techniques. Construction continued and reached substantial completion under Tarquinius Superbus (reigned c. 535–509 BC), the last king of , who oversaw the canal's extension to ensure effective outflow. The system originated in the Subura district near the Argiletum, flowing through the Forum Romanum and Velabrum before discharging into the River, as evidenced by preserved outlet structures and associated deposits. At its mouth into the , the channel measured approximately 4.5 meters in width and 3.3 meters in height, tapering narrower inland to optimize flow while accommodating maintenance access. Excavations have uncovered foundational elements, such as aligned stone blocks and sediment profiles, dating the initial phase to the mid-6th century BC through ceramic and stratigraphic analysis. This foundational project laid the groundwork for Rome's hydraulic , with later imperial modifications, such as those under , building upon its original design without altering the core 6th-century BC layout.

Development and Expansions

During the late , the Cloaca Maxima received major repairs to address wear from centuries of use and urban expansion. In 33 BC, Marcus Agrippa, acting as , undertook a comprehensive of the sewer, funding the work through public resources to ensure its continued functionality amid Rome's growing and demands. These efforts focused on clearing blockages and reinforcing the channel, preventing floods in the Forum area and maintaining drainage efficiency. Under the early , particularly during the reign of (27 BC–14 AD), the Cloaca Maxima was further expanded to accommodate the city's rapid development. Agrippa, continuing his oversight, directed the vaulting of previously open sections and the construction of side branches, which extended the network to drain additional districts and integrate with emerging . These modifications, built upon the original Etruscan design principles of gravity-fed channels, enhanced the sewer's capacity to handle stormwater and waste from expanded urban areas. By the first century AD, the system had been connected to all eleven Roman aqueducts, channeling excess from baths, latrines, and fountains directly into the Cloaca Maxima for discharge into the . This integration also linked it to subsidiary sewers, such as the Cloaca Circi Maximi, which drained the and adjacent lowlands. In the medieval and periods, interventions addressed sedimentation and neglect following the Empire's fall. (1471–1484) commissioned cleanings of the Cloaca Maxima in the vicinity as part of broader , removing accumulated debris to mitigate flooding risks in commercial districts. Subsequently, (1585–1590) oversaw restorations that connected new drainage lines to the ancient sewer, including extensions in the Pantano di San Paolo area to improve overall wastewater flow. A pivotal event occurred during the severe of 1598, which highlighted ongoing flood risks and contributed to later studies in the late , revealing aspects of its extent and condition.

Design and Engineering

Materials and Techniques

The Cloaca Maxima was primarily constructed using , known as peperino, a lightweight and durable stone quarried from the region near , for its walls and structural elements. This material, composed of consolidated and small pebbles, provided sufficient strength to withstand the pressure of overlying urban structures while allowing for relatively straightforward cutting and shaping. Peperino was particularly favored in the early phases of construction during the 7th to 6th centuries BCE, as seen in surviving sections such as the outlet arch into the Tiber River. Later additions and repairs incorporated opus caementicium, the innovative Roman made from mixed with (volcanic ash) and aggregate stones, which was poured into forms to create robust barrel vaults over the channel. This concrete, applied from the late onward, enhanced the system's and load-bearing capacity, marking a shift from open-air drainage to a fully enclosed sewer. Construction techniques evolved from simple earthworks and stone lining in the initial open canal to advanced masonry methods, including the use of true stone arches and vaults rather than earlier corbelled approximations. The original design under Etruscan influence featured a broad, open trench reinforced with peperino blocks laid in , but by the 1st century BCE, sections were vaulted with precisely cut stone voussoirs forming semicircular arches up to 4 meters wide and 3 meters high. These vaults distributed weight evenly, preventing collapse under the growing weight of the Forum's buildings. emphasized a achieved through careful leveling to ensure steady flow by without mechanical pumps, a technique that minimized sediment buildup and maintained velocity even during low-flow periods. Surveying and alignment relied on basic yet effective tools like the groma, a cross-shaped instrument with plumb lines that allowed engineers to establish straight lines and right angles over long distances, essential for maintaining the channel's consistent slope across Rome's uneven terrain. Construction involved a large , including conscripted free laborers from the Roman populace during the period, supplemented by slaves in later Republican expansions for excavation and work. A key innovation was the lime-based mortar enhanced with , creating a hydraulic binder that set underwater and resisted moisture—a precursor to modern —applied as a waterproof lining () to seal joints and prevent leakage. This mortar's pozzolanic reaction, documented in ancient texts, predated broader adoption of such durable, water-resistant materials in large-scale infrastructure.

