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Codex Washingtonianus
Codex Washingtonianus
Codex Washingtonianus
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Uncial 032
New Testament manuscript
Painted cover of the Codex Washingtonianus, depicting the evangelists Luke and Mark (7th century)
Painted cover of the Codex Washingtonianus, depicting the evangelists Luke and Mark (7th century)
NameWashingtonianus (Freer Gospel)
SignW
TextGospels
Datec. 375–500
ScriptGreek
FoundEgypt (purchased by Charles Lang Freer)
Now atFreer Gallery of Art
Size187 leaves; 20.75 x 13.75 cm
Typeeclectic text-type
CategoryIII
Noteunique insertion following Mark 16:14

Codex Washingtonianus, Codex Washingtonensis, Codex Freerianus, also called the Washington Manuscript of the Gospels, The Freer Gospel and The Freer Codex, is a Greek uncial manuscript of the four Gospels, written on parchment. It is designated by W or 032 in the Gregory-Aland numbering of New Testament manuscripts, and ε014 in the von Soden numbering of New Testament manuscripts. Using the study of comparative writing styles (palaeography), it has been dated to the 4th or 5th century.[1]: 113  The manuscript has some gaps. The manuscript was among a collection of manuscripts bought by American industrialist Charles Lang Freer at the start of the 20th century, and first published by biblical scholar Henry A. Sanders.[2]

It has been described as one of the "more important majuscule manuscripts discovered during the 20th century",[3]: 80  and "a highly valuable manuscript."[4] In the Gospel of Mark, it shares several distinctive readings with the early 3rd century papyrus, the Chester Beatty codex of the Gospels and Acts (𝔓45).[5]: 63–66  It is considered to be the third oldest Gospel parchment codex in the world.[6]: 36 

Description

[edit]

The manuscript is a codex (precursor to the modern book), containing most of the text of the four Gospels written on 187 parchment leaves (sized 20.5–21 cm by 13–14.5 cm), with painted wooden covers.[4] John 1:1-5:11 is a replacement of a presumably damaged folio, and dates to around the 7th century. Mark 15:13-38 and John 14:26-16:7 are lacking.[3]: 80  The text is written in one column per page, 30 lines per page.[1] The letters are written in a small, slightly sloping uncial hand, using dark-brown ink.[6]: 37  The words are written continuously without separation. Accents (used to indicate voiced pitch changes) are absent, and the rough breathing mark (utilised to designate vowel emphasis) is written very rarely. There are numerous corrections made by the original copyist and a few corrections dating to the late 5th or 6th century. The copyist has been described as "generally a careful worker", who produced "extremely few nonsense readings" and had very few "other indicators of careless copying."[5]: 68  As with Codex Bezae (D), the Gospels follow in the so-called "Western" order: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark.[3]: 80 

The nomina sacra (special names/words considered sacred in Christianity, abbreviated usually with the first and last letter, and notified with an overline) are employed throughout the manuscript.[7]: VI  The following list is of the nominative case (subject) forms utilised: ΘΣ (θεος / God); ΚΣ (κυριος / Lord); ΧΡΣ (χριστος / Christ/Messiah); ΙΣ (Ιησους / Jesus); ΠΝΑ (πνευμα / spirit); ΑΝΟΣ (ανθρωπος / man); ΠΗΡ (πατηρ / father); ΜΗΡ (μητηρ / mother); ΥΣ (υιος / son); ΔΑΔ, (Δαυιδ / David; ΔΔ once); ΙΗΛ (Ισραηλ / Israel; ΙΣΡΛ once).[7]: VI 

Text

[edit]

The text of the codex is considered to be an admixture of different text-types. It is a "consistently cited witness of the first order" in the critical apparatus of the Nestle-Aland Novum Testamentum Graece (a critical edition of the Greek New Testament).[8]: 58*  Due to different sections of the text displaying affinities with multiple text-types, the codex has been hypothesised to have been copied from several different manuscripts, possibly pieced together from manuscripts which survived the persecution of Christians by the Emperor Diocletian.[3]: 80–81  The text-types are groups of different New Testament manuscripts which share specific or generally related readings, which then differ from each other group, and thus the conflicting readings can separate out the groups. These are then used to determine the original text as published; there are three main groups with names: Alexandrian, Western, and Byzantine.[3]: 205–230  The text-types of the different sections are as follows:

  • Matthew 1–28; Luke 8:13–24:53 – Byzantine text-type;
  • Mark 1:1–5:30 – Western text-type, similar to old-Latin Versions;
  • Mark 5:31 – 16:20 – Supposedly Caesarean text-type, nearest to 𝔓45;
  • Luke 1:1 – 8:12, and John 5:12 – 21:25 – Alexandrian text-type;
  • John 1:1 – 5:11 – mixed with some Alexandrian and Western readings. This text was added in the 7th century, probably for replacement of damaged text.[3]: 80 

The Caesarean text-type mentioned above (initially identified by biblical scholar Burnett Hillman Streeter) has been contested by several text-critics, such as Kurt and Barbara Aland.[1]: 55–56  Kurt Aland placed the codex in Category III of his New Testament manuscript classification system.[1]: 113  Category III manuscripts are described as having "a small but not a negligible proportion of early readings, with a considerable encroachment of [Byzantine] readings, and significant readings from other sources as yet unidentified."[1]: 335 

Matthew 16:2b–3 is present and not marked as doubtful or spurious. Luke 22:43-44, John 5:4 and the Pericope de adultera are not present in the manuscript. It lacks Matthew 5:21–22 (like Minuscule 33),[8]: 8  and Luke 19:25 (as D, 69, some lectionaries, and other manuscripts).[9]: 290 [8]: 223  It includes Matthew 23:14 as in most other manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type.[8]: 65 

There is a subscription at the end of the Gospel of Mark, written in semi-cursive from the 5th century: "Holy Christ, be you with your servant Timothy and all of his." The similar note appears in Minuscule 579. Textual critic Hermann von Soden cited a number of similar subscriptions in other manuscripts.[2]: 2 

Notable Readings

Matthew 10:12

αυτην λεγοντες ειρηνη τω οικω τουτω (...it saying, 'Peace to this house') - W א‎2 D L Θ ƒ1 1010 it vgcl
αυτην (...it) - Majority of manuscripts[8]: 24 

Matthew 23:3

τηρειν τηρειται και ποιειται (to observe, observe and do) - W 0107 0138 ƒ13 q syp, h Majority of manuscripts
ποιήσατε καὶ τηρεῖτε - א‎2 B L Z Θ 892[8]: 65 

Mark 1:3

πασα φαραγξ πληρωθησεται και παν ορος και βουνος ταπεινωθησεται και εσται παντα τα σκολια εις ευθειαν και η τραχεια εις πεδιον και οφθησεται η δοξα κυριου και οψεται πασα σαρξ το σωτηριον του θεου οτι κυριος ελαλησεν φωνη λεγοντος βοησον και ειπα τι βοησω οτι πασα σαρξ χορτος και πασα η δοξα αυτης ως ανθος χορτου εξηρανθη ο χορτος και το ανθος εξεπεσεν το δε ρημα κυριου μενει εις τον αιωνα (Every valley shall be filled, and every mountain and hill shall be brought low, and all the bent ways shall become straight, and the rough places plains. And the glory of Yahweh shall appear, and all flesh shall see the salvation of God, for Yahweh has spoken. The voice of one saying, "Cry", and I said, "What shall I cry? Because all flesh is grass, and all its glory as the flower of grass. The grass withers, and the flower fades, but the word of Yahweh remains forever.; addition of Isaiah 40:4-8, LXX) - W c
omit - Majority of manuscripts[8]: 88 

Mark 2:3

ιδου ανδρες ερχονται προς αυτον βασταζοντες εν κρεβαττω παραλυτικον (Behold, men came to him carrying a paralytic on a bed) - W e bopt
ερχονται φεροντες προς αυτον παραλυτικον αιρομενον υπο τεσσαρων (they came carrying to him a paralytic, being lifted up by four men) - Majority of manuscripts[8]: 92 

Mark 10:19

μη αποστερησης (do not defraud)
omit - W B* K Ψ ƒ1 ƒ13 28 700 1010 1079 1242 1546 2148 ℓ 10 ℓ 950 ℓ 1642 ℓ 1761 syrs arm geo
incl. - Majority of manuscripts[9]: 165 

Mark 9:49

πας γαρ πυρι αλισθησεται (for everything shall be seasoned by fire) – W א‎ (εν πυρι / with fire) B L Δ ƒ1 ƒ13 28 565 700 ℓ260 sys sa
και πασα θυσια αλι αλισθησεται (and every sacrifice shall be seasoned with salt) - Majority of manuscripts[8]: 121 

Mark 10:48

omit - W 1241
incl. - Majority of manuscripts[8]: 125 

Mark 13:2

και μετα τριων ημερων αλλος αναστησεται ανευ χειρων (and after three days another will arise) — W D it
omit - Majority of manuscripts[8]: 133 

Luke 4:17

καὶ ἀνοίξας τὸ βιβλίον (and opened the book) - W A B L Ξ 33 892 1195 1241 ℓ 547 sys, h, pal sa bo
καὶ ἀναπτύξας τὸ βιβλίον (and unrolled the book) - א‎ Dc K Δ Θ Π Ψ ƒ1 ƒ13 28 565 700 1009 1010 Byz[10][8]: 164 