Route and Layout

The Cloaca Maxima originated from multiple inlets collecting runoff from key areas of early , including the low-lying Forum Romanum, the slopes of the , and the Velabrum valley between the and Capitoline hills. These starting points allowed the system to gather and from surrounding urban depressions before channeling it southward. The main path followed an approximately 1,300-meter underground course southeastward, beginning near the Subura district via the Argiletum street and proceeding through the heart of the Forum Romanum, passing beneath the later site of the . From there, it continued into the Velabrum, skirted the , and discharged into the River near the Ponte Rotto (the ancient ). This route integrated with the city's topography by tracing natural valleys and lowlands, effectively draining surface water from the seven hills, particularly the Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal. In terms of layout, the sewer featured a vaulted cross-section, typically semicircular, measuring up to about 4.2 meters in height and 3.2 meters in width in preserved peperino stone sections, with dimensions varying along the path—starting narrower at around 2.7 meters high by 2.12 meters wide near the Forum and expanding to 3.3 meters high by 4.5 meters wide toward the outlet. It included branches connecting additional local drains to the main trunk. Today, portions of the Cloaca Maxima remain accessible for study and viewing, including the mouth at the Forum Romanum near the Basilica Julia's eastern stairs and excavated sections in the Velabrum area, though much of the system is closed to the public for preservation.

Function and Operation

Daily Use and Capacity

The Cloaca Maxima functioned primarily as a drainage conduit for rainwater and stormwater in , channeling runoff from the low-lying Forum district and surrounding valleys to prevent flooding in urban areas. Over time, particularly during the Imperial period, it expanded to manage from public latrines known as foricae and from large public baths, which were directly connected to the system for flushing purposes. Industrial effluents, including waste from tanneries and other workshops, were also discharged into the sewer, contributing to its role in broader . The system integrated with private infrastructure through networks of smaller drains and cesspits, allowing households and buildings to feed wastewater into the main channel, though direct private connections remained limited compared to public facilities. This setup enabled the Cloaca Maxima to handle substantial daily volumes, designed for peak flood-level flows tied to the River's seasonal variations, ensuring the city's core remained viable amid heavy precipitation. As a gravity-fed conduit, the Cloaca Maxima relied on the terrain's natural incline to drive water flow toward its outlet near the , maintaining velocities that reduced sediment buildup and promoted self-cleaning operation. Ancient architect emphasized such drainage principles in , advocating for channeled sewers with adequate slope and outlets to facilitate continuous flushing without manual intervention.

Maintenance and Challenges

The maintenance of the Cloaca Maxima was primarily the responsibility of the aediles, Roman magistrates tasked with overseeing urban infrastructure and . These officials conducted periodic cleanings to remove accumulated debris and ensure the system's functionality, a duty exemplified by Marcus Agrippa during his aedileship in 33 BC, when he oversaw a major renovation and personally inspected the sewer by boat due to its navigable dimensions. Such efforts were essential, as the channel's design allowed human access for upkeep, though the process involved labor-intensive removal of sediments using basic tools. One of the primary challenges was buildup from urban waste, including household refuse and runoff, which gradually narrowed the channel and reduced flow capacity. This accumulation frequently led to overflows during heavy rains, exacerbating flooding in low-lying areas like the Forum. For instance, the Tiber flood of 241 BC submerged much of the city, with slow-moving waters soaking and crumbling buildings while swift currents destroyed others; the Cloaca Maxima, lacking valves, contributed to inundation by reversing flow and spreading contaminated water. Structural issues arose over time due to the system's age and exposure to natural forces, including earthquakes that tested its resilience. Although noted its endurance against seismic activity for nearly 700 years up to the 1st century AD, sections required reinforcement to prevent collapse, particularly as urban expansion placed additional pressure on the infrastructure. Repairs in the late involved lining vulnerable stretches with brick-faced (opus caementicium) to form stronger barrel vaults, enhancing stability without fully halting deterioration. The Cloaca Maxima played a partial role in disease control by channeling away from populated areas, thereby reducing exposure to pathogens in a densely urban environment. However, its effectiveness was limited by open inlets and the absence of household connections, which allowed odors from and potential contamination from overflows to persist, heightening risks of infectious diseases. Many residents avoided linking private latrines to the system due to these hazards, relying instead on manual waste disposal that undermined overall . In response to these challenges, Roman authorities enacted legislative measures to fund and regulate maintenance. The municipalis, dated between 80 and 43 BC, empowered aediles to enforce waste removal protocols, including permitting carts to transport excrement out of the during designated hours, thereby supporting sewer upkeep and preventing urban accumulation.