Luke 11:19

εἰ δὲ ἐγὼ ἐν Βεελζεβοὺλ ἐκβάλλω τὰ δαιμόνια (however, if I expel the demons by Beelzeboul...)
omit. - W (singular reading; words likely omitted due to homoeoteleuton, the omission due to similar looking words/letters (ὅτι λέγετε ἐν Βεελζεβοὺλ ἐκβάλλει τὰ δαιμόνια. εἰ δὲ ἐγὼ ἐν Βεελζεβοὺλ ἐκβάλλω τὰ δαιμόνια)
incl. - Majority of manuscripts

Luke 22:43–44

omit - W 𝔓75 א‎ A B T 1071
incl. - Majority of manuscripts[9]: 305 

Luke 23:34a

Ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς ἔλεγεν, Πάτερ, ἄφες αὐτοῖς· οὐ γὰρ οἴδασιν τί ποιοῦσιν (And Jesus said: Father forgive them, they know not what they do.)
omit - W 𝔓75 א‎2a B D* Θ 0124 1241 a d sys sa bo
incl. - Majority of manuscripts[9]: 308 

John 7:1

ου γαρ ειχεν εξουσιαν (for he does not have authority)) - W a b ff² l r1 syc
ου γαρ ηθελεν (for he does not want) - Majority of manuscripts [9]: 350 
Mark 16:12-17 with the Freer Logion in 16:14

Freer Logion

[edit]

The ending of Mark in this codex is especially noteworthy because it includes a unique insertion after Mark 16:14, referred to as the "Freer Logion".

Κακεινοι απελογουντο λεγοντες οτι ο αιων ουτος της ανομιας και της απιστιας υπο τον σαταναν εστιν, ο μη εων τα (τον μη εωντα?) υπο των πνευματων ακαθαρτα (-των?) την αληθειαν του θεου καταλαβεσθαι (+ και?) δυναμιν. δια τουτο αποκαλυψον σου την δικαιοσυνην ηδη, εκεινοι ελεγον τω χριστω. και ο χριστος εκεινοις προσελεγεν οτι πεπληρωται ο ὅρος των ετων της εξουσιας του σατανα, ἀλλὰ εγγιζει ἄλλα δεινα. και υπερ ων εγω αμαρτησαντων παρεδοθην εις θανατον ινα υποστρεψωσιν εις την αληθειαν και μηκετι αμαρτησωσιν ινα την εν τω ουρανω πνευματικην και αφθαρτον της δικαιοσυνης δοξαν κληρονομησωσιν.[8]: 148 

Translation:

And they excused themselves, saying, "This age of lawlessness and unbelief is under Satan, who does not allow the truth and power of God to prevail over the unclean things of the spirits [or: does not allow what lies under the unclean spirits to understand the truth and power of God]. Therefore reveal thy righteousness now" - thus they spoke to Christ. And Christ replied to them, "The term of years of Satan's power has been fulfilled, but other terrible things draw near. And for those who have sinned I was delivered over to death, that they may return to the truth and sin no more in order to inherit the spiritual and incorruptible glory of righteousness which is in heaven.[3]: 81 

This text is not found in any other manuscript, but was partially quoted by Jerome in contra Pelagianos 2.15:

et illi satisfaciebant dicentes: Saeculum istud iniquitatis et incredulitatis substantia (sub Satana?) est, quae non sinit per immundos spiritus veram Dei apprehendi virtutem: idcirco iamnunc revela iustitiam tuam.[8]: 148  (and they excused themselves, saying: This century is the essence of iniquity and unbelief, which does not allow the true power of God to be apprehended by unclean spirits: therefore, reveal your righteousness now.)

History

[edit]

During a trip to Egypt in December 1906, Charles Lang Freer bought the manuscript from an antiques dealer in Cairo, along with three other manuscripts.[6]: 1  Biblical scholar Bruce M. Metzger states: "It is the only Greek Gospel manuscript of early date of which we know provenance. Though the exact spot in Egypt where it was found is not known, there are indications that it came from a monastery in the neighbourhood of the Pyramids."[11] The writing style is closely related to the Codex Panopolitanus (Cairo Papyrus 10759), a manuscript containing portions of the first book of Enoch, found in Akhmim in 1886.[2]: 3  The initial discovery of the manuscript prompted numerous scholarly articles and studies, however only irregular attention has been paid to the manuscript in the latter half of the 20th century, to which biblical scholar Larry Hurtado could decry in 2006, "the general public today scarcely knows of [it]."[6]: 1  Though all the manuscripts bought by Freer were considered significant, and gave America "an important standing in respect of Biblical manuscripts,"[12]: 94  the manuscript of the Gospels was deemed "by far the most important".[12]: 25 

Details of Freer's acquisition and importance of the manuscript was announced by biblical scholar Henry Sanders at the general meeting of the Archaeological Institute and the American Philological Association, held in December 1907.[6]: 3  He then went onto publish an initial article on it and the other manuscripts entitled New Manuscripts of the Bible from Egypt, in the 12th volume of the American Journal of Archaeology, Issue 1.[13][6]: 3  Within the article he provided photographs of some of the other manuscripts, and from the Freer Gospels codex a page from the Gospel of Mark, and the two painted covers. He also published the first transcription of a new ending to the Gospel of Mark, later to be named "the Freer Logion."[6]: 3 

The manuscript was published in a full critical edition and separate facsimile volume by Sanders in 1912, of which Freer had to use his personal expenses to fund its publication, costing a total of $16,233.77 ($3,204.02 for the 994 copies of the critical edition; $13,029.75 for the 435 copies of the facsimile), or $496,714.87 in today's money.[6]: 36 [14]

The codex is currently located in the Smithsonian Institution at the Freer Gallery of Art (06. 274) in Washington, D.C., United States. Complete image replicas of the codex are available from the Rights and Reproductions office at the Freer Gallery of Art. The manuscript is currently dated by the INTF to the 4th or 5th century.[15]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Codex Washingtonianus

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The Codex Washingtonianus, also known as the Freer Gospels or Codex Freerianus, is an uncial manuscript containing the four Gospels of the , dating to the late fourth or early fifth century CE and preserved as one of the earliest complete biblical codices in . Written in on 187 leaves of measuring approximately 20.8 by 14.3 cm, the codex features a single column of 30 lines per page in small, sloping majuscule script using dark brown ink, originally bound in seventh-century painted wooden covers depicting the . The Gospels appear in the distinctive Western order—Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark—rather than the standard sequence, reflecting an early liturgical arrangement possibly compiled from multiple sources during the era of Roman persecution under . Likely produced in , the manuscript was acquired by American industrialist on December 19, 1906, from an antiquities dealer named Ali Arabi in , possibly originating from the Monastery of the Vinedresser near the pyramids. donated it to the Smithsonian Institution's in 1920, where it remains a cornerstone of the collection, recognized as the third oldest surviving manuscript of the four Gospels and a key witness to early textual transmission. Its textual significance stems from a composite nature, blending four distinct scribal hands and textual traditions, including Byzantine, Alexandrian, and Western types, which provide valuable insights into the evolution of the Gospel texts. Notably, it includes the unique "Freer Logion," an interpolated passage after not found in other major manuscripts: "And they excused themselves, saying, 'This age of lawlessness and unbelief is under , who does not allow the truth and power of to prevail over the unclean things of the spirits. Therefore reveal your righteousness now'—thus they spoke to Christ. And Christ replied to them, 'The term of years of Satan's power has been fulfilled, but other terrible things draw near. And for those who have sinned I was delivered over to death, that they may return to the truth and sin no more, that they may inherit the spiritual and imperishable glory of righteousness that is in heaven.'" This variant, along with lacunae in the text (such as missing and due to damage), underscores its role in scholarship and the study of early Christian textual diversity.

Physical Characteristics

Materials and Dimensions

The Codex Washingtonianus is composed of , specifically derived from animal skins such as calf or sheep. It consists of 187 surviving leaves. The pages measure 20.8 cm in height by 14.3 cm in width, providing a compact format typical of early codices. The manuscript is arranged in a single-column layout with lines per page, featuring a continuous script that lacks separation between words or verses, facilitating a fluid reading experience in antiquity. The primary used is dark , applied in a consistent uncial hand, while red ink appears sparingly for rubrication, such as the beginning lines of each book and to mark sections with larger letters in the margin. The original binding, likely a simple Coptic-style or wooden , has been lost, with the current painted wooden covers—depicting the —dating to the seventh century and added later in its history. Modern conservation at the has involved rebinding and stabilization to preserve the fragile against further degradation.