Significance and Legacy

Historical Impact

The Cloaca Maxima played a pivotal role in enabling the dense urbanization of by draining the marshy lowlands that previously hindered settlement in the city's central valley. Prior to its construction, the area encompassing the Forum Romanum was a stagnant swamp prone to flooding from the River and local streams, limiting habitable space and fostering environmental hazards that restricted . By channeling water away from these low-lying regions, the system transformed unusable terrain into viable urban land, supporting the expansion of 's population from a modest settlement to a metropolis of over one million inhabitants by the imperial period. In terms of , the Cloaca Maxima significantly mitigated waterborne diseases and risks that plagued early Roman communities, as evidenced by historical accounts of epidemics in marshy conditions. Livy's records describe recurrent pestilences in the pre-drainage era, attributing them to stagnant waters that bred mosquitoes and contaminated supplies, leading to high mortality rates from fevers and infections. The sewer's efficient removal of and stormwater reduced these breeding grounds, lowering disease incidence and contributing to improved overall compared to the unsanitary conditions of archaic . Symbolically, the Cloaca Maxima embodied Roman engineering prowess and was celebrated as a monumental achievement that underscored the city's mastery over nature. Ancient writers, including , referenced it in discussions of Rome's infrastructural wonders, highlighting its enduring strength and scale as a testament to the ingenuity of the Tarquin kings. This perception elevated the sewer beyond mere utility, positioning it as an icon of Roman superiority in . Economically, the reclamation of the Forum area through drainage facilitated vibrant trade and commerce by creating a stable, dry for markets and assemblies. The former , once impassable, became the heart of economic activity, hosting bustling exchanges of from across the Mediterranean and enabling the growth of Rome's mercantile networks. This transformation directly boosted by integrating the Forum as a central hub for transactions and governance. The principles of the Cloaca Maxima's design contributed to the development of sanitation infrastructure across the , with similar gravity-fed sewer systems implemented in cities such as Pompeii to support urban expansion and .

Modern Status and Preservation

The Cloaca Maxima continues to function partially in modern , primarily channeling stormwater and debris from the historic center into the River, a role it has maintained since antiquity despite extensive modifications over the centuries. While much of the original structure lies underground and integrated into the city's contemporary drainage network, assessments indicate significant fragility in remaining sections, with blockages from accumulated debris compromising flow in certain areas. Archaeological excavations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries played a pivotal role in revealing and documenting the sewer's extent, particularly through the work of Giacomo Boni, who led digs in the from 1898 to 1904. These efforts exposed well-preserved segments of the Cloaca Maxima, including vaulted tunnels beneath the and other key Forum structures, shedding light on its archaic engineering for the first time in centuries. Preservation faces ongoing challenges from environmental and human factors, including introduced by modern overflows that deposit plastics, cables, and other urban waste into the tunnels, exacerbating structural . Tourism in the densely visited area adds pressure through increased foot traffic and potential vibration damage near exposed outlets, complicating long-term stability amid Rome's urban expansion. Recent conservation initiatives in the have employed non-invasive technologies to monitor and protect the site, notably a survey using the ArcheoRobot—a compact, remote-controlled device equipped with high-definition cameras and 3D laser scanners—to map inaccessible underground portions without physical disturbance. These scans documented the sewer's condition and informed targeted repairs, aligning with broader efforts to safeguard Rome's Historic Centre, designated a World Heritage Site in 1980 for its unparalleled archaeological value, which encompasses the Cloaca Maxima as an integral component. In July 2024, archaeologists discovered a complete statue of the god Hermes within a section of the Cloaca Maxima near the , during excavations on privately owned land, underscoring continued research and preservation activities. Public access to visible sections, such as the outlet near the Ponte Rotto, has been facilitated through guided tours and exhibits in the since the early , enabling educational viewing while minimizing direct impact on the structure.

References

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