Script and Palaeography

The Codex Washingtonianus employs a small, slightly sloping uncial (majuscule) script executed in dark brown ink, featuring letters of equal height without separation between words, a convention typical of early Greek biblical manuscripts. This style exhibits a consistent, practiced hand with occasional ligatures—such as the frequent joining of consonants—and standard abbreviations for common terms like (e.g., ΘΣ for Theos). The script's sloping quality and compact form distinguish it from stricter upright uncials like those in , suggesting a familiar with Egyptian or traditions. Palaeographic analysis, focusing on letter forms (e.g., the lunate sigma and broad epsilon), the minimal use of diacritics, and the overall fluidity of the script, dates the original portion of the codex to the late 4th or early 5th century, approximately 375–425 AD. This estimation aligns with comparative studies of contemporary uncials, where the absence of breathings and accents, combined with the parchment's preparation, points to an origin in a region like Egypt or Syria during a period of standardized Christian book production. The replacement folios covering John 1:1–5:11, however, are penned in a more angular, 7th-century uncial script that contrasts sharply with the original in its cruder letter proportions and heavier ink application, likely added to repair lost or damaged leaves. In Kurt Aland's classification system for manuscripts, the codex falls into Category III, reflecting its mixed textual purity as evidenced by varying affiliations across sections, though palaeographic uniformity in the main body underscores its early composition. Absent any illuminations, ornamental initials, or decorative motifs, the exemplifies the plain, functional aesthetic of pre-iconoclastic uncial codices, prioritizing textual clarity over artistic embellishment.

Contents and Text

Extent and Lacunae

The Codex Washingtonianus preserves the text of the four Gospels—Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark—across 187 surviving folios of . These folios encompass nearly the complete Gospels in their Western order, providing a substantial portion of the early Christian scriptural tradition, though the manuscript shows evidence of damage and repair over time, including approximately 99 minor lacunae of single verses or words. Unlike some other ancient codices that incorporate additional biblical or apocryphal texts, this manuscript contains only the Gospels, with no extraneous writings included in the preserved material. Significant lacunae disrupt the continuity of the text, primarily due to lost leaves. The most prominent gap occurs in the Gospel of Mark, where verses 15:13–38 are absent, omitting a key section of the Passion narrative. Another major lacuna is in :25–16:7, spanning part of ' Farewell Discourse. These losses reflect the manuscript's fragmented state upon discovery, likely exacerbated by age and environmental factors in its Egyptian provenance. A notable repair addresses an early loss in the Gospel of John: the section from 1:1 to 5:11 was rewritten in the using a minuscule script on fresh , replacing the original 4th- or 5th-century uncial text that had deteriorated. This supplemental quire, known as W^s, integrates with the main but introduces a distinct paleographical style, highlighting medieval efforts to restore usability. The original is estimated to have comprised over 200 folios, with the surviving portion representing the core of its intended content after scattered losses, particularly at structural transitions and vulnerable edges.

Gospel Order and Included Passages

The Codex Washingtonianus arranges the four canonical Gospels in a distinctive sequence known as the "Western" order: Matthew, followed by John, then Luke, and concluding with Mark. This arrangement, known as the 'Western' order, is found in a few early Greek manuscripts, such as , differing from the more common order of found in most ancient manuscripts. The includes the complete texts of all four Gospels, spanning from Matthew 1:1 to Mark 16:20, with the standard long ending of Mark present. It contains no extra-canonical material beyond the insertion known as the Freer Logion after Mark 16:14, which is addressed in greater detail elsewhere. Several notable passages are omitted from the text. The Pericope Adulterae (John 7:53–8:11), the story of the woman caught in adultery, is entirely absent, with the narrative transitioning directly from John 7:52 to 8:12. Similarly, Luke 22:43–44, describing the angel strengthening in , is not included. John 5:4, the explanatory note about the angel troubling the water at Bethesda, is also lacking, as is :28, the fulfillment quotation regarding being numbered with the transgressors. These omissions reflect deliberate scribal choices or textual traditions rather than physical damage to the .

Textual Affiliation

Overall Classification

The Codex Washingtonianus, designated as 032 in the Gregory-Aland catalogue and ε 014 in the von Soden classification, belongs to Kurt Aland's Category III of manuscripts. This category encompasses texts of a distinctive character that exhibit a mixture of textual traditions without dominance by any one type, rendering them particularly useful for eclectic textual reconstruction in critical editions. Such manuscripts provide evidence for the fluidity of early Christian textual transmission, allowing scholars to trace variant readings across diverse lineages. The codex's overall textual profile is eclectic, integrating elements from Alexandrian, Western, and Byzantine traditions in a block-mixture pattern, which positions it as an independent witness rather than a primary exemplar of any single text-type. Recent quantitative analyses, such as that by Burnett (2022), further examine its textual relationships using statistical methods, offering new insights into its affiliations beyond traditional categories. This mixed affiliation underscores its value in illuminating the complex interplay of scribal practices and regional influences in the fourth and fifth centuries, contributing to broader understandings of how texts evolved without adhering strictly to one stream. As one of the third-oldest surviving substantially complete Greek s of the four Gospels—following the fourth-century and —the Codex Washingtonianus holds unique significance for the preservation of early biblical materials, especially as the oldest such codex housed in the at the . Its non-aligned readings enhance studies of textual transmission by offering a snapshot of transitional forms that bridge major manuscript families.

Sectional Variations

The sectional variations in Codex Washingtonianus reveal a complex textual profile, where different parts of the manuscript align with distinct text-types, reflecting its eclectic nature as a fifth-century Greek uncial of the four Gospels. This , also designated as GA 032 or W, demonstrates shifts in affiliation that are not uniform across the Gospels, distinguishing it from more homogeneous witnesses like or the Byzantine majority text. Scholarly analysis has identified these variations through collations against major textual families, highlighting the codex's role in illuminating early transmission in and beyond. In the Gospel of Matthew, the text is predominantly Byzantine throughout, aligning closely with the majority tradition in readings and omissions, which provides a stable base for this section of the . This consistency contrasts with the variability elsewhere, suggesting that the exemplar for Matthew may have been drawn from a later, more standardized Byzantine source. For the Gospel of Mark, the affiliation shifts notably: verses 1:1–5:30 exhibit a , characterized by agreements with witnesses like (D) and old Latin versions in expansions and substitutions; from 5:31–16:20, it transitions to a text-type closely aligned with P45, previously classified as Caesarean but now regarded as distinct, showing affinities with early papyri such as P45 in shorter, more primitive readings. The Gospel of Luke displays a similar bifurcation: the opening section from 1:1–8:12 follows an Alexandrian text-type, with concise phrasing and omissions typical of high-quality Egyptian copies like Codex Sinaiticus (א); however, from 8:13–24:53, it adopts a Byzantine affiliation, incorporating harmonizations and additions common to the later majority text. In John, the core text from 5:12–21:25 adheres to the Alexandrian type, evident in its precise agreements with early uncials in key pericopes; the preceding folios (1:1–5:11) are later replacements dating to the seventh century, but they also align broadly with Alexandrian characteristics despite some mixed Western influences. These transitions between text-types—Western to a P45-aligned type in Mark, Alexandrian to Byzantine in Luke, and consistent Alexandrian in much of John—indicate that the codex was likely compiled from multiple exemplars, possibly during a period of textual diversity post-Diocletian persecution. No overarching pattern emerges, underscoring the scribe's selective approach rather than a deliberate , which has implications for understanding fifth-century Gospel copying practices in the .

Unique Readings

The Freer Logion

The Freer Logion is a distinctive unique to Codex Washingtonianus (GA 032), consisting of a between the resurrected and the eleven disciples that expands the narrative of their encounter. It is inserted immediately after Mark 16:14, just before verse 15, within the context of the longer ending of Mark (16:9–20). First transcribed and published by Henry A. Sanders in his 1912 edition of the manuscript, the passage addresses the disciples' unbelief and introduces eschatological themes of Satan's dominion and divine redemption. The text of the Freer Logion reads as follows: "And they excused themselves, saying, 'This age of lawlessness and unbelief is under Satan, who does not allow the truth and power of God to prevail over the unclean things of the spirits. Therefore reveal your righteousness now' – thus they spoke to Christ. And Christ replied to them, 'The term of years of Satan's power has been fulfilled, but other terrible things draw near. And for those who have sinned I was delivered over to death, that they may return to the truth and sin no more, that they may inherit the spiritual and imperishable glory of righteousness that is in heaven.'" This addition is absent from all other known Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, including major uncials like Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Vaticanus (B), as well as from the majority of versional witnesses. A partial Latin parallel appears in Jerome's Adversus Pelagianos (2.15), suggesting possible circulation in Western traditions, though the full Greek form is exclusive to Codex Washingtonianus. The presence of the Freer Logion underscores the early diversity in the textual transmission of Mark's ending, illustrating how scribes or communities adapted the gospel to emphasize theological motifs such as cosmic conflict and soteriological hope. Dated paleographically to the late fourth or early fifth century, the codex itself preserves a reading likely originating in the second or third century, potentially reflecting influences from lost Western or Syriac traditions. This interpolation highlights the fluidity of Mark 16 during the formative period of the canon, where expansions addressed perceived narrative gaps in the disciples' response to the resurrection. Scholarly debate centers on whether the logion derives from an apocryphal source, such as elements akin to the Gospel of the Hebrews, or represents a scribal expansion composed to harmonize or elaborate on the longer ending. Bruce Metzger's committee rated its authenticity as uncertain ({C}), citing limited attestation and non-Markan vocabulary, while some analyses propose it as a homiletic insertion with Jewish apocalyptic undertones. Despite its isolation, the logion's inclusion in Codex Washingtonianus attests to regional textual experimentation, possibly in or the , prior to the standardization of text.

Other Notable Variants

Codex Washingtonianus exhibits numerous singular readings across the Gospels, totaling over unique variants when segmented by textual blocks, though these represent deviations from the standard text rather than agreements with the majority Byzantine tradition in all cases. In Mark, for instance, there are 427 singular readings, with early sections (:1–5:30) showing a mixed affiliation that leans slightly Western and includes key expansions, while later sections (Mark 5:31–16:20) feature extensive unique alterations suggesting deliberate scribal intervention. Luke contains 143 singular readings, concentrated in its early chapters with notable omissions and shifts toward Byzantine alignment in later portions. Overall, while approximately 60% of readings in certain blocks align with Byzantine witnesses, the manuscript's distinctive profile emerges from its non-majority deviations, particularly in the initial portions of Mark and Luke. A prominent example occurs in Mark 1:3, where the codex incorporates an extended quotation from Isaiah 40:3–8, a singular expansion in the Greek tradition shared only with the Latin Codex Colbertinus (c, VL 6). This addition—"and every mountain and hill shall be made low, and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough ways shall be made smooth; and all flesh shall see the salvation of God"—aligns the text more closely with the Western tradition and may reflect harmonization to the fuller citation in Luke 3:4–6, enhancing the prophetic fulfillment motif. In Luke, a striking deviation is the deliberate omission of the entire genealogy from :24–38, unique among Greek manuscripts except for the later minuscule , which skips the section similarly; this absence, lacking evidence of accidental skipping via homoeoteleuton, underscores the codex's editorial distinctiveness and removes the tracing of Jesus's lineage back to . The early chapters of :1–8:12) otherwise show 48 singular readings, with an Alexandrian bent that diverges from Byzantine norms in phrasing and minor additions. Harmonizations to parallel Gospel accounts appear frequently, illustrating scribal tendencies to align narratives. For example, in Matthew 26:39, the codex inserts the angelic strengthening and sweat like blood from Luke 22:43–44, creating consistency in the Gethsemane scene across Synoptics. Similarly, Luke 13:10 adds "the Jesus" before a description, echoing Johannine style and possibly drawing from John 8:1–11 parallels, though such adjustments remain selective rather than systematic. These instances, alongside omissions like the potential lacuna impacting Mark 15:13–38 (encompassing the absent fulfillment note in 15:28 found in Byzantine texts), highlight the manuscript's eclectic nature with targeted deviations from the majority text.

History and Provenance

Discovery in Egypt

The Codex Washingtonianus, also known as the Freer Gospels, likely originated in or the region, as indicated by its palaeographic features and historical . The manuscript's , dated to the late fourth or early fifth century, aligns with production in Egyptian monastic or scribal centers during the late antique period. The codex was discovered around 1905–1906 amid the flourishing in , though no precise date or finder has been recorded. Reports on the exact location vary, with some accounts placing the find in a monastery or on the antiquities market near in , potentially originating from the library of the White Monastery founded by . Alternative claims suggest it surfaced in the Fayum region, such as at Medinet Dimay (ancient Soknopaiou Nesos), unearthed during informal excavations by locals seeking fertilizer materials. These discrepancies reflect the opaque nature of early 20th-century manuscript trafficking from Egyptian sites, often involving the dispersal of monastic holdings following the decline of Coptic institutions. Upon surfacing, the codex was acquired by the antiquities dealer Ali Arabi, whose shop in near served as a hub for such artifacts. Initial fragments were noted for their poor condition, exhibiting wormholes, stains, and signs of decay from prolonged burial or storage, yet retaining enough integrity to attract scholarly notice. This discovery formed part of the broader 19th–20th century trade in biblical manuscripts from , driven by European and American collectors amid colonial-era excavations and the export of . Early examinations by local scholars highlighted the manuscript's mixed script styles and unusual features, sparking interest among Western antiquarians who recognized its potential value for biblical studies. These attributes, combined with its rarity as a complete Gospel codex, positioned it within networks of dealers and intermediaries facilitating its path from Egyptian soil to international collections.

Acquisition by Freer

In 1906, American industrialist and art collector acquired the Codex Washingtonianus from an antiquities dealer named Ali Arabi in , , on December 19. , who had built a renowned collection of Asian art and Egyptian antiquities, purchased the manuscript during one of his expeditions to acquire ancient artifacts. The acquisition reflected his broader interest in Near Eastern , integrating the codex into a diverse assemblage that included , Whistler paintings, and other Egyptian items. Following the purchase, the codex was shipped to the and arrived in , , where Freer resided and maintained his private collection. There, scholars initially examined the to assess its significance and condition, marking the beginning of its scholarly engagement in the West. Upon arrival, the fragile required immediate attention; conservators cleaned accumulated dirt and repaired minor damages to stabilize the artifact for further study and preservation. That same year, Freer formally deeded the , along with his entire collection, to the , ensuring its public accessibility under specific conditions he outlined. The transfer was completed in after Freer's death in 1919, and the manuscript has been housed at the since the institution's opening to the public on May 9, 1923. This placement aligned with Freer's vision for a dedicated space to showcase his eclectic holdings, positioning the as a key example of early Christian textual transmission within an American national collection.

Modern Scholarship

The initial scholarly publication of Codex Washingtonianus occurred in 1912, when Henry A. Sanders produced a comprehensive edition and transcription as part of the Studies in Language and Literature series. This work provided the first detailed access to the manuscript's text and physical features, establishing a foundation for subsequent textual analysis. Sanders' edition highlighted the codex's unique order of the Gospels and its variant readings, facilitating early comparisons with other uncial manuscripts. In the mid-20th century, palaeographical studies advanced understanding of the codex's script and dating. W. H. P. Hatch's 1939 analysis in The Principal Uncial Manuscripts of the New Testament examined the manuscript's uncial handwriting, confirming its fourth- or fifth-century origins through comparisons with contemporary Greek scripts and providing photographic plates for reference. Later, Larry W. Hurtado's 1981 monograph Text-Critical Methodology and the Pre-Caesarean Text: Codex W in the Gospel of Mark explored the codex's textual mixtures, identifying affiliations with Byzantine, Western, and Alexandrian traditions in Mark, which suggested a complex compilation process from diverse sources. Recent scholarship has refined these insights through quantitative and historical approaches. Megan Leigh Burnett's 2022 book Codex Washingtonianus: An Analysis of the Textual Affiliations of the Freer Gospels Manuscript applies multivariate analysis to demonstrate the codex's assembly from multiple textual streams, emphasizing sectional variations across the Gospels and calling for broader collations with early papyri to trace its Egyptian provenance. A rare public exhibition at the in 2013 underscored the codex's significance as the third-oldest surviving Greek manuscript, drawing attention to its material preservation and unique features like the Freer Logion. As of 2025, ongoing developments include enhanced digital access and new research initiatives. The Center for the Study of Manuscripts (CSNTM) provides high-resolution images online, supporting non-invasive study and updated palaeographical assessments that refine the dating to the late fourth century. The Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung (INTF) continues cataloging the codex in its ongoing Liste der neutestamentlichen Handschriften, while the Smithsonian's 2025 Colloquium launches a major project on its conservation and textual links to other Western witnesses, addressing gaps in prior collations.

References

  1. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/131227-ancient-bible-codex-washingtonianus-freer-logion-religion-culture
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  3. https://www.csntm.org/Manuscript/View/GA_032
  4. https://historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=3888
  5. https://asia.si.edu/object/F1906.274
  6. https://asia.si.edu/exhibition/right-cover-of-the-washington-manuscript/
  7. https://archive.org/details/facsimileofwashi01sand
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  14. https://images.csntm.org/Manuscripts/GA_032/032ScriptureIndex.pdf
  15. https://uasvbible.org/2022/01/05/codex-washingtonianus-w-the-four-gospels/
  16. https://www.biblehub.com/q/Why_omit_John_5_4_in_modern_Bibles.htm
  17. https://biblehub.com/q/Why_omit_Mark_15_28_in_some_Bibles.htm
  18. https://aicnt.org/preface/
  19. https://www.gorgiaspress.com/codex-washingtonianus
  20. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/the-worlds-third-oldest-bible-the-codex-washingtonianus-is-making-a-rare-museum-appearance-180948231/
  21. https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2016/01/08/codex-w-numbers-and-copyist-fidelity/
  22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43784551
  23. https://jbtc.org/v28/TC-2023_BurnetClivaz.pdf
  24. https://archive.org/details/washingtonmanus01artgoog
  25. https://www.obinfonet.ro/docs/exeg/exegrex/text-ntcomm.pdf
  26. https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2018/11/13/notable-markan-variants-in-codex-w/
  27. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/369b/ed9510616ad9932ef6af68c00533e2e329e5.pdf
  28. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004442337_021
  29. https://cdn.hurras.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/24121253/THE-EARLY-VERSIONS-OF-THE-NEW-TESTAMENT-Their-Origin-Transmission-and-Limitations-BY-BRUCE-M.-METZGER.pdf
  30. https://christianpublishinghouse.co/2020/05/07/what-is-the-washington-codex-of-the-gospels-aka-codex-washingtonianus/
  31. https://asia.si.edu/about/history/
  32. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/why-us-rejected-then-embraced-detroit-industrialists-rare-collection-asian-art-180981254/
  33. https://www.si.edu/newsdesk/releases/rare-early-biblical-manuscripts-return-view-smithsonian-s-freer-gallery
  34. https://siarchives.si.edu/history/freer-gallery-art
  35. https://asia.si.edu/whats-on/events/search/event:188170878/
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